Workin Memory ( Baddeley and Hitch 1974 )

Atkinson’s and Shiffrin’s (1968) multi-store model was extremely successful in terms of the
amount of research it generated. However, as a result of this research, it became apparent that
there were a number of problems with their ideas concerning the characteristics of short-term
memory.

Building on this research, Baddeley and Hitch (1974) developed an alternative model of short-
term memory which they called working memory (see fig 1).

Fig 1. The Working Memory Model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974)

Baddeley and Hitch (1974) argue that the picture of short-term memory (STM) provided by the
Multi-Store Model is far too simple. According to the Multi-Store Model, STM holds limited
amounts of information for short periods of time with relatively little processing. It is a unitary
system. This means it is a single system (or store) without any subsystems. Working Memory is
not a unitary store.

Working memory is STM. Instead of all information going into one single store, there are
different systems for different types of information. Working memory consists of a central
executive which controls and co-ordinates the operation of two subsystems: the phonological
loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad.

Central Executive: Drives the whole system (e.g. the boss of working memory) and allocates
data to the subsystems (VSS & PL). It also deals with cognitive tasks such as mental arithmetic
and problem solving.

Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad (inner eye): Stores and processes information in a visual or spatial
form. The VSS is used for navigation.

The phonological loop is the part of working memory that deals with spoken and written
material. It can be used to remember a phone number. It consists of two parts
o Phonological Store (inner ear) – Linked to speech perception Holds information in speech-
based form (i.e. spoken words) for 1-2 seconds.

o Articulatory control process (inner voice) – Linked to speech production. Used to rehearse
and store verbal information from the phonological store.

Fig 2. The Working Memory Model Components (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974)

The labels given to the components (see fig 2) of the working memory reflect their function and
the type of information they process and manipulate. The phonological loop is assumed to be
responsible for the manipulation of speech based information, whereas the visuo-spatial
sketchpad is assumed to by responsible for manipulating visual images. The model proposes
that every component of working memory has a limited capacity, and also that the components
are relatively independent of each other.
Empirical Evidence for the Working Memory Model
What evidence is there that working memory exists, that it is made up of a number of parts, that
it performs a number of different tasks?

The working memory model makes the following two predictions:

1. If two tasks make use of the same component (of working memory), they cannot be performed
successfully together.

2. If two tasks make use of different components, it should be possible to perform them as well
as together as separately.

Key Study: Baddeley and Hitch (1976)

Aim: To investigate if participants can use different parts of working memory at the same time.

Method: Conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform two tasks at the
same time (dual task technique) - a digit span task which required them to repeat a list of
numbers, and a verbal reasoning task which required them to answer true or false to various
questions (e.g. B is followed by A?).

Results: As the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to
answer the reasoning questions, but not much longer - only fractions of a second. And, they
didn't make any more errors in the verbal reasoning tasks as the number of digits increased.

Conclusion: The verbal reasoning task made use of the central executive and the digit span task
made use of the phonological loop.

The Central Executive

The central executive is the most important component of the model, although little is known
about how it functions. It is responsible for monitoring and coordinating the operation of the
slave systems (i.e. visuo-spatial sketch pad and phonological loop) and relates them to LTM. The
central executive decides which information is attended to and which parts of the working
memory to send that information to be dealt with.

The central executive decides what working memory pays attention to. For example, two
activities sometimes come into conflict such as driving a car and talking. Rather than hitting a
cyclist who is wobbling all over the road, it is preferable to stop talking and concentrate on
driving. The central executive directs attention and gives priority to particular activities.
The central executive is the most versatile and important component of the working memory
system. However, despite its importance in the working-memory model, we know considerably
less about this component than the two subsystems it controls.

Baddeley suggests that the central executive acts more like a system which controls attentional
processes rather than as a memory store. This is unlike the phonological loop and the visuo-
spatial sketchpad, which are specialized storage systems. The central executive enables the
working memory system to selectively attend to some stimuli and ignore others.

Baddeley (1986, 1999) uses the metaphor of a company boss to describe the way in which the
central executive operates. The company boss makes decisions about which issues deserve
attention and which should be ignored. They also select strategies for dealing with problems, but
like any person in the company, the boss can only do a limited number of things at the same
time. The boss of a company will collect information from a number of different sources. If we
continue applying this metaphor, then we can see the central executive in working memory
integrating (i.e. combining) information from two assistants (the phonological loop and the
visuo-spatial sketchpad) and also drawing on information held in a large database (long-term
memory).

The Phonological Loop

Fig 3. The phonological loop

The phonological loop is the part of working memory that deals with spoken and written
material. It consists of two parts (see Figure 3).
The phonological store (linked to speech perception) acts as an inner ear and holds information
in speech-based form (i.e. spoken words) for 1-2 seconds. Spoken words enter the store directly.
Written words must first be converted into an articulatory (spoken) code before they can enter
the phonological store.

The articulatory control process (linked to speech production) acts like an inner voice
rehearsing information from the phonological store. It circulates information round and round
like a tape loop. This is how we remember a telephone number we have just heard. As long as
we keep repeating it, we can retain the information in working memory.

The articulatory control process also converts written material into an articulatory code and
transfers it to the phonological store.

The Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad

The visuo-spatial sketchpad (inner eye) deals with visual and spatial information. Visual
information refers to what things look like. It is likely that the visuo-spatial sketchpad plays an
important role in helping us keep track of where we are in relation to other objects as we move
through our environment (Baddeley, 1997). As we move around, our position in relation to
objects is constantly changing and it is important that we can update this information. For
example, being aware of where we are in relation to desks, chairs and tables when we are
walking around a classroom means that we don't bump into things too often!

The sketchpad also displays and manipulates visual and spatial information held in long-term
memory. For example, the spatial layout of your house is held in LTM. Try answering this
question: How many windows are there in the front of your house? You probably find yourself
picturing the front of your house and counting the windows. An image has been retrieved from
LTM and pictured on the sketchpad.

Evidence suggests that working memory uses two different systems for dealing with visual and
verbal information. A visual processing task and a verbal processing task can be performed at the
same time. It is more difficult to perform two visual tasks at the same time because they interfere
with each other and performance is reduced. The same applies to performing two verbal tasks at
the same time. This supports the view that the phonological loop and the sketchpad are separate
systems within working memory.

Evaluation of Working Memory

Strengths
Researchers today generally agree that short-term memory is made up of a number of
components or subsystems. The working memory model has replaced the idea of a unitary (one
part) STM as suggested by the multistore model.

The working memory model explains a lot more than the multistore model. It makes sense of a
range of tasks - verbal reasoning, comprehension, reading, problem solving and visual and
spatial processing. And the model is supported by considerable experimental evidence.

The working memory applies to real life tasks:

–         reading (phonological loop)

–         problem solving (central executive)

–         navigation (visual and spatial processing)

The KF Case Study supports the Working Memory Model. KF suffered brain damage from a
motorcycle accident that damaged his short-term memory. KF's impairment was mainly for
verbal information - his memory for visual information was largely unaffected. This shows that
there are separate STM components for visual information (VSS) and verbal information
(phonological loop).

Working memory is supported by dual task studies (Baddeley and Hitch, 1976).

The working memory model does not over emphasise the importance of rehearsal for STM
retention, in contrast to the multi-store model.

Weaknesses

Lieberman criticises the working memory model as the visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS) implies
that all spatial information was first visual (they are linked). However, Lieberman points out that
blind people have excellent spatial awareness although they have never had any visual
information. Lieberman argues that the VSS should be separated into two different components:
one for visual information and one for spatial.

There is little direct evidence for how the central executive works and what it does. The
capacity of the central executive has never been measured.

Working memory only involves STM so it is not a comprehensive model of memory (as it
does not include SM or LTM).
The working memory model does not explain changes in processing ability that occur as the
result of practice or time.

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