Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Kay Deaux
City University of New York
in terms of sexual orientation also illustrates well the Many investigations have shown the importance
overlapping nature of identity categories, particu- of considering different configurations of social cat-
larly with gender. egories. Often, the particular configurations and the
importance of one versus another identity may
change over time as well, reminding us that identity
III. Multiplicity and Intersectionality is a dynamic rather than static process. Taken to the
extreme, of course, the notion of intersectionality
It is easy to talk in terms of multiple identities, for could be problematic if all possible intersections
example, having separate identities as a woman, a needed to be considered at all times. More likely,
lawyer, a spouse, a mother, a roller blader, and so on. however, there are a limited number of key identity
In fact, several theoretical traditions within psychol- categories whose influence is sufficiently strong to
ogy and sociology, including role theory and sym- combine with others and it is those intersections that
bolic interaction, encourage us to think in terms of investigators will want to study most closely.
these distinct groups. In contrast, theories emanating
from personality psychology, such as that of Erik
Erikson, focus on the possibilities for integrating IV. Aspects of Social Identity
multiple identities into a single identity. Indeed,
within that particular tradition, the successful reso- A social identity is first of all a label or a category, a
lution of potential conflicts among identities is seen way of grouping a number of people together on the
as a criterion of the healthy personality. [SEE SOCIAL basis of some shared features. Beyond the labeling,
ROLE THEORY OF SEX DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES.] however, social identity has many more implications,
Each of these positions involves its own concep- both for the persons who claim the social identity
tual challenges. For those who favor the position and for others who see them as members of particu-
that there are a set of distinct identities, one must lar categories. Thus the category label can in a sense
consider how and when these identities relate to one be considered the frame for a painting that is rich in
another. Are there points of overlap among identi- cognitive beliefs, emotional associations, and behav-
ties? Can identities be represented in some form of ioral consequences.
hierarchy, with more important or more encompass-
ing identities at the top and other less central or
more specific identities at the bottom? For those who A. COGNITIVE ASPECTS
favor the integrative position, the questions concern The cognitive aspects of a social identity can be ex-
how integration is achieved and whether a single tensive and varied, including personality traits, social
identity, defined as the integrated sum of various and political attitudes, and memories for identity-
component identities, can be predictive of more related events. Because social identities are devel-
domain-specific behaviors. oped and defined within a social world, many of
Another perspective on this issue is to consider the these cognitions are shared. Indeed, some investiga-
intersectionality among various social identities. “In- tors talk in terms of self-stereotyping, suggesting that
tersectionality” is a term introduced by critical legal when one views the self in terms of a particular so-
theorists to refer to the specific conditions that exist cial category, one takes on the stereotypes by which
when one holds two or more social statuses. Often society has defined that category. Another way of
discussion has focused on the intersections of race and talking about these shared definitions is to refer to
gender, exploring what it means, for example, to be a the social representations of salient categories.
Black female as opposed to being a Black male or a Groups defined by gender, age, ethnicity, and na-
White female. Gender, it is argued, does not necessar- tionality are all represented in the culture at large.
ily carry the same meanings for members of different There is often a consensus as to what best charac-
ethnic groups. Similarly, ethnicity may be experienced terizes boys and girls, for example, or people from
differently for women as compared to men. At the Australia or Turkey or Senegal.
same time, proponents of intersectionality suggest that Consider the stereotype of woman, for example.
it is not possible to clearly distinguish between expe- Traits typically associated with the category of
rience that is related to race and experience that is re- woman include being emotional, kind, understand-
lated to gender. Rather, the conditions are inextrica- ing, and helpful to others. More specifically defined
bly bound together in the individual’s life. types of women, such as a businesswoman, a femi-
Social Identity 5
nist, or a housewife, carry other associations. These Social identities also have a motivational basis.
societally shared beliefs about a category can be- Particularly in the case of identities that people
come part of one’s own social identification with the choose or achieve, specific functions are believed to
category. However, people do not necessarily take on be satisfied by the choice of identification. Although
the whole set of associations that consensually define the variety of functions served by social identities are
a category. From the general set of societal represen- numerous, it is possible to think about a few general
tations, people may adopt some aspects as relevant types. First, social identity may serve as a means of
while not accepting others. In addition, people often self-definition or self-esteem, making the person feel
create their own idiosyncratic definitions of what it better about the self. Second, social identification
means to be a particular type of person. Thus, the may be a means of interacting with others who share
cognitive contents of a social identity are best con- one’s values and goals, providing reference group
ceived as a combination of socially shared beliefs orientation and shared activity. A third function that
and other attributes based on personal experience. social identification can serve is as a way of defining
[SEE GENDER STEREOTYPES.] oneself in contrast to others who are members of an-
other group, a way of positioning oneself in the
larger community. This functional basis of identifi-
B. EMOTIONAL AND MOTIVATIONAL ASPECTS cation can both serve as the impetus for joining a
In many cases, social identities include not only group, as well as become a defining agenda for group
“cool” cognitions, but “hot” emotions as well. Thus activity.
to be a feminist or an environmentalist, for example,
may entail strong, affectively based feelings about
social equality or the preservation of the environ-
C. BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS
ment. Similarly, ethnic and national identities often One reason why social identification is a topic of
carry deep emotional meanings. Consider the recent such high interest is because categorizations have im-
conflicts in the former Yugoslavia, among Serbs, plications for behavior. To the extent that one de-
Croatians, and Muslims; or the killings in Africa of fines oneself in terms of a particular group, it affects
Hutus and Tutsis; the troubles between Catholics the behaviors one enacts for oneself and the way one
and Protestants in Northern Ireland; and the contin- interacts with others who may be members of dif-
uing conflicts in the Middle East between Palestini- ferent groups. Early research on social identity by
ans and Israeli Jews. In each case, identification with Tajfel and his colleagues emphasized the intergroup
the ethnic group has a strong affective element that aspects of social identification. His research, which
underlies the cognitive meanings associated with the used a paradigm known as the minimal group,
identity. showed that it takes very little to create a sense of
Eva Hoffman, a Polish writer who emigrated to identification with one group and a consequent dis-
Canada, conveys the intensity of affect that can char- favoring of another group. In these simple experi-
acterize an ethnic identity in the following passage: ments, people were assigned to be in a specified group
on the basis of a preference for one painter over an-
The country of my childhood lives within me with a pri- other, or on a bogus distinction between preference
macy that is a form of love . . . All we have to draw on is for green or blue, or even just an arbitrary assign-
that first potent furnace, the uncompromising, ignorant
ment as an X or a Y. With even this minimal and
love, the original heat and hunger for the forms of the
world. (Lost in Translation: A Life in a New Language,
highly artificial basis for group identification, people
1990, pp. 74–75) will allocate rewards in such a way as to favor their
own group and to disadvantage the other.
The recognition that identification has an emo- But the behavioral implications of social identifi-
tional as well as a cognitive basis has a long history cation go far beyond these simple experimental
in psychology. Sigmund Freud, for example, de- demonstrations. An increasing body of research
scribed identification in terms of the emotional ties shows that group identification has important moti-
one has, first with a parent and later with members vational consequences, and that the identifications
of groups (and especially with the group leader). that one is assigned or chooses leads to relevant ac-
Subsequently, social psychologists such as Henri tions in a variety of domains, from volunteering for
Tajfel included the emotional significance of mem- an organization to participating in social protest to
bership as part of social identification. choosing a mate. Not surprisingly, people who are
6 Social Identity
more strongly identified with a particular group are reflection of who I am.” In this case, any specific so-
more likely to carry out actions that are supportive cial identity group could be substituted for the gen-
of that group. [SEE INDIVIDUALISM AND COLLEC- eral term “social group.”
TIVISM.] A somewhat more specific form of identity assess-
ment is the measure of ethnic identity developed by
Jean Phinney. In this case, the scale was designed
V. Assessing Social Identity specifically to assess ethnic identity, as evidenced by
items such as the following: “I have a lot of pride in
Given the complexity and multifaceted nature of so- my ethnic group and its accomplishments” and “I
cial identity, the question of how one assesses a so- participate in cultural practices of my own group,
cial identity is important. Perhaps not surprisingly, such as special food, music, or customs.” Phinney
given the ingenuity of social scientists, many differ- suggests that this measure can be used to assess any
ent methods have been developed over the years. ethnic identification, thus it would be equally ap-
Disputes have also developed as to which approach propriate for an African American, a Cuban Ameri-
is the best. can, or a Vietnamese American.
Probably the simplest way to designate a social General measures such as these have the advan-
identity is to assign it arbitrarily, as is typically done tage of allowing the investigator to make compar-
in the minimal group experiments. Almost as simple isons between groups, using a common metric. At
is an approach in which group membership per se is the same time, these all-purpose measures have been
the basis for assuming social identification. Thus, if criticized because they do not get at the specific fea-
one can determine that a person is a woman, a pro- tures of a specific identification. Within the area of
fessor, or an Asian American, it is possible to assume ethnic identification, for example, the beliefs and ex-
that the social identity is present. A problem for this periences associated with being a Black American
assumption, however, is that social identity is more are probably different from those associated with be-
appropriately viewed as a subjective, rather than ob- ing a Latino (or, more specifically, a Mexican Amer-
jective, state. Thus, while every student at a univer- ican, a Cuban American, a Puerto Rican, etc.). To
sity can reasonably be called a student, it is not nec- capture these more unique aspects of social identifi-
essarily true that every student feels strongly cation, some investigators have developed measures
identified with that category. Knowing how impor- that are specific to a particular group. As one exam-
tant or central an identity is to the person is neces- ple, Robert Sellers and his colleagues created a mea-
sary in order to predict how much the identity will sure of African American racial identity that includes
influence the person’s beliefs, emotions, and actions. both general measures of centrality and salience, as
To deal with this potential problem, many measures well as specific questions about racial ideology that
of identification have been developed in which the are based on the African American experience (ex-
respondent is asked to indicate how important or pressed in ideological philosophies of nationalism,
unimportant a particular identity is. oppression, assimilation, and humanism).
Social identity involves more than just categoriza- Other quantitative measures of identity reflect dif-
tion, however. As suggested earlier, key features of ferent theoretical traditions. From the perspective of
social identification include sets of beliefs, emotional Eriksonian models, for example, identity is assessed
associations, and motivational considerations. Some in terms of the attainment of integration among iden-
investigators have developed more extensive ques- tities. Other theories, such as those that assume con-
tionnaires to tap a variety of aspects of social iden- tinuing multiplicity, suggest assessment techniques
tification. One issue in developing such measures is that speak to the structure and relationship among
how generic versus how identity-specific they should various identities. Seymour Rosenberg and Paul de
be. A generic measure is one that can be used to as- Boeck have developed procedures that yield a visual
sess any social identification, and thus it allows in- representation of identity structure, showing how a
vestigators to make comparisons between different person’s identities are positioned relative to one an-
social identities in terms of their strength or central- other. Figure 1 illustrates such a structure. In this
ity. An item on this type of generic scale could be the particular method, people are asked to list both the
following (this one taken from the Collective Self- identities that are important to them and the attri-
Esteem Scale developed by Luhtanen and Crocker): butes that they associate with each identity. Based on
“Being a member of a social group is an important the degree to which identities are characterized by
Social Identity 7
may shift over time and place. Qualitative approaches
are also a particularly useful way to enter worlds
Woman
smart
that may not be recognized and represented in more
active traditional approaches, which are often based on im-
confident plicit norms that do not generalize.
Racial and ethnic identity is also learned quite tity, for example, involves shifts in the attributes and
early. Like gender identity, racial identity is heavily behaviors associated with an identity, while the claim
influenced by the stereotypes and belief systems to the identity continues unchanged. An attorney, for
prevalent in the society. Early studies by Kenneth example, might shift areas of responsibility or type
and Mamie Clark argued that segregated schools of legal practice, continuing to define herself or him-
were one environment that shaped the self-images of self as a lawyer but seeing the implications of that
African American children, placing a greater value identity differently.
on White than on Black. William Cross and others Still another form of identity change is a shift in
have suggested that the development of African the importance or centrality of an identity. Thus, one
American identity can be conceptualized as a series might persist in defining oneself as an attorney over
of stages, beginning with what is termed preen- several decades, but the importance of that identity,
counter, when people do not believe race is an im- relative to other identities and interests, might shift
portant aspect of their overall identity, to later stages to become more or less central to self-definition. The
of internalization and commitment, when racial iden- importance of ethnic identity can change over time,
tity is both central to self-definition and a source of as Kathleen Ethier and Kay Deaux showed in a study
positive regard. of Hispanic students who entered university and were
Not everyone agrees that the development of ei- followed through the course of the first year. Their
ther racial or gender identity can be characterized by findings showed that ethnic identity increased in im-
a set of invariant stages, leading to a single end point. portance for some students, while others gradually
On the one hand, there are often predictable events decreased their identification with their Hispanic her-
that shape the course of identity development. In the itage. Studies of immigrants show similar patterns,
case of gender, for example, puberty acts as an im- as the new arrivals deal with the meaning of their
portant marker and makes sexuality more salient. At national identity of origin while often taking on a
the same time, educational systems often channel the new identity as a resident of the country in which
experiences of boys and girls in predictable ways. they now live.
On the other hand, people take various paths within In thinking about patterns of identity development
these broadly defined settings and may, over the life and change, it is important to recognize that changes
course, negotiate and renegotiate what it means to are more than intrapsychic. In other words, shifts in
be a particular gender or race. People who engage in identity require changes in the relationship to one’s
sex change operations later in life serve as a dramatic social and physical environment as well. Some people
example of the potential flexibility in identity defi- have used the term “ecological self” to refer to this
nition, but there are many less vivid examples of grounded aspect of identity. Others talk about “place
shift and change as well. When one becomes a par- identity” as a way of relating to a particular physical
ent, for example, the new identity of mother or fa- environment that holds meaning. These concepts rec-
ther is added to one’s self-definition. Similarly, be- ognize that where an identity is enacted is important.
ginning a career typically involves the acquisition of Although a social identity is rarely totally dependent
a new and often very important social identity. on a particular physical setting, it is easy to think of
Long-term development of social identities can examples in which identity and location are linked,
take a number of forms. In the examples provided such as occupational identities or athletic identities.
here, identity change involves the addition of a new Equally important to the maintenance and devel-
identity or the deletion of a previously held identity. opment of a social identity is the social environment.
In the case of a sex change operation, as perhaps the By definition, social identities are ways in which we
most dramatic example, the previous gender identity relate to a group or aggregate, and these social con-
is abandoned and the other gender identity is as- nections are critically important for defining and sus-
sumed. In the examples of parenthood and occupa- taining the identity. When a person relocates, for ex-
tion, the change is primarily one of adding on a new ample when a student moves from home to university,
identity. One can also conceive of instances within it becomes important that social supports be devel-
these same domains when an identity could be oped in the new location to replace those supports
dropped: when one divorces a spouse, for example, that are no longer part of the immediate environ-
or retires from an occupation. ment. This process of grounding an identity in a new
Other forms of identity development and change social environment has been termed “remooring.”
are more subtle. Change in the meaning of an iden- As an example, when people who hold a strong eth-
Social Identity 9
nic identity change their environment, as in the case find a rally, thus selecting environments in which a
of immigration, they will often establish connections favored social identity can best operate.
with neighborhoods, stores, and organizations in the Although the optimal strategy might be to find a
new country that reflect and promote the ethnic iden- niche in which one’s favored identities can best be
tity of origin. [SEE SOCIAL SUPPORT SYSTEMS.] enacted, circumstances sometimes create less desir-
able environments. Thus, for the person whose so-
cial category is to some degree stigmatized, threats
VII. Negotiating Social Identities to identity may be posed that require the develop-
ment of strategies to cope with those threats. Some-
In addition to the long-term shifts in social identities, times this may mean negating the identity or tem-
which develop over time and often change quite porarily diminishing its importance. In other cases,
slowly, the expression of social identities can fluctu- threat may lead to a more active search for environ-
ate considerably. If we assume that people have mul- ments in which the identity will be more favorably
tiple social identities, each of which may be charac- regarded, as when people engage in civil rights ac-
terized by distinct attributes and behaviors, then we tions to promote the legitimacy and entitlement of
need to consider the ways in which people may shift their group.
from one identity to another. Such fluctuations in Looking more broadly, one can see how different
identity, rather than evidence of instability or whimsy, cultures influence the definition and choice of a so-
provide evidence of the ways in which people re- cial identity. The category of feminist, for example,
spond to their environment and can make choices was unrecognized in some countries until very re-
that seem most appropriate to that setting. cently. Some people have argued that even the notion
Identity negotiation is influenced by a variety of of identity itself is historically bound, a product of
factors: the repertoire and importance of social iden- the Renaissance period. Similarly, ideas of multiplic-
tities that a person has, the setting in which one is lo- ity, or what Robert Lifton has called the “protean
cated, and the actions and influence of other people self,” may reflect a set of historical conditions char-
in those settings. Something as simple as the number acteristic of post-industrial societies. In short, social
of like people in a room can affect gender identity— identity is, as the term suggests, an inherently social
not only the salience that gender has, but also the be- phenomenon that must be understood as a product
liefs and experiences that come to mind. Being the of both individual and contextual-historical forces.
only woman in a group of men, for example, will
make gender identity more salient. Similarly, being the
only Caucasian in a group of African Americans will SUGGESTED READING
make race and ethnicity more salient. As these con- Capozza, D., and Brown, R. (eds.) (2000). Social identity
texts shift, so it is likely that one’s awareness of a par- processes: Trends in theory and research. Sage, London.
ticular social identity will shift as well (though the sta- Deaux, K. (1996). Social identification. In Social Psychology:
ble repertoire of identities is likely to remain the same). Handbook of Basic Principles (E. T. Higgins and A. K. Kruglan-
ski, eds.). Guilford, New York.
It is also easy to imagine how specific situational
Deaux, K., and Stewart, A. J. (in press). Framing gendered iden-
cues can bring a particular social identity to the fore- tities. In Handbook of the Psychology of Women and Gender
ground. Comments by others, for example, that con- (R. K. Unger, ed.). Wiley, New York.
vey their perceptions can make an identity salient, as Hogg, M. A., and Abrams, D. (1988). Social Identifications. Rout-
when an observer comments directly on one’s gen- ledge and Kegan Paul, London and New York.
Ruble, D. N., and Martin, C. L. (1998). Gender development. In
der, age, or ethnicity. Physically being at a university
Handbook of Child Psychology (W. Damon, ed.), 5th ed., Vol.
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environmental cues are not, in any rigid sense, de- Skevington, S., and Baker, D. (eds.) (1989). The Social Identity of
terminants of one’s identity, they have the ability to Women. Sage, London.
Stryker, S., Owens, T. J., and White, R. W. (eds.) (2000). Self,
influence salience in a temporary sense. At the same
Identity, and Social Movements. University of Minnesota Press,
time, it is important to recognize that people often Minneapolis.
choose their environments. The self-defined book- Waters, M. C. (1990). Ethnic Options: Choosing Identities in
worm will find a library and the political activist will America. University of California Press, Berkeley.