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Mr. H.RAMA MURTHY KAMAL KANT SHARMA

B.TECH-MBA(ME)

Roll. No. RE4911&

Reg.No. 10901257

Class. E4911


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I have much pleasure in submitting this term paper to Mr.H Rama Murthy. Constructive work
bears the impression of nationally the person who has undertaken it but also those who were the
motivating force in this completion likewise my term paper carries the imprint of many persons.

At the outset, I would like to thank who gave me the opportunity to undergo my term paper at
Lovely Professional University and I am grateful to my project guide Mr. Varun Sharma for his
able guidance, care and understanding nature. Without his support, this term paper would have
never been completed. He also showed me the light, whenever and wherever the path was dark
and bumpy.

And at last but not least I would also like to thank all my friend and colleagues who where the source
of inspiration behind the successful completion of my term paper.

Kamal Kant Sharma

RE4911 B 51

10901257



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Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or
thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the workpieces and adding
a filler material to form a pool of molten material (the D

) that cools to become a strong
joint, with pressure sometimes used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the weld.
This is in contrast with soldering and brazing, which involve melting a lower-melting-point
material between the workpieces to form a bond between them, without melting the workpieces.

Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame, an electric arc, a
laser, an electron beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often an industrial process, welding can
be done in many different environments, including open air, under water and in outer space.
Regardless of location, welding remains dangerous, and precautions are taken to avoid burns,
electric shock, eye damage, poisonous fumes, and overexposure to ultraviolet light.

Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process was forge welding, which
blacksmiths had used for centuries to join iron and steel by heating and hammering them. Arc
welding and oxyfuel welding were among the first processes to develop late in the century, and
resistance welding followed soon after. Welding technology advanced quickly during the early
20th century as World War I and World War II drove the demand for reliable and inexpensive
joining methods. Following the wars, several modern welding techniques were developed,
including manual methods like shielded metal arc welding, now one of the most popular welding
methods, as well as semi-automatic and automatic processes such as gas metal arc welding,
submerged arc welding, flux-cored arc welding and electroslag welding. Developments
continued with the invention of laser beam welding and electron beam welding in the latter half
of the century. Today, the science continues to advance. Robot welding is becoming more
commonplace in industrial settings, and researchers continue to develop new welding methods
and gain greater understanding of weld quality and properties.

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Welding is a method of repairing or creating metal structures by joining the pieces of metals or
plastic through various fusion processes. Generally, heat is used to weld the materials. Welding
equipments can utilize open flames, electric arc or laser light.

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The earliest evidence of welding can be traced back to the Bronze Age. The earliest examples of
welding are welded gold boxes belonging to the Bronze Age. The Egyptians also learnt the art of
welding. Several of their iron tools were made by welding. During the Middle Ages, a set of
specialized workmen called blacksmiths came to the fore. Blacksmiths of the Middle Ages
welded various types of iron tools by hammering. The welding methods remained more or less
unchanged until the dawn of the 19th century.
&/ :In the 19th century, major breakthroughs in welding were made. The use of open flames
(acetylene) was an important milestone in the history of welding since open flames allowed the
manufacture of intricate metal tools and equipments. Englishman Edmund Davy discovered
acetylene in 1836 and acetylene was soon utilized by the welding industry. In 1800, Sir
Humphrey Davy invented a battery operated tool which could produce an arc between carbon
electrodes. This tool was extensively used in welding metals.

&//: In 1881, French scientist Auguste De Meritens succeeded in fusing lead plates by using the
heat generated from an arc. Later, Russian scientist Nikolai N. Benardos and his compatriot
Stanislaus Olszewski developed an electrode holder for which they secured US and British
patents.

&/0:During the 1890's, one of the most popular welding methods was carbon arc welding.
Around the same time, American C.L. Coffin secured a US patent for metal electrode arc
welding. N.G. Slavianoff of Russia used the same principle for casting metals in molds.

&0:Coated metal electrode was first introduced in 1900 by Strohmenger. A coating of lime
helped the arc to be much more stable. A number of other welding processes were developed
during this period. Some of them included seam welding, spot welding, flash butt welding, and
projection welding. Stick electrodes became a popular welding tool around this time as well.

&0&0:After the end of World War I, the American Welding Society was established by Comfort
Avery Adams. The aim of the society was the advancement of welding processes. CJ Holstag
also invented the alternating current in 1919. However, alternating current was first
commercially utilized by the welding industry only in the 1930's.

&0:Automatic welding was first introduced in 1920. Invented by P.O. Nobel, automatic
welding integrated the use of arc voltage and bare electrode wires. It was used for repairing and
molding metals. Several types of electrodes were also developed during this decade.

&01:The New York Navy Yard developed stud welding. Stud welding was increasingly used for
the construction industry and also for shipbuilding. It was during this time that the National Tube
Company developed a welding process called smothered arc welding. In the sector of
shipbuilding, the stud welding process was replaced by the more advanced submerged arc
welding.

&02:A new type of welding for seamlessly welding aluminum and magnesium was developed in
1941 by Meredith. This patented process came to be known as Heliarc welding. The gas shielded
metal arc welding or GTAW was another significant milestone in the history of welding which
was developed in Battelle Memorial Institute in 1948.

&0:The CO2 welding process popularized by Lyubavskii and Novoshilov in 1953 became a
welding process of choice for welding steels, as it was comparatively economical. Soon,
electrode wires of smaller diameter were launched. This made welding of thin materials more
convenient.
 &03:There were several advancements in the welding industry during the 1960's. Dualshield
welding, Innershield, and Electroslag welding were some of the important welding developments
of the decade. Plasma arc welding was also invented by Gage during this time. It was used for
metal spraying. The French also developed electron beam welding, which is still used by the
aircraft manufacturing industries of the United States.

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Some of the recent developments in the welding industry include the friction welding process
developed in Russia, and laser welding. Laser was originally developed in Bell Telephone
Laboratories but it is now being used for various kinds of welding work. This is due to the
inherent capacity of lasers in rendering precision to all kinds of welding jobs.

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Welding is one of the important part in manufacturing of automobile. We can say welding in
backbone of manufacturing automobile especially the body of automobile. The are many
welding process which are using in manufacturing of automobile. Many techniques are used is
old one and some are used which are introduced recently. Types of welding used in automobile
manufacturing are:

 shielded metal arc welding

 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
 Resistance welding
 Solid state welding
 Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding
 Shielded-Metal Arc Welding
 Submerged Arc Welding
 MIG Welding
 GTAW (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding) and TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas)
 Laser beam welding (LBW)
 Spot welding (RSW)
 Friction stir welding
 Ultrasonic welding


›
› 

One of the most popular welding methods uses a gas flame as a source of heat. In the oxyfuel gas
welding process heat is produced by burning a com- bustible gas, such as MAPP
(methylacetylene-propadi- ene) or acetylene, mixed with oxygen. Gas welding is widely used in
maintenance and repair work because of the ease in transporting oxygen and fuel cylinders. Once
you learn the basics of gas welding, you will find the oxyfuel process adaptable to brazing,
cutting, and heat treating all types of metals.

› 

Arc welding is a process that uses an electric arc to join the metals being welded. A distinct
advantage of arc welding over gas welding is the concentration of heat. In gas welding the flame
spreads over a large area, sometimes causing heat distortion. The concentration of heat,
characteristic of arc welding, is an advantage be- cause less heat spread reduces buckling and
warping. This heat concentration also increases the depth of pene- tration and speeds up the
welding operation; therefore, you will find that arc welding is often more practical and
economical than gas welding¢

   


Resistance welding is a metal fabricating process in which the fusing temperature is
generated at the joint by the resistance to the flow of an electrical current. This is
accomplished by clamping two or more sheets of metal between copper electrodes and then
passing an electrical current through them. When the metals are heated to a melting
temperature, forging pressure is applied through either a manual or automatic means to weld
 the pieces together. Spot and seam welding are two common types of resistance welding
processes¢


   

Solid state welding is a group of welding processes which produces coalescence at temperatures
essentially below the melting point of the base materials being joined, without the addition of
brazing filler metal. Pressure may or may not be used. These processes are sometimes erroneously
called solid state bonding processes: this group of welding processes includes cold welding,
diffusion welding, explosion welding, forge welding, friction welding, hot pressure welding, roll
welding, and ultrasonic welding.

In all of these processes time, temperature, and pressure individually or in combination produce
coalescence of the base metal without significant melting of the base metals.

Solid state welding includes some of the very oldest of the welding processes and some of the
very newest. Some of the processes offer certain advantages since the base metal does not melt
and form a nugget. The metals being joined retain their original properties without the heat-
affected zone problems involved when there is base metal melting. When dissimilar metals are
joined their thermal expansion and conductivity is of much less importance with solid state
welding than with the arc welding processes.

Time, temperature, and pressure are involved; however, in some processes the time element is
extremely short, in the microsecond range or up to a few seconds. In other cases, the time is
extended to several hours. As temperature increases time is usually reduced. Since each of these
processes is different each will be described.

     

Thermit welding comprises a group of welding processes where in coalesence is produced by

heating with superheated liquid metal and slag resulting from chemical reaction between a metal
oxide and, aluminium, with or without the application of pressure. The liquid metal acts as filler
metal too. The heat of the thermit reaction may be utilised in the following ways to join metal
sections.
1. It may heat and fuse the metal parts to be welded. The thermit mixture acts as the filler metal
also.
This process is called fusion welding and has been discussed in this chapter.

2. It may heat the metal parts to be welded and raise them to the forging temperature, when the
weld faces are forced together to forge a bond of the heated parts. This process is known as
pressure welding.
Heat of the thermit reaction may be utilised for the purpose of brazing also.



   

A small graph of process employ energy for welding in the form of radiant welding. three process
exist at present based on the optical on arc-image laser an electron beam systems. The first two
process employ energy as electro magnetic radiation while an electron beam is streem at fast
moving particles . it can how ever ,be class as particles radiation for there justification for
grouping the process under the heading radiant energy welding is found on an examination of
their welding characteristic.

Rediant energy welding methods are unique in that the energy for welding may be
focused on the object tube welded . heat being generated only where the focused beam strikes the
workpiece . unlike are or flame sources,there for the work is not brought may be carried out in
vacuum or low pressure systems hwere the ultimate in cleanliness can be achieved .finally in
constrast to are welding ,the melted pool is subjected to only negligible pressure.

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TIG or GTAW is the most difficult to master an arc welding technique. This is because the
operator/welder needs two hands to produce the weld (unless autogenous welding is used)

To start (lift-arc start method) the TIG welder touches electrode to the workpiece. The electrical
energy and the shielding gas are now triggered with the hand control. At this stage the welder
electrode should be held to workpiece for 1-2 seconds. Then it is slowly lifted and arc is
produced.

The c
)c7#-$(.!4*(# process is designed to avoid overheating, sticking and
getting contaminated. This is due to the output contactor, which does not energise untill the
electrode touches the workpiece. There is another TIG start up method: HF Start. It uses high
frequency turns to help start the arc.

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After arc is struck, the welder moves nonconsumable Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
electrode in small circular motion. Then he tilts c
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the start of the weld puddle. Welder produces weld by mowing the tungsten electrode in the
direction of weld. The consumable filler rod is now approached at 15 degrees to the weld (for
non-autogenous TIG welding process).

The filler rod is now removed and the rod is placed to the front of the weld pool. From there the
TIG welding process is repeated. The autogenous c
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filler rod. Therefore, it requires only three stages.
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1. Form pool with rotational movement

2. Tilt TIG torch 75 degrees and move to the start of puddle

3. Slowly add filler rod at 15 degrees

4. Slowly remove filler rod at 15 degrees

5. Move TIG torch to the front of the pool

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Laser Beam Welding (LBW) is a modern welding process; it is a high energy beam process that
continues to expand into modern industries and new applications because of its many advantages
like deep weld penetration and minimizing heat inputs.
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The focal spot is targeted on the workpiece surface which will be welded. At the surface the
large concentration of light energy is converted into thermal energy. The surface of the
workpiece starts melting and progresses through it by surface conductance. For welding, the
beam energy is maintained below the vaporization temperature of the workpiece material,
because hole drilling or cutting vaporization is required

Because the penetration of the workpiece depends on conducted heat, the thickness of the
materials to be welded is generally less than 0.80 inches if the ideal metallurgical and physical
characteristics of laser welding must be realized.
Concentrated energy produces melting and coalescence before a heat affected zone is developed
and when the materials to be welded are thick and have high thermal conductivity like for
example aluminum the advantage of having a minimal heat affected zone can be seriously
affected.
Because the heat source in this type of welding process is the energy of light, the workpiece will
be welded purely which means the fatigue strength of the welded joint will be excellent.
Energy distribution across the beam is generated by the design of the resonant cavity, including
mirror curvatures or shape and their relative arrangement. This combination results in photon
oscillation within the cavity specific output beam energy patterns, these patterns are called
Transverse Energy Modes (TEMs).
The function of all laser beam welding processes whether they be gas (carbon dioxide, helium,
neo, etc.) or other lasing sources is based on the principles of the excitation of atoms using
intense light, electricity, electron beams, chemicals, etc., and the spontaneous and stimulated
release of photons.
The role of focusing lenses in this process is really important because it concentrates the beam
energy into a focal spot as small as 0.005 in diameters or even less.


 
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Knowing the size of the focused spot is helpful in calculating energy density at the work surface.

For a fundamental mode (TEM00) beam:

S = ( 4Ȝ / ) × ( F / D)

where:

In performing a laser weld, optics to focus the laser beam to the desired size are necessary.

S = Focused Spot Diameter

Ȝ = Laser Wavelength

F = Focal Length of Objective Lens

D = Diameter of Laser Beam

For a multimode beam:

S=F·ĭ

where:

F = Focal Length of Objective Lens

ĭ = Laser Beam Divergence

If one assumes the part to be welded as a semi-infinite solid, with a constant incident heat flux,
then the temperature distribution as a function of depth into the material is given by:6

T(x,t) = (2E/K) × [(kt/ )½× exp(-x2/4kt) - (x/2)erfc(x/2(kt)½)]

where:

T(x,t)=Temperature at a distance x below the work surface, at a time t after start of constant heat
input

E = constant heat flux input

K = thermal conductivity

k = thermal diffusivity
x = depth below surface

t = time after start of heat flux input

erfc = complimentary error function

and at the surface (x=0), the temperature rise will be:

T(x,t)x=0 = (2E/K) × (kt/ )½


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Contour welding

During laser transmission welding, a transparent covering material is pressed onto an absorbent
base material. The laser beam penetrates the upper transparent joining material and is completely
absorbed by the lower, dark material. The absorptive material starts to melt at its surface. The
molten mass expands a little bit and coats the transparent covering material. The joining of the
transparent material with the absorptive is based on a diffusion process of the both molten
materials.The laser head is conducted by a robot along the contour and produces an uniformly
welded seam.

"7#-$(.
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) is a process in which contacting metal surfaces are joined by the heat
obtained from resistance to electric current flow. Work-pieces are held together under pressure
exerted by electrodes. Typically the sheets are in the 0.5 to 3 mm (0.020 to 0.12 in) thickness
range. The process uses two shaped copper alloy electrodes to concentrate welding current into a
small "spot" and to simultaneously clamp the sheets together. Forcing a large current through the
spot will melt the metal and form the weld. The attractive feature of spot welding is a lot of
energy can be delivered to the spot in a very short time (approximately ten milliseconds That
permits the welding to occur without excessive heating to the rest of the sheet.

The amount of heat (energy) delivered to the spot is determined by the resistance between the
electrodes and the amplitude and duration of the current. The amount of energy is chosen to
match the sheet's material properties, its thickness, and type of electrodes. Applying too little
energy won't melt the metal or will make a poor weld. Applying too much energy will melt too
much metal, eject molten material, and make a hole rather than a weld. Another attractive feature
of spot welding is the energy delivered to the spot can be controlled to produce reliable welds.

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 is a modification of spot welding. In this process the weld is localized by
means of raised sections, or projections, on one or both of the workpieces to be joined. heat is
concentrated at the projections, which permits the welding of heavier sections or the closer
spacing of welds. The projections can also serve as a means of positioning the workpieces.
Projection welding is often used to weld studs, nuts, and other screw machine parts to metal
plate. It's also frequently used to join crossed wires and bars. This is another high-production
process, and multiple projection welds can be arranged by suitable designing and jigging

)"(:+")7#-$(.
)"(:+")7#-$(. () is a solid-state joining process (meaning the metal is not melted
during the process) and is used for applications where the original metal characteristics must
remain unchanged as far as possible. This process is primarily used on aluminium, and most
often on large pieces which cannot be easily heat treated post weld to recover temper
characteristics.

It was invented and experimentally proven by Wayne Thomas and a team of his colleagues at
The Welding Institute UK in December 1991. TWI holds a number of patents on the process, the
first being the most descriptive
In FSW, a cylindrical-shouldered tool, with a profiled threaded/unthreaded probe (nib or pin) is
rotated at a constant speed and fed at a constant traverse rate into the joint line between two
pieces of sheet or plate material, which are butted together. The parts have to be clamped rigidly
onto a backing bar in a manner that prevents the abutting joint faces from being forced apart. The
length of the nib is slightly less than the weld depth required and the tool shoulder should be in
intimate contact with the work surface. The nib is then moved against the work, or vice versa.

Frictional heat is generated between the wear-resistant welding tool shoulder and nib, and the
material of the work pieces. This heat, along with the heat generated by the mechanical mixing
process and the adiabatic heat within the material, cause the stirred materials to soften without
reaching the melting point (hence cited a solid-state process), allowing the traversing of the tool
along the weld line in a plasticised tubular shaft of metal. As the pin is moved in the direction of
welding, the leading face of the pin, assisted by a special pin profile, forces plasticised material
to the back of the pin while applying a substantial forging force to consolidate the weld metal.
The welding of the material is facilitated by severe plastic deformation in the solid state,
involving dynamic recrystallization of the base material

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Aluminium engine cradles and suspension struts for stretched Lincoln Town Car were the first
automotive parts that were friction stir at Tower Automotive, who use the process also for the
engine tunnel of the Ford GT. A spin-off of this company is called Friction Stir Link and
successfully exploits the FSW process, e.g. for the flatbed trailer "Revolution" of Fontaine
Trailers In Japan FSW is applied to suspension struts at Showa Denko and for joining of
aluminium sheets to galvanized steel brackets for the boot lid of the Mazda MX-5. Friction stir
spot welding is successfully used for the bonnet and rear doors of the Mazda RX-8 and the boot
lid of the Toyota Prius. Wheels are friction stir welded at Simmons Wheels, UT Alloy Works
and Fundo Rear seats for the Volvo V70 are friction stir welded at Sapa, HVAC pistons at Halla
Climate Control and exhaust gas recirculation coolers at Pierburg. Tailor welded blanks are
friction stir welded for the Audi R8 at Riftec. The B-column of the Audi R8 Spider is friction stir
welded from two extrusions at Hammerer Aluminium Industries in Austria

Longitudinal and circumferential friction stir welds are used for the Falcon 9 rocket booster tank
at the SpaceX factory

-")4+(7#-$(.
-")4+(7#-$(. is an industrial technique whereby high-frequency ultrasonic acoustic
vibrations are locally applied to workpieces being held together under pressure to create a solid-
state weld. It is commonly used for plastics, and especially for joining dissimilar materials. In
ultrasonic welding, there are no connective bolts, nails, soldering materials, or adhesives
necessary to bind the materials together.

For joining complex injection molded thermoplastic parts, ultrasonic welding equipment can be
easily customized to fit the exact specifications of the parts being welded. The parts are
sandwiched between a fixed shaped nest (anvil) and a sonotrode (horn) connected to a
transducer, and a ~20 kHz low-amplitude acoustic vibration is emitted. (Note: Common
frequencies used in ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics are 15 kHz, 20 kHz, 30 kHz, 35 kHz,
40 kHz and 70 kHz). When welding plastics, the interface of the two parts is specially designed
to concentrate the melting process. One of the materials usually has a spiked energy director
which contacts the second plastic part. The ultrasonic energy melts the point contact between the
parts, creating a joint. This process is a good automated alternative to glue, screws or snap-fit
designs. It is typically used with small parts (e.g. cell phones, consumer electronics, disposable
medical tools, toys, etc.) but it can be used on parts as large as a small automotive instrument
cluster. Ultrasonics can also be used to weld metals, but are typically limited to small welds of
thin, malleable metals, e.g. aluminum, copper, nickel. Ultrasonics would not be used in welding
the chassis of an automobile or in welding pieces of a bicycle together, due to the power levels
required.

Use of ultrasonic welding in automoblies

Ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics causes local melting of the plastic due to absorption of
vibration energy. The vibrations are introduced across the joint to be welded. In metals,
Ultrasonic welding occurs due to high-pressure dispersion of surface oxides and local motion of
the materials. Although there is heating, it is not enough to melt the base materials. Vibrations
are introduced along the joint being welded.

For automobiles, ultrasonic welding tends to be utilized in the assembly of large plastic
components and electrical components such as instrument panels, door panels, lamps, air ducts,
steering wheels, upholstery and engine components. As plastics have continued to replace other
materials in the design and manufacture of automobiles, the assembly and joining of plastic
components has increasingly become a critical issue. Some of the advantages for ultrasonic
welding are low cycle times, automation, low capital costs, and flexibility. Also, ultrasonic
welding does not damage surface finish, which is a crucial consideration for many car
manufacturers, because the high-frequency vibrations prevent marks from being generated.


Use of ultrasonic welding in automobile

(-+(
In consideration of requirements such as environmentalconservation and improved collision
safety of automobiles, new steelsheet products for automotive applications have been developed,
andwelding and joining methods have been studied.
Environmental considerations required suppressed use orelimination of lead, and in response,
product such as Sn-Zn-coatedsheets and Al-coated sheets were developed for fuel
tankapplications2). Because the weldability of these products was differentfrom that of
conventional Pb-Sn-coated sheets, joining methods byseam welding, spot welding and soldering
were studied, and as aresult, a commercially applicable joining method was establishedthrough
improvement of coating and adequate control of weldingconditions. Optimum welding
conditions for materials free ofhexavalent chromium were studied, and at present, their
fieldapplication is being promoted.To curb global warming, on the other hand, car weight
reductionhas been pursued. Use of light-weight materials such as aluminumand magnesium is
effective in reducing car weight, but despite manystudies on joining methods of these materials,
steel has been foundsuperior to them in terms of reliability and cost. Hybrid structurespartially
using aluminum were also studied, and for joining steel andaluminum, methods such as self-
pierce riveting, friction spotjoining), direct welding, soldering and welding using
aluminumcoatedsteel sheets) were proposed.In response to the need for car weight reduction, the
steel industryproposed use of high-strength steel sheets). The need for highercollision safety
arose at the same time, and this encouraged the useof high-strength steel sheets. Consequently, a
variety of steel sheetproducts having tensile strength of 590MPa or higher were developed,and
welding methods for these products were studied vigorously.The automobile industry has
employed spot welding, arc welding,projection welding and many other joining methods, but
recently, inconsideration of work efficiency, ease of one-side welding of closed
sectioncomponents and continuous welding work, laser welding and\laser brazing came to be
used21), and the application of these methodsto high-strength steel sheets was studied. Laser
welding has shownremarkable technical advance: methods typically such as fiber laserand disc
laser realized higher output, and welding methods using remote laser or scanner laser is being
studied22). Applying highstrengthsteel sheets to a car body in the best suitable manner is a
bigchallenge, and body structures for enhancing impact absorption andhave been proposed to
find an optimum solution. Newwelding technologies are being developed from this viewpoint.
What is required for the welding of high-strength steel sheets in
the first place is the reliability of weld joints. Usually, carbonequivalent of steel increases and so
does the HAZ hardness as strengthincreases. Consequently, stress concentration at a weld joint is
likelyto cause failure near the joint, leading to poor joint strength. Manythings are necessary for
enhancing the reliability of a weld joint.

Refrences:

 http://www.uslasercorp.com/envoy/welding.html
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