Animal bodies and

homeostasis
Chapter 40

11
All animal cells share similarities in the ways
in which they
Exchange materials with their surroundings
Obtain energy from organic nutrients
Synthesize complex molecules
Reproduce themselves
Detect and respond to signals in their
immediate environment

22
 Cells with similar properties group to form
tissues
 Tissues combine with other types of tissues to
form organs
 Organs are anatomically or functionally linked to
form organ systems
33
 Tissues

Specialized cells of a given type cluster

together
4 categories
Muscle
Nervous
Epithelial
Connective

44
 Muscle tissue

Cells specialized to contract generating force

3 types
Skeletal – attached to bone or exoskeleton
for locomotion, voluntary control
Smooth – surrounds hollow tubes and
cavities for propulsion of contents,
involuntary control
Cardiac – only in the heart, involuntary
control
55
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Lungs

Heart

Skeletal Smooth
muscle Cardiac
muscle Bronchiole muscle
cell cells
cell

Smooth
Smooth
muscle
muscle
layer
layer

(left): Michael Abbey/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (middle): © Sinclair Stammers/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
(right): © Dr. Richard Kessel/Visuals Unlimited

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 Nervous tissue

Initiate and conduct electrical signals from

one part of the animal’s body to another
Single nerve cell called a neuron
Electrical signals produced in one nerve cell
may stimulate or inhibit other nerve cells to
Initiate new electrical signals
Stimulate muscle to contract
Stimulate glands to release chemicals

77
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Spinal cord

88
 Epithelial tissues

Sheets of densely-packed cells that

Cover the body or individual organs
Line the walls of body cavities
Specialized to protect and secrete or absorb
All are asymmetrical or polarized
Rest on basal lamina or basement
membrane
Can function as selective barriers

99
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Nasal passage:
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar

Esophagus lining:
Stratified squamous

Basil
lamina

Lungs:
Simple squamous
Kidney tubules:
Simple cuboidal

Urinary system: Intestines:

Transitional Simple columnar

1010
 Connective tissues

Connect, anchor, and support

Includes blood, adipose, bone, cartilage,
loose and dense connective tissue
Form an extracellular matrix around cells
Provides scaffold for attachment
Protects and cushions
Mechanical strength
Transmit information

1111
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` Adipose tissue

Blood

Bone

192 µm
Cartilage

Dense connective Loose connective

tissue tissue

160 µm

(inset a): © Dennis Kunke Microscopy/Phototake; (inset b): © Ed Reshke/Peter Arnold; (inset c): © Innerspace Imaging/Photo Researchers,
Inc.; (inset d): © Dr. John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited; e-f: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Al Tesler, photographer

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 Organs

Composed of 2 or more kinds of tissues

Organ system – different organs work
together to perform an overall function
Organ systems frequently work together –
nervous and endocrine system
Spatial arrangement of organs into organ
systems part of overall body plan
Body plan controlled by highly conserved
family of genes with homologs in all animals

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Lumen of stomach
Stomach

Layers of
muscle tissue

Simple columnar
epithelial tissue

Intestine Connective tissue

Small artery
and vein
Layers of smooth
muscle tissue
Nervous tissue
Connective tissue

Simple squamous
epithelial tissue

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 Organ Development and
Function Are Controlled by
Homeotic Genes
Homeotic genes – family of ancient highly
conserved genes found in all animals
Determine timing and spatial patterning of the
anteroposterior body axis during development
In vertebrates known as Hox genes
Important role in determining where organs
form
Hox genes also important for growth,
development and function of organs in adults
 Body fluids

2 main compartments
Intracellular fluid – inside cells
Extracellular fluid – outside cells
● Plasma – fluid portion of blood
● Interstitial fluid – fluid between cells
● In vertebrates, kept separate
● In invertebrates, intermingled fluid called
hemolymph
Intracellular and extracellular fluid can be
very different in solute composition
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Intracellular
fluid

Plasma
Extracellular
Interstitial
fluid
fluid

Red
blood
cell

Blood vessel (capillary) 1717

 Movement of solutes

Passive diffusion
Movement of a solute down its concentration
gradient
No carrier or ATP required
Only nonpolar or extremely small polar
solutes
Rate of diffusion depends on
● Concentration gradient
● Area for diffusion

1818
Movement of most solutes between
compartments or across plasma membranes
is mediated by transport proteins
Facilitated diffusion – passive
Active transport

1919
 Movement of water

Plasma membranes tend to be highly permeable

to water and
Fluid moves readily between compartments
Osmosis
Swollen or shrunken cells are more fragile and will
die if membrane ruptures
Can happen when cells exposed to more dilute
(hypoosmotic) or more concentrated
(hyperosmotic) extracellular fluids

2020
 When red blood cells swell, they may
burst, a phenomenon called hemolysis
 Shrinkage of red blood cells is called
crenation
2121
 Form and function are
closely related
Compare respiratory systems of insect and
mammal
Structural similarities suggest similar
function
Tubes connect with the outside environment
terminating in 1 cell thick structures
Tubes serve as air conduits
Thin cells with high surface area for diffusion
of gases
2222
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Spiracle
Air
Air

Body surface
Trachea
(pseudostratified
ciliated epithelium)

Tracheae

Strip of skeletal
muscle

Alveoli

(a) Insect respiratory system (b) Human respiratory system

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All respiratory organs have an extensive surface area
All cells, tissues, and organs that mediate diffusion
require extensive surface area
Maximizes ability
Increasing surface area comes at expense of greatly
increasing volume without shape change
SA/V – surface area to volume ratio

2424
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 Homeostasis

Process of maintaining a relatively stable

internal environment despite changes in the
external surroundings
Conformers – maintain same fluid
composition as environment – cheaper
Regulators – internal composition of fluids
different from environment – more expensive
Animal can be both with respect to different
variables

2626
No physiological function is constant for very
long, which is why we call them “variables”
Normally, blood sugar (glucose) remains at
fairly steady and predictable levels in any
healthy individual
After a meal the level of glucose in your
blood can increase quickly
If you skip a meal, your blood sugar level
may drop slightly
Homeostatic mechanisms restore blood
glucose to normal levels in the blood
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2828
 Homeostatic control
systems
Set point – normal value for controlled
variable
Sensor – monitors particular variable
Integrator – compares signals from the
sensor to set point
Effector – compensates for deviations
between actual value and set point
Example – body temperature in mammals

2929
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Homeostatic challenge
(cooling)

3030
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Homeostatic challenge
(cooling)

Sensor
(neurons)

3131
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Homeostatic challenge
(cooling)

Sensor
(neurons)

Integrator
(in brain)
Set point: 37°C
Input: <37°C
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Homeostatic challenge
(cooling)

Sensor
(neurons)

Integrator
(in brain)
Set point: 37°C
Input: <37°C

Effector
(skeletal muscle) 3333
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Homeostatic challenge
(cooling)

Sensor
(neurons)

Integrator
(in brain)
Set point: 37°C
Input: <37°C

Effector
(skeletal muscle)

Response (shivering
increases heat production)
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