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The Wireless Channel (1)

Wireless Communication
Review
 What we discussed in last lecture:
 Wireless concepts
 Wireless systems
 Wireless problems
 Today we discuss about the wireless channel model,
especially fading
Introduction
 Fading: received signal variations over time
 What are the effects of fading?
For a fast moving users
For a wideband (digital) signal
For an analog TV signal
For a multicarrier signal
For a stationary user of a narrowband
system
For a satellite positioning system
Rapid fluctuations of signal amplitude
and phase
Dispersion and intersymbol interference
(ISI)
Ghost image (shifter slightly to the right)
Different attenuation at different
carriers and locations
Good reception at some locations and
frequencies; but poor reception at other
locations and frequencies
Strong delayed reflections, wrong
estimation of the position
Introduction
 Two types of fading:
 Large-scale fading
 Due to path loss and shadowing
 Occurs over relatively large distances
 Frequency independent
 Small-scale fading
 Due to multipath signal (constructive and destructive interference)
 Occurs over very short distances (on the order of signal wavelength)
 Frequency dependent
Small-scale fading

Large-scale fading
Introduction
 Simplest model for signal propagation: free space path
loss
 A signal propagating between two points with no
attenuation or reflection follows the free space
propagation law
 To approximate the wave propagation according to
Maxwell’s equations with accurate models when the
number of multipath components is small and physical
environtment is known is called ray tracing models
 When the number of multipath components is large the
statistical models should be used
Transmit and Receive Signal Models
 The transmitted signal can be written as

 Where:
is the complex baseband signal
is in-phase component
is quadrature component
is the complex envelope of
Bandwidth Bu
Power Pu
Transmit and Receive Signal Models
 The received signal:

depends on the channel

 For example, if the signal is transmitted via LTI channel
v t   u t   h t 

where h  t  is the channel’s impulse response

Transmit and Receive Signal Models
 The received signal may experience Doppler shift
v eff

 If the receiver is moving towards the transmitter, the Doppler

freq is positive, otherwise it is negative
 Doppler effect is ignored in the free space and ray tracing
models, but it is included in the statistical fading models
Transmit and Receive Signal Models
 Linear path loss is the ratio of transmit power to receive
power
Transmitted power
Pt
PL 
Pr Received power

 Path loss in dB
Pt
PL  dB   10log10
Pr

 In general, the dB path loss is a nonnegative number since

the channel does not contain active elements
Transmit and Receive Signal Models
 The path gain is defined as the negative of the dB path
loss, or
Pr
PG   PL  10log10
Pt
Free-Space Path Loss
 Consider a signal transmitted through free space to a
receiver located at distance d from the transmitter and
receiver along a straight line (LOS)
 The received signal including the free-space path loss:


  G e  j 2 d 

j 2 f c t 
r t     l
u t  e 

 4  d 


where, v t 
Gl is the square of product of the transmit and receive
antenna gain
Gl  Gt Gr
Free-Space Path Loss
 The ratio of received to transmitted power
2
Pr   Gl 
 
Pt  4 d 

 The received power in dBm
Pr  dBm   Pt  dBm   10log10  Gl   20log10     20log10  4   20log10  d 

 The free-space path loss and free-space path gain

Pt Gl  2
PL  dB   10log10  10log10
 4 d 
2
Pr

Gl  2
PG   PL  10 log10
 4 d 
2
Free-Space Path Loss
 The gain of an antenna is defined as
4 Ae
G
2
Ae  effective aperture

 Remember that
c 2 c
 
fc c
 An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which radiates
power with unit gain uniformly in all directions and is
used as antenna gain’s reference in wireless systems
Free-Space Path Loss
 The effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is
EIRP  PG
t t

 EIRP represents the maximum radiated power available

from a transmitter in the direction of maximum antenna
gain, as compared to an isotropic radiator
 In practice, it is used effective radiated power (ERP)
instead of EIRP
 ERP compares the maximum radiated power and the one
in the half-wave dipole antenna
 Dipole antenna has gain of 1.64 dB
Free-Space Path Loss
 In practice, it is used dBi or dBd for antenna gain’s units
 The far-field or Fraunhofer region is defined as the region
beyond the far-field distance which is related to the
largest linear dimension of the transmitter antenna and
the carrier wavelength
 The Fraunhofer distance is given by
2D2
df 

D  largest physical linear dimension of the antenna

 It should be follow
d f  D and d f  
Example
 Find the far-field distance for an antenna with maximum
dimension of 1 m and operating freq of 900 MHz

 Largest dimension of the antenna D  1m

Operating freq 900 MHz, so   3 10  0.33m
8

900 10 6

 The far-field distance is

2 1
2

fd   6m
0.33
Example
 Consider an indoor wireless LAN with fc = 900 MHz,
cells of radius 10 m, and nondirectional antennas. Under
the free-space path loss model, what transmit power is
required at the access point such that all terminals within
the cell receive a minimum power of 10 µW?
Solution
 Use the equation
2
 4 d 
Pt  Pr  
 G 
 l 

 Substitute
Gl  1 (nondirectional antenna)   c fc  0.33m
d  10m Pr  10 m

 It yields
Pr  1.45W  1.61dBW
Relating Power to Electric Field
 In free space, the power flux density is given by
EIRP PG E2 E2
Pd   t t
  W m2 
4 d 2
4 d 2
R fs 
R fs  intrinsic impedance of free space
   120  377
 So that 2
E
Pd 
377
E  magnitude of the electric field in the far-field

 The power received then can be written as

2
  Gl  E
2

Pr  Pt    A
 4 d  120 e
 
Example
 Assume a receiver is located 10 km from a 50 W
transmitter. The carrier freq is 900 MHz, free space
propagation is assumed, Gt  1 and Gr  2
 Find the power at the receiver
 Find the magnitude of the E-field at the receiver antenna

 To find the received power use eq.

Pr  dBm   Pt  dBm   10log10  Gl   20log10     20log10  4   20log10  d 

Pr  dBm   47  3  9.5  22  80  61.5

Solution
 To find magnitude of E-field, use eq.
Pr 120
E 
Ae

 First, we calculate the effective aperture

2  1 3
2
1
Ae  
4 18

 Then
7 1010 120
E   0.0039V / m
1 18 
Ray Tracing
 A radio signal transmitted may encounter multiple objects in
the environtment that produce reflected, diffracted, or
scattered copies of the transmitted signal
 The copies is called multipath signal components
 The multipath and transmitted signal are summed together at
the receiver
 It will produce distortion in the received signal relative to the
transmitted signal
Two Ray Model
 The two ray model is used when a single ground
reflection dominates the multipath effect
 The received signal consists of: LOS & reflected ray
Two Ray Model
 The received signal is superposition

   x  x ' l  c Delay spread  time delay of the ground reflection

relative to the LOS ray
Product of the transmit and receive antenna
Gl  GaGb field radiation patterns in the LOS direction

Product of the transmit and receive antenna

Gr  GcGd field radiation patterns corresponding to the rays
of length x and x’

R is the ground reflection coefficient

Two Ray Model
 If the transmitted signal is narrowband relative to the
delay spread or   1 then u t   u t  
Bu
 With this approximation, then the received power is

  2  x  x ' l  

 By regarding the antennas’ heights, then

 ht  hr   ht  hr 
2 2
x  x ' l   d2   d2

 When d is very large compared to ht  hr then

2  x  x ' l  4 ht hr
  
 d
Two Ray Model
 The ground reflection coefficient is given by
sin   Z
R
sin   Z

Z   r  cos2   r for vertical polarization

Z   r  cos2  for horizontal polarization
 r  dielectric constant for ground
 Then the received power is
2 2
  Gl   4 ht hr   Gl ht hr 
Pr      Pt   d 2  Pt
 4 d   d  
   

Pr  dBm   Pt  dBm   10log10  Gl   20log10  ht hr   40log10  d 

Example
 A mobile is located 5 km away from a BTS and uses a
vertical λ/4 monopole antenna with a gain of 2.55 dB. The
E-field at 1 km from the transmitter is measured to be
0.001 V/m. The carrier freq is 900 MHz. Find:
 the length and the effective aperture of the receiving antenna
 the received power at the mobile using the two-ray model and
assuming the height of transmitting antenna is 50 m and the
receiving antenna is 1.5 m from the ground
Solution
 The length of the antenna has been stated, which is λ/4
 The λ is 1/3 m, then the length of antenna is 1/12 m
 The effective aperture:
2  1 3
2
1
Ae  
4 18

 We found that d = 5 km >> ht + hr = 51.5 m

 Then we use eq.
Pr  dBm   Pt  dBm   10log10  Gl   20log10  ht hr   40log10  d 

 First, we should calculate the transmitted power

Solution
 Use this eq. to calculate Pt
2
E
2
  Gl 
Ae    Pt
120  4 d 
 

 Substitute
E  0.001 Ae  1 18  1 3 Gl  2.55 d  1000

 Find received power at d  5000

 We get Pr (dBm)  92.6531
Empirical Path Loss Models
 Most mobile communication systems operate in complex
propagation environtments that cannot be accurately
modeled by free-space path loss or ray tracing
 Analytical models characterize Pr/Pt as a function of
distance
 Empirical models characterize Pr/Pt as a function of
distance, includes the effect of path loss, shadowing, and
multipath
 To remove multipath effect, the models average their
received power measurements and the corresponding
path loss at a given distance over several wavelengths
Empirical Path Loss Models
 The average path loss is called local mean attenuation
(LMA)
 The empirical path loss for a given environtment is
defined as the average of the LMA measurements at
distance d, averaged over all available measurements in
the given environtment
 The empirical path loss is usually called outdoor
propagation models
 The models we will discuss: Okumura model, Hata model,
COST 231 model, and Piecewise Linear model
Okumura Model
 It is used for large urban macrocells, over distances of 1 – 100
km, freq range of 150 – 1500 MHz, and BTS heights of 30 –
1000 m
 The empirical path loss of Okumura is
PL  d  dB   L  fc , d   Amu  fc , d   G  ht   G  hr   GAREA

L  fc , d  is free space path loss at distance d and carrier freq fc

Amu  fc , d  is the median attenuation
G  ht  is BTS antenna height gain factor
G  hr  is mobile antenna height gain factor
GAREA is the gain due to the type of environment
Okumura Model
 The values of Amu  fc , d  and GAREA are obtained from
Okumura’s empirical plots
 The formulas of G  ht  and G  hr  are
Okumura Model
Okumura Model
Example
 Find the median path loss using Okumura’s model for d =
50 km, ht = 100 m, hr = 10 m in the suburban
environment. If the BTS transmiter radiates an EIRP of 1
kW at a carrier freq of 900 MHz, find the power at the
receiver. Assume a unity gain receiving antenna.
 The free space loss can be calculated by using free space
loss formula, it is yielded L  900MHz,50km   125.5dB
 From Okumura’curves we get Amu  900MHz,50km   43dB
GAREA  9dB

 Use eq. G  ht  and G  hr  yields G  ht   6dB

G  hr   10.46dB
Solution
 Then the total path loss PL  155.04dB
 The power at receiver
Pr  d   EIRP  dBm   PL  dB   Gr  dB 
 60dBm  155.04dB  0  95.04dBm
Hata Model
 It simplifies the Okumura’s model

is a correction factor
 For small medium sized cities:

 For large cities at freq > 300 MHz:

 For suburban areas:

 For rural areas:

Where K ranges between 35.94 (countryside) and 40.94 (desert)

COST 231 Extension to Hata Model
 The Hata model was extended to 2 GHz:

is correction factor
is 0 dB for medium sized cities and suburbs, 3 dB for
metropolitan areas
 It is suitable with the following boundaries:
1.5 GHz < fc < 2 GHz
30 m < ht < 200 m
1 m < hr < 10 m
1 km < d < 20 km
Piecewise Linear (Multi-Slope) Model
 This model is common for modeling path loss in outdoor
microcells and indoor channels

 The dots represent hypothetical empirical measurements

and the piecewise linear model represents an
approximation to these measurement
Piecewise Linear (Multi-Slope) Model
 A piecewise linear model with N segments must specify
N – 1 breakpoints the the slopes corresponding to each
segments
 A special case of the piecewise model is the dual-slope
model
 It is characterized by a constant path loss factor K and a
path loss exponent γ1 above some reference distance d0
uo to some critical distance dc, after which point power
falls off with path loss exponent γ2
Piecewise Linear (Multi-Slope) Model
 The multiple equations in the dual-slope model can be
captured with the following dual-slope approximation
Conclusions
 Large scale fading is variation of signal strength over
distances of the order of cell sizes
 The received power decreases with distance
 1 r 2 in the free space
 1 r 4 two-ray reflection
 The fading also caused by shadowing and scattering
 For urban/suburban/rural areas, we use empirical models,
such as Okumura, Hata, and Piecewise Linear

 To get path loss and Okumura-Hata calculator, visit

http://www.cdt21.com/resources/default2.asp