INTELLECTUAL ACCIDENT AVOIDANCE

SYSTEM

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

A.DINESH (070107603010)

S.GOBINATH (070107603012)

R.KAVINKUMAR (070107603015)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

EXCEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

ANNA UNIVERSITY COIMBATORE 641047

APRIL 2011
 ANNA UNIVERSITY COIMBATORE 641047

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “INTELLECTUAL ACCIDENT

AVOIDANCE SYSTEM” is the bonafide work of “A.DINESH,
S.GOBINATH, R.KAVINKUMAR” who carried out the project work under
my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

SUPERVISOR HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Ms.S.MonicaaDevi Mr.K.M.Palaneswamy
Lecturer, Professor
Department of ECE Department of ECE
Excel Engineering College Excel Engineering
College
NH-47 New, Pallakapalayam NH -47 New,
Pallakapalayam
Komarapalayam Komarapalayam
Namakkal – 637303 Namakkal– 637303

---------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------
Internal Examiner External Examiner
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I hereby record my gratitude to our respected Honorary Chairman

Dr.A.K.NATESAN and Vice Chairman Dr.N.MADHAN KARTHICK, Excel
Group of Institutions who had provided us the facilities for the successful
completion of our project.

With great pleasure and honor I express my sincere thanks to

Dr.R.MALATHY, Principal, Excel Engineering college for her valuable
suggestions to complete this report in a successful manner.

I owe my special thanks to Prof. K.M.PALANESWAMY, Head, Dept. of

Electronics and Communication Engineering, Excel Engineering College for his
Constructive ideas.

My special thanks are due to my Project Guide Ms. S.MonicaaDevi Lecturer,

Dept. of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Excel Engineering College
for her valuable suggestions, guidance and support throughout the project work.

I would like to convey my special thanks to Ms.R.SATHYA, Project

Coordinator, Dept Of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Excel
Engineering college for her encouragement and support.

Next, I wish to thank Ms.DHARANI, & Mr.RAJEIV Embedded System

Developer, SANDS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, CHENNAI Who had given me
necessary permission and instructions to do this project work successfully.

Finally, I express my heartfelt thanks to my family members, friends and well

wishers for their support and help for the successful completion of this project work.
CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO

List of Table i
List of Figures ii
List of Abbreviations iii
1 Introduction
1.1 Company Profile 1
1.2 Objective 3
2 System Analysis
2.1 Existing System 4
2.1.1 Drawbacks 4
2.2 Proposed System 4
2.3 Feasibility Study 5
2.3.1 Economical Feasibility 5
2.3.2 Technical Feasibility 5
2.3.3 Social Feasibility 6
3 System Specifications
3.1 Hardware Requirements 7
3.2 Software Requirements 7
3.3 Requirement Specification 7
4 Software Description
4.1 Front End 8
4.2 Features 16
5 Project Description
5.1 Problem Definition 18
5.2 Overview of the Project 21
5.3 Module Description
5.3.1 Modules 22
5.4 Data Flow Diagram 23
5.5 E-R Diagram 24
5.6 Database Design 25
5.7 Input Design 26
5.8 Output Design 27
5.9 System Design 27

6 System Testing
6.1 Unit Testing 29
6.2 Integration Testing 30
6.3 Validation Testing 31
6.4 Test Cases 31
7 System Implementation 32
7.1 User Training 32
7.2 module implementation 33
8 Conclusion & Future Enhancements
 CHAPTER 1

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1.1 COMPANY PROFILE

Overview

SANDS Training Division bridges the gap between What is taught in the Universities
and What is required by the Industries in the areas of DSP, VLSI and Embedded Systems.
Sands Institute of Technology is a hardware company, with a focus on development of
hardware products, Young & bright Engineering graduates are given theoretical & on the job
training in DSP, VLSI and Embedded Systems to prepare them for the generic needs of the
Industry. Advanced courses in DSP, VLSI and Embedded Systems are imparted and hands-
on training is given to working technical professionals to enhance their skill sets & to enable
them move up the Technological Chain.

Vision

To maximize and expand our customer’s capabilities by building long-term customer

relationships, by providing high value hardware services using our Global delivery model and
a world–class employee base with a commitment to customer service, quality and
innovation.

Services

While the initial training is conducted either at the SANDS premises or at the

respective College/University, the advanced training is conducted either at SANDS premises

or the customers place. SANDS being a recognized member of Windows Embedded Partner

Program (WEPP), Certified Third party Developer for Analog Devices Inc. USA and Texas

Instruments, USA. is able to provide high technology projects to the students & professionals.

SANDS is able to groom about 2000 students and professionals every year by providing high

technology projects.

Technology

 DSP Process
 VLSI technologies
 Microprocessor Technologies
 Microcontroller Technologies
 Microsoft Technologies
 Assemble languages Technologies

Address

Sands Institute of Technology,

96,4th Avenue,

Ashok Nagar First Floor,

Chennai,

Tamil Nadu 600083,

 India.

1.1.2 Objective

The objective of this project is to reduce the death rate due to the accident
happen in the road transporting due to the drunken drive and inefficiency of the
driving knowledge that particular vehicle. Also there are many accidents had done by
the thieves at the time of chasing by the cops, to give the more security to the user the
system also having the code locking security via giving the password by their own at
the time of starting.

Our system involves an alcohol detecting sensor and gives the condition of the
driver that he takes the alcohol or not, by checking it only it will give the permission
to switch on the vehicle to the driver, and the password authentication system which is
unique for every individual. The personal password for every individual are set by
them and maintained secretly in the embedded system that is fixed in their vehicle. So
that the details of a person can be verified by the system and takes that as key for the
particular vehicle.
 This project is used to improve the security performance and provide the safety
for the driver as well as the passengers of that vehicle, the alcohol sensor and keypad
input is taken for this process to check for the driver’s consciousness and security.

CHAPTER 2

1 SYSTEM ANALYSIS
2.1 EXISTING SYSTEM

The traffic analyzing and position of the vehicle is the existing system used for avoid
the accidents, but this system has several drawbacks.
1. At the old the system only checks for the position of the vehicle.
2. At the second the system takes the analysis to avoid accident for more traffic
and highways through the GPS.
3. The system is never checks the condition of the driver
4. At old system the concept is to give alert to the driver and not for controlling
the vehicle.
2.1.1 Drawbacks
 The system takes time to response for analyzing the position of the vehicle by
GPS.
  The system is not possible while there is no coverage of GPS system and
failure.

 All the sensors are in not secured places on the vehicle.

2.2 PROPOSED SYSTEM

Here we are using the new approaches are the Embedded technology to connect with
the process called INTELLECTUAL ACCIDENT AVOIDANCE SYSTEM, by using these
efficiently follows the working process.

First process is used to reduce cost overhead, because we are using all the controlling
process for control the vehicle by the controller itself. The feature of the project will be using
the GSM technology for efficiency, fast and to give the immediate report to the particular
mobile station.

ADVANTAGE:

1. Low power consumption.

2. It improves security performance in the highly secured areas compare than others.
3. Easy working process.

FEASIBILITY STUDY

The feasibility of the project is analyzed in this phase, security project and some cost
estimates. During system analysis the feasibility study of the proposed system is to be carried
out. This is to ensure that the proposed system is not a burden to the country. For feasibility
analysis, some understanding of the major requirements for the system is essential.

Three key considerations involved in the feasibility analysis are:

1. Economical Feasibility
2. Technical Feasibility
3. Social Feasibility

2.3.1 Economical Feasibility

This study is carried out to check the economic impact that the system will have on
the organization. The amount of fund that the company can pour into the research and
development of the system is limited. The expenditures must be justified. Thus the developed
system as well within the budget and this was achieved because most of the technologies
used are freely available.

2.3.2 Technical Feasibility

This study is carried out to check the technical feasibility, that is, the technical
requirements of the new implementations. Any technology developed must not have a high
demand on the available technical resources. This will lead to high demands on the available
technical resources. This will lead to high demands being placed on the features. The
developed system must have a modest requirement, as only minimal or null changes are
required for implementing this system process.

2.3.3 Social Feasibility

The aspect of study is to check the security level of the society. This includes
the process of training and secures the country. The user to use the system efficiently. The
level of acceptance by the security depends on the methods that are employed to educate
the user about the system and to make him familiar with it. His level of confidence must
be raised also able to make some constructive process.

CHAPTER 3

3. SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS
Today the accident avoidance system is an important thing in order to avoid the accident
due to drunken driving. Our project is “Intellectual accident avoidance system” which
controls the prevention of accident and driver safety. It consists of two applications such as
security and safety. PIC16F877A microcontroller and sensor and keypad are used.

3.1 OVERVIEW OF PROJECT

Our project Intellectual Accident Avoidance System using alcohol sensor in

embedded system. In which the accident occur by drunken drive and inefficiency of
knowledge about that vehicle is prevent by this system.
 The four wheelers are mostly used vehicles for long travelling by everyone in any
time. The driver may have drunken state at the time. Based on the condition of the driver only
most of the accidents are happen in nowadays,

The recent report from the highways department about 85 percentage of the road
accidents are happen due to the drunken driving and inefficient knowledge of the driver about
the road line instructions due to the lack of consciousness of the driver.

Alcohol sensor is a gas sensor and which is used to sense the gas i.e. if the driver is in
drunken state. It gives information to the microcontroller and it will not allow the driver to
start the vehicle or change it to minimum speed level i.e. 20km/hr.

The security system which is produced by a particular password is gives the security
of the vehicle from thief’s and make sure that the correct person is driving the car from the
keypad function we can get the password and secure the car from inefficiency driving.

3.2 EMBEDDED SYSTEM

An embedded system is a special purpose computer controlled Electro-mechanical

system in which the computer is completely encapsulated by the device it controls. An
embedded system has specific requirements and pre-defined tasks, unlike a general purpose
personal computer. The core of any embedded system is a microprocessor, programmed to
perform a few tasks. This is to be compared to other computer systems with general purpose
hardware and externally loaded software. Embedded systems are often designed for mass
production.

The utility if the end product is the goal when designing an embedded system, not the
capability of the embedded computer itself. Embedded products are typically sold on the
basis of capabilities, features and system cost rather than which CPU is used in them or
cost/performance of the CPU.
 3.2.1 FEATURES OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

 High performance

 Low power consumption

 More compact

 Reduced design and development time

 Reduced cost and memory

3.3 SYSTEM WORKING FLOW GRAPH STAGE-I

FIGURE 3.3 SYSTEM WORKING FLOWGRAPH STAGE-1
3.4 SYSTEM WORKING FLOW GRAPH STAGE-II

FIGURE 3.4 SYSTEM WORKING FLOW GRAPH STAGE-II

CHAPTER 4

4. PROJECT DESCRIPTION
 4.1 COMPONENTS

Our project is done under the domain of microcontroller which is having all the
controlling process with the inbuilt functions and the peripherals that which having the
internal memory and all timers and ect, to directly connected to the processor and can
controls the external peripherals directly with the microcontroller. For an embedded system
there are defined as that the combination of both hardware and software is work together to
getting an required output for that particular task according to that for our system we have
that both components as detailed below

The two main components in our project are:

4.1.1 HARDWARE COMPONENTS

In our project “Hardware components” are

 Microcontroller unit

 Power supply unit

 Sensor and interfacing unit

 Keypad

 DC Motor

4.1.2 SOFTWARE COMPONENTS

The software components are,

 PIC C Compiler

 Embedded C
4.2.3 BLOCK DAIGRAM

Alcohol Moto
Sensor Relay r

Vehicle
Model

PIC16F87
Moto
Key pad 7A
r
Microcont Relay
2
roller

FIGURE 4.2.4 GENERAL BLOCK DIAGRAM

4.3 MICROCONTROLLER

A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a

processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the
form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small
amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the
microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications.

Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as

automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office
machines, appliances, power tools, and toys. By reducing the size and cost compared to a
design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices,
microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes.
Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control
non-digital electronic systems. The basic internal designs of microcontrollers are pretty
similar. Figure shows the block diagram of a typical microcontroller. All components are
connected via an internal bus and are all integrated on one chip. The modules are connected
to the outside world via I/O pins.

A PIC microcontroller is a processor with built in memory and RAM and you can use
it to control your projects. So it saves you building a circuit that has separate external RAM,
ROM and peripheral chips.

4.3.1 Features

In fact a PIC microcontroller is an amazingly powerful fully featured processor with

• Internal RAM

• EEROM

• FLASH memory and Peripherals

• 10 bit ADC

• TIMERS
 • CCP Module

• Watch dog timer

4.3.2 INPUT / OUTPUT – I/O

A PIC Microcontroller can control outputs and react to inputs e.g. you could drive a
relay or read input buttons. With the larger devices it's possible to drive LCDs or seven
segment displays with very few control lines as all the work is done inside the PIC Micro.
Comparing a frequency counter to discrete web designs you'll find two or three chips for
the microcontroller design and ten or more for a discrete design. So using those saves
prototype design effort as you can use built in peripherals to take care of lots of the circuit
operation. Many now have a built in ADC so you can read analogue signal levels so you don't
need to add an external devices e.g. you can read an LM35 temperature sensor directly with
no interface logic.

4.3.3 TIMER / COUNTERS

Each PIC microcontroller has up to three timers that you can either use as a timer or a
counter (Timer 1 & 2) or a baud clock (Timer 2).

4.3.4 TIMER 0

The original timer: Timer 0 was the first timer developed and you can find it in all the
earliest devices e.g. 16F84 up to the most current, 16F877A. It is an 8 bit timer with an 8 bit
prescaler that can be driven from an internal (Fosc/4) or external clock. It generates an
interrupt on overflow when the count goes from 255 to zero.

Timer 0 always synchronizes the input clock. Read and write timer 0 but you cannot
read the prescaler. The prescaler changes its effect depending on whether it is a timer
prescaler or a watch dog prescaler - so the same prescaler setting may prescale by 2 or by 1
depending on its use.

4.3.5 TIMER 1

This is a 16 bit timer that generates an overflow interrupt when it goes from 65535 to
zero. It has an 8 bit programmable prescaler and you can drive it from the internal clock
(Fosc/4) or an external pin. To eliminate false triggering it also has an optional input
synchronizer for external pin input. This timer can be used in sleep mode and will generate a
wakeup interrupt on overflow.

Timer 1 is also read by the CCP module to capture an event time. Note: Using this
timer in sleep mode will use more current. In addition it can be used to drive a low power
watch crystal. This is something that sounds good but I don't recommend you do it as watch
crystals are extremely difficult to drive correctly. You should only use it if you are going to
make a PCB and follow all the guidelines in making it noise free. I used a DS1307 in the Real
Time clock project which drives the crystal directly but even this is difficult to get operating
accurately.

4.3.6 TIMER 2

This is an 8 bit timer with an 8 bit prescaler and an 8 bit postscaler. It takes its input
only from the internal oscillator (Fosc/4). This timer is used for the time base of a PWM
when PWM is active and it can be software selected by the SSP module as a baud clock. It
also has a period register that allows easy control of the period. When timer 2 reaches the
PR2 register value then it resets. This saves having to check the timer value in software and
then reset the timer and since it is done in hardware the operation is much faster - so you can
generate fast clocks with periods that are multiples of the mainclock.

4.3.6 BAUD RATES

There is a table of baud rates in microchip data sheet DS33023A which indicates the
expected percentage error for a specific clock rate and in general the higher the main clock
the lower the error. for an 8MHz clock - if you use BRGH=1 and an 8MHz clock we get
accurate baud rates up to 38.4kbaud. You have to force this to work e.g. in mikroC the built
in USART routines use BRGH=0 so at 8MHz the baud rate is only accurate to 9.6kbaud. a
super-accurate baud rate the best way is to use a clock crystal that ends up giving you that
baud rate i.e. work back through the baud rate equations to find the crystal you need.

4.3.7 CCP

The Capture/Compare/PWM module has three modes of operation:

• Capture - Capture the time of an event.

 • Compare - Generate an output when Timer 1 reaches a value.

• PWM - Pulse Width Modulation.

CAPTURE

Capture mode is used to capture the value of Timer 1 when a signal at the CCP pin
goes high (or low depending on how the CCP is set up). The CCP can accurately capture the
arrival time of a signal at the CCP pin so it can be used for pulse time measurement.

COMPARE

Compare mode is used to generate an output when Timer 1 reaches a value you put
into CCPR1. One special event trigger mode lets you start the ADC when the compare mode
triggers.

PWM

PWM gives you one Pulse Width Modulation output with 10 bit resolution and with
no software overhead - once started it operates all by itself unless you want to change the
duty cycle. It uses Timer 2 to define its operation using Timer 2 period register to define the
frequency of the PWM.

COMPARATOR and COMPARATOR VOLTAGE REFERENCE

The comparator is module that has two analogue comparators which can be set up in
one of 8 different ways. Either digital or analogue inputs can be compared to reference
voltages. In one mode an internally generated voltage reference is used as an input to both
comparators and in the same mode multiplexing lets you monitor up to four different input
pins. We can even send the output of the comparator to a pin so that it is used independently
from the microcontroller e.g. in a circuit where you need a comparator you don't need an
extra chip The analogue level must be between Vdd and Vss as protection diodes won't allow
anything else. The module will generate an interrupt if the comparator output changes.
You can use it in sleep mode and the interrupt will wake it up. The source impedance of the
analogue signal must be smaller than 10k.
4.3.8 SSP

The Synchronous Serial Port lets you communicate with devices that use either the
SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) or I2C (Inter IC communication) protocols. Note that for
full Master mode I2C operation you need to choose a PIC device that has the MSSP device
(Master Synchronous Serial Port). SPI and I2C are shared so you can only use one at a time
(or you could use the I2C bit banged routines in the Real Time Clock project to have both at
the same time).

4.3.9 PSP

The Parallel Slave Port lets you to connect the PIC microcontroller directly into a
microprocessor system. It provides an 8 bit read/write data bus and RD (read) WR (write) and
CS (chip select) inputs - all active low. This will let you add a PIC microcontroller to a
system so that the PIC microcontroller can be treated as a memory mapped peripheral. It will
let the microcontroller behave just as though it was another microprocessor building block.

4.3.10 SPECIAL FEATURES

WDT

If your software goes haywire then this timer resets the processor. To stop the reset
the well behaved software must periodically issue the CLRWDT instruction to stop a resert.
The WDT runs using its own oscillator. It runs during sleep and shares Timer 0 prescaler.

POR

Power on Reset starts PIC microcontroller initialization when it detects a rising edge
on MCLR.

PWRT

If you enable this then 72ms after a POR the PIC microcontroller is started.

OST
 Oscillator Start-up Timer delays for 1024 oscillator cycles after PWRT (if PWRT is
enabled) ensuring that the oscillator has started and is stable. It is automatic and only used
for crystal oscillator modes and is active after POR or wake from sleep.

SLEEP

Sleep mode (or low power consumption mode) is entered by executing the 'SLEEP'
command. The device can wake from sleep caused by an external reset, Watch Dog Timer
timeout, INT pin RB port change or peripheral interrupt.

CURRENT

The PIC I/O ports are high current ports capable of directly driving LEDs (up to 25ma
output current) - the total current allowed usually ~200mA this is often for the whole chip (or
specified for several ports combined together).

4.3.11 PIC MICROCONTROLLER FLASH MEMORY

The PIC 16F877a microcontroller have the flash memory about 8K which are used
here for the RISC programming instruction fetching and encoding this may also be the one of
the reason for the speed of calculation of the microcontroller to performing its particular
tasking.

This is the program storage area and gives you the most important benefit for using a
PIC microcontroller. You may think that 1k or even 8k is so tiny that it won't be useful but
each PIC microcontroller uses RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) which simply
means that it has a cleverly arranged instruction set that only has a few instructions.

The mid range parts have 35 instructions. If you use the high level language as
recommended in this site then you won't need to be too aware of the instruction set it just
means you can do a lot with a small amount of memory. Most of the projects on this site
although they are fully working projects fit within 2k words.

4.3.12 PIC MICROCONTROLLER RAM

The PIC microcontroller RAM size is also important as it stores all your variables and
intermediate data. Note: You can usually alter the program to use less RAM by choosing the
right variable sizes or changing how your program works For example doesn’t use floating
point alter it to use a different variable type e.g. you can use long integers with fixed point
operation to avoid floating point.

4.3.13 PIC MICROCONTROLLER EEROM

The PIC 16F877a microcontroller have the EEPROM value of 256k for programming
and fetching the opcodes that are give all the information’s to the microcontroller for its
operating tasks.

In our project there may have large usage about the rate of half of its wording space
for programming and passwords which are used for the security purpose through the keypad
interfacing and all the peripherals particulars.

Electrically Erasable ROM is used to store data that must be saved between power up
and power down. This area is readable and writable and has a much longer life than the main
program store i.e. it has been designed for more frequent use.

The EEPROM memory is basically used for the program that are written for
performing the particular tasks in the sequence that are instructed by the programmer for the
fast and reliable programming the Embedded C language is written by using the library
functions that are inbuilt in the compiler the EEPROM had the number of registers that are
called and stores the program data for any process of that particular microcontroller.

4.4 CODE LOCK WITH 4X3 KEYPAD

4.4.1 INTRODUCTION

Code locks make the task of access management more flexible and easy to configure.
Mechanical locks require new keys to be manufactured every time a user with access
privileges is added. The lock has to be reconfigured or replaced to change access privileges of
a single user, and it may also have to be replaced if any of the keys is lost. This module had
been used in this project to give the security to the owner of that particular vehicle to give
identification of their own password through this system. For the identification of the vehicle
also it need the well experienced and knowledge as well as consciousness of the driver. This
application note describes how to build a code lock with an PIC microcontroller and a
handful of components. The code lock uses a 4x3 keypad for user input, a piezoelectric
buzzer for audible feedback and an LCD for informational output. The design is based on
port output of the microcontroller, but can easily be migrated to other PIC microcontrollers.

4.4.2 THEORY OF OPERATION

The code lock described in this application note consists of a PIC16F877a have the
inbuilt keypad, and an LCD, a piezoelectric buzzer and the actual (door) lock peripherals.
The PIC constantly scans the keypad for user input and will release the lock when the correct
number sequence has been entered. An LCD is used for feedback and status information. A
small piezoelectric buzzer is used for giving audible feedback on keystrokes and lock status.

4.4.3 KEYPAD

The input device is a standard 4x3 matrix keypad. The keypad contains 12 keys,
symmetrically arranged in four rows with four keys, each. Each column and row of the
keypad is connected to an I/O pin. The microcontroller continually scans the keypad by
setting all row pins except one to high and reading all column pins. All column inputs have
pull-up resistors enables so when a key is pressed the microcontroller will record a low level
on one of the column inputs.

1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
C 0 S

FIGURE 4.2.4 3x4 KEYPAD LAYOUTS

4.2.5 INTERFACING and LOCK CODE PROGRAMING

The lock code programming is easier in the pic c compiler in the base of
embedded c code, the two inbuilt functions are used for the code checking and interfacing
with the keypad two ports of the PIC microcontroller are used for the input and one port is
used for the output the flow chart shown below details the program flow of the code lock and
keypad interfacing of the PIC16f877a.

4.2.7 IMPLEMENTATION

The hardware implementation is rather straightforward. A prototype can be built

easily using PORTS A, B, &C, of 40pin PIC microcontroller, some jumper cables and the
essential keypad. The firmware is written entirely in C language. This is to make the design
easy to understand and to make further development of the design as straightforward as
possible. The software is fully documented in the doxygen documentation provided with the
source code. Compiler requirements and info are also listed in the file.
 FIGURE 4.2.6 CODE LOCK FLOW CHART

4.2.8 KEYPAD DRIVER

The keypad driver uses timer/counter 0 to time the scanning sequence. After a
timer/counter overflow the active keypad row is increased and wrapped around, when
necessary. A key push is registered and decoded via the Pin Change Interrupts.

Associated files:

• KPD.c

• KPD.h

Note: debug WIRE requires one of the pins used for the keypad interface. When the symbol
DEBUGWIRE in KPD.h is defined this pin will be freed for debugging, but the last row of
the keypad cannot be used.

4.2.9 EVENT TIMER

The design uses the watchdog timer as an event window handler. Each key press
refreshes the watchdog timer and if no key presses are detected within a predefined time the
watchdog interrupt will trigger. In PIC 28/40 it is possible to choose between a watchdog and
interrupt and a hardware reset. The watchdog interrupt service routine clears the keypad
buffer and erases the line of LCD where keystrokes have been recorded.

4.2.10 MULTIPLE ACCESS CODES

It is a simple task to add multiple access codes to the design. The only limit is the
amount of memory available. The default firmware fits into the memory of an ATtiny24
without code compression techniques. Applying code compression (by setting IAR compiler
to Release Mode) frees up some space for additional access codes. More space is naturally
available in pin and functionally compatible devices, such as PIC16F8xx.

4.2.11 FETURES

 High sensitive

 Accuracy

 No need of external source

  Inbuilt function

 Easy to interface

 Low memory require

4.2.12 APPLICATION

 Security

 Identification

 Safety measures

 Home appliances

4.3 ALCOHOL SENSOR

At present drunken drivers have increased enormously and so is the deaths due to
drunken drivers. The main reason for driving drunk is that the police are not able to check
each and every car and even if they catch any one the police can be easily bribed. So there is
a need for a effective system to check drunken drivers. In our alcohol detection system the
ignition of the fuel is regulated by a sensor circuit. The sensor circuit is used to detect
whether alcohol was consumed by the driver recently. Our design also consists of a blood
pulse rate sensor which is used to check whether alcohol is consumed while driving.

4.3.1 INTRODUCTION

Drunken drivers have been let unchecked in the society. Though there are laws to
punish drunken drivers they cannot be fully utilized as police cannot stand on every road
corner to check each and every car driver whether he has drink or not. This leads to severe
accidents as such that happened in Delhi in which a car ran over four road dwellers killing
them on the spot. So there is a necessity to develop a efficient alcohol detection system.

4.3.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF ALCOHOL SENSOR

In our alcohol detection system the ignition circuit is controlled by interfacing a set of
sensors, logic circuit and a micro processor. We know that the ignition key of a vehicle has to
be turned in two steps, one for switching on the electrical circuit and second step for cranking
the engine. As per our design whenever the driver turns the first step a gas mask is dropped
down from the ceiling of the car. The driver has to exhale deeply through the mask. The
exhaled air reaches the sensor unit where it’s checked for co2 and alcohol. The alcohol and
co2 sensor unit gives output as per the condition of the air through the logic circuit which is
sent to the micro processor. Depending upon the output the microprocessor controls the
ignition process.
4.3.3 DESIGN OF ALCOHOL SENSOR
The basic principle of alcohol sensor is that potassium dichromate salt changes its
colour when it reacts with alcohol. This is the principle of the alcohol detectors used by
police. Initially the potassium dichromate is in orange color which when reacts with alcohol it
turns green. This color change is detected by a photo sensor which generates signal as per the
change of color. The sensor equipment consists of potassium dichromate salt chamber in
which potassium dichromate salt pellets are loaded against the pressure of the spring loaded
piston. The chambers exit is closed by a solenoid port such that when the key is turned the
solenoid gets energized and the port is opened. When the port is opened due to piston
pressure a salt pellet is pushed into the testing chamber.

Initially the color of potassium di chromate is orange. When the driver is not drunken
there will be no reaction taking place so there will be no change is color, if the driver is
drunken there will be change in color. There is also one more instance in which the driver
does not breathe in at all so there will be no change in color. If such is a case then the design
is not fool proof. So in order to overcome this defect, CO2 sensors are installed in the system.
CO2 can be sensed by a ceramic sensor. The circuit consist of a testing chamber which
consists of a ceramic sensor which detects the presence of CO2. The sensor consist of a
ceramic material like zirconium which compares the carbon-di-oxide level in the test
chamber with that of pre programmed value and generates votage as per the co2 content
which is sent to the logic circuit.

4.3.4 C2H5OH (ALCOHOL) GAS SENSOR MODULE (MQ6)

These Gas Sensor Modules are designed to allow a microcontroller to determine when
a preset gas level has been reached or exceeded. The type of gas detected depends on which
module you are using. 27904 detect Alcohol (C2H5OH). Interfacing with these sensors is
done through a 4-pin SIP header and requires two I/O pins from the host microcontroller. The
sensor modules are intended to provide a means of comparing gas sources and being able to
set an alarm limit when the source becomes excessive. Parallax does not provide gas
calibration data on these modules and such data as well as the alarm settings are the
responsibility of the user to define.

4.3.4.a CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR ALCOHOL SENSOR

4.3.5 FEATURES
 Easy SIP header interface
 Compatible with most microcontrollers
 Low-power standby mode

4.3.6 KEY SPECIFICATIONS

 Power requirements: 5 VDC @ ~165 mA (heater on) / ~60 mA (heater off)

 Interface: 1 TTL compatible input (HSW), 1 TTL compatible output (ALR)
 Operating temperature: 14 to 122 °F (-10 to 50°C)
 Dimensions: 1.50 x 1.0 x 1.0 in (38.1 x 25.4 x 25.4 mm)

4.3.7 PACKING LIST

 Gas Sensor
 Gas Sensor PCB Assembly
 Potentiometer adjustment tool

4.3.8 PRECAUTIONS
Be aware that the gasses detected by these gas sensors can be deadly in high
Concentrations. Automotive exhaust and charcoal cooking grill exhausts emit carbon
monoxide (CO). Propane Gas (LPG) can leak from propane grills and furnaces and Methane
(CH4) can be found in animal farming areas.
Always be careful to perform gas tests in well ventilated areas. These gas sensor
modules are not designed for or approved for any Application involving health or human
safety. These gas sensor modules are For experimental purposes only.
Parallax, inc. Absolves itself of all liability And responsibility associated with the
customer's use of these gas sensor Modules and is not responsible for any bodily injury, death
or property Damage as a result of using these gas sensor modules.

4.3.9 CONNECTING AND TESTING

The gas sensor canister plugs into the socket on the front of the module. The gas
sensors are essentially resistive devices and are not polarized, so there is no need to be
concerned about plugging it in “backwards.” It will work in either orientation. The 4-pin SIP
header on the Gas Sensor Module makes it easy to connect to a breadboard or SIP socket.
The four connections are defined in the table below.
Connection to a 5V microcontroller, such as the BASIC Stamp® module, would be
pretty straight forward and require two I/O pins; one input for detecting the alarm signal and
the other an output for controlling the internal heater.

For a 3.3V microcontroller such as the Propeller TM chip, a 3.9 kΩ (10 kΩ could be used)
resistor would be required from the ALR output to the Propeller chip input pin. For the
Propeller to control the heater switch input (HSW) you would need an NPN switching
transistor, such as a 2N3904 and a 1 kΩ resistor. The schematic for this connection is shown
below.
 4.3.10 Switching circuit for the Propeller chip.

Note: HIGH signal is required to turn on heater due to inversion of signal by the transistor.

4.3.11 Pin Definitions and Ratings

4.3.12 THEORY OF OPERATION

These gas sensor modules use gas sensors from Hanwei Electronics. When their
internal heating elements are activated, these gas sensors respond to their specific gas by
reducing their resistance in proportion to the amount of that gas present in the air exposed to
the internal element. On the gas sensor modules this is part of a voltage divider formed by the
internal element of each gas sensor and potentiometer R3 (Set Point). The output of this
voltage divider is fed into the non-inverting inputs of the two op-amps on the LT1013 dual
op-amp IC. Op-amp A is configured as a buffer with unity gain and is used to provide a non-
loaded test point for the signal voltage at TP1 (+) and TP2 (-). The signal voltage is also
being fed into op-amp B which is configured as a comparator that gets its reference voltage at
the inverting input from potentiometer R4 (Trip Level) and is also available at TP3 (+) and
TP4 (-).
 The output of op-amp B goes out to the ALR pin through a 1 kΩ resistor providing a
TTL-compatible signal to a microcontroller. This output also connects to a red LED on the
gas sensor modules. The zero gas span adjustment is set via potentiometer R3. As mentioned
above R3 allows you to change the span/range of the voltage divider formed by the gas
sensor and R3 which is the bottom leg of the divider, electrically speaking. Adjusting R3 to
lower values will make the gas sensor less sensitive but more stable. Avoid setting R3 below
200 ohms as at this point you will be close to shorting the output to ground. Setting R3 to
higher values will make the gas sensor more responsive, but without a minimum load it will
become unstable after a certain point. The trip level adjustment is set via potentiometer R4.
This is just a simple voltage divider that lets you set the voltage from 0V to 5V. This voltage
is compared to the voltage coming from the gas sensor/R3 divider. When the voltage from the
gas sensor is higher than the voltage set by potentiometer R4 the red LED will light and the
ALR output will be high (5 V). The section below describes how to configure these gas
sensor modules to detect gas with minimal calibration.

4.3.12.1 Calibration
The procedure for setting these potentiometers is explained below. Please note that
turning the potentiometer clockwise decreases voltage, while turning the potentiometer
counter-clockwise increases it. This can be compared to a water valve.

 For the CO sensor, please read the CO Sensor Specifics on page 5 before attempting
calibration.

 Place the Gas Sensor Module in a clean air environment and supply power to the
module. The heater should be active during this time. Allow at least 10 minutes before
making adjustments.

 Adjust potentiometer R4 until the voltage across TP3 (+) and TP4 (-) reads
approximately 0.80 V.

 Adjust potentiometer R3 until the voltage across TP1 (+) and TP2 (-) reads
approximately 0.80 V.

 At this point adjusting R3 up/down should make the LED toggle on/off. Adjust R3 so
the LED just goes off.

 Apply your gas source to the gas sensor. The LED should light up.

 Remove the gas source and allow the sensor to settle. The LED should go back out.

 If the LED does not go out within 60 seconds, adjust R3 until the LED goes out and
repeat the two previous steps.

The gas sensor module’s ALR pin should only be checked when the heater is on and the
readings have stabilized.
Note: Temperature and humidity are factors that could affect the sensor, making calibration
difficult. If this should happen try adjusting the voltages used in the calibration up or down as
necessary to find a more stable range.

4.3.13 SOURCES OF GAS FOR CALIBRATION / TESTING

The use of a standard butane hair curler is an easy, safe source to use for a very low
carbon monoxide (CO) gas concentration (less than 500 ppm) and can be used during
calibration and testing of the CO Gas Sensor Module. An unlit propane torch can be used as a
source for calibration and testing of the LPG Gas Sensor Module.
These are readily available from any hardware store and most department stores. Be
careful not to leave the valve open very long. Simply cracking the valve just a little can
trigger the gas sensor. We have not found an easy reliable source of methane for calibration
and testing of the CH4 Gas Sensor Module,
However the CH4 gas sensor is responsive to propane as well so that could be used
for testing. Breathing gently through a small plastic tube (a drinking straw will work) can be
used for calibrating the C2H5OH Gas Sensor Module. The tube will help get the gas to the
sensor and should condense most of the water vapour in your breath that may interfere with
the sensor.

4.3.14 TECHNICAL DATA MQ-6 GAS SENSOR

4.3.14.A. Standard work condition

Symbol Parameter name Technical condition

Remarks

Vc Circuit voltage 5V±0.1 AC OR DC

VH Heating voltage 5V±0.1 ACOR DC

PL Load resistance 20KΩ

RH Heater resistance 33Ω±5% Room Tem

PH Heating consumption less than 750mw

 4.3.14.B. Environment condition

Symbol Parameter name Technical condition Remarks

Tao Using Tem -10℃-50℃

Tas Storage Tem -20℃-70℃

RH Related humidity less than 95%Rh
O2 Oxygen concentration 21% (standard condition) Oxygen minimum value
concentration can affect sensitivity is 2%
over.

4.3.14.C. Sensitivity characteristic

Symbol Parameter name Technical condition Remarks

Rs Sensing Resistance (1000ppm LPG ) Detecting concentration

10KΩ- 60KΩ scope：
α Concentration slope ≤0.6
(1000ppm/ rate 200-10000ppm LPG,
4000ppm iso-butane, propane,
LPG) LNG.
Standard Temp: 20℃}2℃ Vc:5V±0.1

detecting Humidity: 65%±5% Vh: 5V±0.1

condition

Preheat Over 24 hour

time

4.3.14. D. Structure and configuration

Parts Materials
1 Gas sensing layer SnO2
2 Electrode Au
3. Electrode line Pt
4. Heater coil Ni-Cr alloy
5. Tubular ceramic Al2O3
6. Anti-explosion Stainless steel gauze
Network (SUS316 100-mesh)
7. Clamp ring Copper plating Ni
8. Resin base Bakelite
9. Tube Pin Copper plating Ni
 4.3.15 BASIC MEASURING CIRCUIT

4.3.16 INTERNAL CIRCUIT OF ALCOHOL SENSOR

 4.3.17 CONFIGURATION DIAGRAM OF MQ-6

Structure and configuration of MQ-6 gas sensor is shown as Fig. 1 (Configuration A or B),
sensor composed by micro AL2O3 ceramic tube, Tin Dioxide (SnO2) sensitive layer,
measuring electrode and heater are fixed into a crust made by plastic and stainless steel net.
The heater provides necessary work conditions for work of sensitive components. The
enveloped MQ-6 have 6 pin ,4 of them are used to fetch signals, and other 2 are used for
providing heating current

4.3.18 SENSITIVITY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MQ-6

 4.3.19. SENSITIVITY CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

Fig.4.3.19 is shows the typical dependence of the MQ-6 on temperature and humidity.

Ro: sensor resistance at 1000ppm of LPGin air at 33%RH and 20 degree.

Rs: sensor resistance at 1000ppm of LPG in air at different temperatures and humidity’s.

4.3.20 SENSITVITY ADJUSTMENT

Resistance value of MQ-6 is difference to various kinds and various concentration

gases. So, when using this component, sensitivity adjustment is very necessary. we
recommend that you calibrate the detector for 1000ppm of LPG concentration in air and use
value of Load resistance ( RL) about 20KΩ(10KΩ to 47KΩ). When accurately measuring,
the proper alarm point for the gas detector should be determined after considering the
temperature and humidity influence.

4.4 RELAY UNIT

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to

operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used.
Relays are used here for controlling the output dc motor while it get signals from the PIC
microcontroller these are driven the motor circuits while at using the starting and also for the
motor that is for using the door opening of that particular vehicle after giving the correct
password, The first relays were used in door opening DC motor circuits, repeating the signal
coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in
switching board of the project and used to give the output to the two motors externally that
are connected with the relay circuit directly.
 A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly drive an electric
motor is called a contactor. Relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using
a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics
and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or
faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments
still called "protective relays".

A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting
loads, although contactors are not generally called relays. Continuous current ratings for
common contactors range from 10 amps to several hundred amps. High-current contacts are
made with alloys containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the contacts to oxidize;
however, silver oxide is still a good conductor. Such devices are often used for motor starters.
A motor starter is a contactor with overload protection devices attached. The overload
sensing devices are a form of heat operated relay where a coil heats a bi-metal strip, or where
a solder pot melts, releasing a spring to operate auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary contacts
are in series with the coil. If the overload senses excess current in the load, the coil is de-
energized. Contactor relays can be extremely loud to operate, making them unfit for use
where noise is a chief concern.

Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to
relays. A relay will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by
energizing the coil in one of three ways:

o COM = Common, always connect to this; it is the moving part of the switch

o NC = Normal Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is OFF.

o NO = Normal Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is ON.

The relay switches are used here for the normal open Com that why they use to give
the turn ON of the motor used to open the door after that the NO COM relay circuit is used
for the starting of the vehicle engine to get starting after the negative output is taken from the
alcohol sensor that may decided by the microcontroller based upon the program.
4.4.2 RELAY CIRCUIT DISCRIPTION

4.4.2 RELAY CIRCUIT-SPST

Parts:
R1 5K 1/4W Resistor
R2, R3, R4 5K Pot
Q1 NPN Phototransistor
Q2 2N3906 PNP Transistor
K1 Low Current 12V SPST Relay
K2 High Current 12V SPDT Relay
S1 SPST Switch
B1 Car Battery
MISC Case, wire, board, knobs for pots

Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is
disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form A contact or "make" contact.
NO contacts can also be distinguished as "early-make" or NOEM, which means that the
contacts will close before the button or switch is fully engaged. Normally-closed (NC)
contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is connected when the
relay is inactive. It is also called a Form B contact or "break" contact.NC contacts can also be
distinguished as "late-break" or NCLB, which means that the contacts will stay, closed until
the button or switch is fully disengaged. Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts
control two circuits: one normally-open contact and one normally-closed contact with a
common terminal. It is also called a Form C contact or "transfer" contact ("break before
make"). If this type of contact utilizes “make before break" functionality, then it is called
a Form D contact.

4.4.3 WORKING CONDITION

Voltage signal Transistor Q1 Transistor Q2 Relay

from
Microcontroller
1 On Off Off
0 Off On On

4.4.3 RELAY SWITICHING CONDITION

4.4 DC MOTOR

The DC motor used here for the demonstration of the vehicle for the door opening
after the correct password given through the keypad input from the ports and also there were
using another motor for the vehicle running and starting of the produced output from the port
signalling of the microcontroller.
When a current passes through the coil wound around a soft iron core, the side of the
positive pole is acted upon by an upwards force, while the other side is acted upon by a
downward force. According to Fleming's left hand rule, the forces cause a turning effect on
the coil, making it rotate. To make the motor rotate in a constant direction, "direct current"
commutators make the current reverse in direction every half a cycle (in a two-pole motor)
thus causing the motor to continue to rotate in the same direction. A problem with the motor
shown above is that when the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field—i.e. when the
rotor poles are 90 degrees from the stator poles—the torque is zero. In the pictures above, this
occurs when the core of the coil is horizontal—the position it is just about to reach in the last
picture on the right. The motor would not be able to start in this position. However, once it
was started, it would continue to rotate through this position by inertia. There is a second
problem with this simple pole design. At the zero-torque position, both commutator brushes
are touching (bridging) both commutator plates, resulting in a short-circuit. The power leads
are shorted together through the commutator plates, and the coil is also short-circuited
through both brushes (the coil is shorted twice, once through each brush independently).
Note that this problem is independent of the non-starting problem above; even if there were a
high current in the coil at this position, there would still be zero torque. The problem here is
that this short uselessly consumes power without producing any motion (nor even any coil
current.) In a low-current battery-powered demonstration this short-circuiting is generally not
considered harmful. However, if a two-pole motor were designed to do actual work with
several hundred watts of power output, this shorting could result in severe commutator
overheating, brush damage, and potential welding of the brushes—if they were metallic—to
the commutator. Carbon brushes, which are often used, would not weld. In any case, a short
like this is very wasteful, drains batteries rapidly and, at a minimum, requires power supply
components to be designed to much higher standards than would be needed just to run the
motor without the shorting.

4.4.1 WORKING OF DC MOTOR

A simple DC electric motor. When the coil is powered, a magnetic field is generated
around the armature. The left side of the armature is pushed away from the left magnet and
drawn toward the right, causing rotation. Even for fans and flywheels, the clear weaknesses
remaining in this design—especially that it is not self-starting from all positions—make it
impractical for working use, especially considering the better alternatives that exist. Unlike
the demonstration motor above, DC motors are commonly designed with more than two
poles, are able to start from any position, and do not have any position where current can
flow without producing electromotive power by passing through some coil. Many common
small brushed DC motors used in toys and small consumer appliances, the simplest mass-
produced DC motors to be found, have three-pole armatures. The brushes can now bridge two
adjacent commutator segments without causing a short circuit. These three-pole armatures
also have the advantage that current from the brushes either flows through two coils in series
or through just one coil. Starting with the current in an individual coil at half its nominal
value (as a result of flowing through two coils in series), it rises to its nominal value and then
falls to half this value. The sequence then continues with current in the reverse direction. This
results in a closer step-wise approximation to the ideal sinusoidal coil current, producing a
more even torque than the two-pole motor where the current in each coil is closer to a square
wave. Since current changes are half those of a comparable two-pole motor, arcing at the
brushes is consequently less.
If the shaft of a DC motor is turned by an external force, the motor will act like a
generator and produce an Electromotive (EMF). During normal operation, the spinning of the
motor produces a voltage, known as the counter-EMF (CEMF) or back EMF, because it
opposes the applied voltage on the motor. The back EMF is the reason that the motor when
free-running does not appear to have the same low electrical resistance as the wire contained
in its winding. This is the same EMF that is produced when the motor is used as a generator
(for example when an electrical load, such as a light bulb, is placed across the terminals of
the motor and the motor shaft is driven with an external torque). Therefore, the total voltage
drop across a motor consists of the CEMF voltage drop, and the parasitic voltage drop
resulting from the internal resistance of the armature's windings. The current through a motor
is given by the following equation:

The mechanical power produced by the motor is given by:

As an unloaded DC motor spins, it generates a backwards-flowing electromotive force

that resists the current being applied to the motor. The current through the motor drops as the
rotational speed increases, and a free-spinning motor has very little current. It is only when a
load is applied to the motor that slows the rotor that the current draw through the motor
increases.

4.4.2 THE COMMUTATING PLANE

 In a dynamo, a plane through the centers of the contact areas where a pair of brushes
touches the commutator and parallel to the axis of rotation of the armature is referred to as
the commutating plane. In this diagram the commutating plane is shown for just one of the
brushes, assuming the other brush made contact on the other side of the commutator with
radial symmetry, 180 degrees from the brush shown.

4.4.2. ARMATURE CONSTRUCTION OF DC MOTOR

4.4.3 COMPENSATION FOR STATOR FIELD DISTORTION
In a real dynamo, the field is never perfectly uniform. Instead, as the rotor spins it
induces field effects which drag and distort the magnetic lines of the outer non-rotating stator.

Exaggerated example of how the field is Iron filings show the distorted field across
distorted by the rotor. the rotor.

The faster the rotor spins, the further the degree of field distortion. Because the
dynamo operates most efficiently with the rotor field at right angles the stator field, it is
necessary to either retard or advance the brush position to put the rotor's field into the correct
position to be at a right angle to the distorted field.
4.4.4 SPEED CONTROL
Here the speed control of the DC motor is needed at the stage of the second working
stage to reduce the speed control while the sensor is detecting the alcohol content present in
the driver breath at the time of the running condition. Then the microcontroller will switch to
the pwm module for reducing the speed of that particular vehicle for the demonstration
purpose here we are controlling the speed of the DC motor by controlling the voltage applied
to it that is it will switch it into low voltage output to the motor circuit.
Generally, the rotational speed of a DC motor is proportional to the voltage applied to
it, and the torque is proportional to the current. Speed control can be achieved by variable
battery tapings, variable supply voltage, resistors or electronic controls. The direction of a
wound field DC motor can be changed by reversing either the field or armature connections
but not both. This is commonly done with a special set of contactors (direction contactors).
The effective voltage can be varied by inserting a series resistor or by an
electronically controlled switching device made of thyristors, transistors, or,
formerly, mercury arc rectifiers. In a circuit known as a chopper, the average voltage applied
to the motor is varied by switching the supply voltage very rapidly. As the "on" to "off" ratio
is varied to alter the average applied voltage, the speed of the motor varies.
The percentage "on" time multiplied by the supply voltage gives the average voltage
applied to the motor. Therefore, with a 100 V supply and a 25% "on" time, the average
voltage at the motor will be 25 V. During the "off" time, the armature's inductance causes the
current to continue through a diode called a "fly back diode", in parallel with the motor.
At this point in the cycle, the supply current will be zero, and therefore the average
motor current will always be higher than the supply current unless the percentage "on" time is
100%. At 100% "on" time, the supply and motor current are equal. The rapid switching
wastes less energy than series resistors. This method is also called pulse-width
modulation (PWM) and is often controlled by a microprocessor. An output filter is
sometimes installed to smooth the average voltage applied to the motor and reduce motor
noise.
Since the series-wound DC motor develops its highest torque at low speed, it is often
used in traction applications such as electric locomotives, and trams. Another application is
starter motors for petrol and small diesel engines. Series motors must never be used in
applications where the drive can fail. As the motor accelerates, the armature current reduces.
The reduction in field causes the motor to speed up until it destroys itself. This can also be a
problem with railway motors in the event of a loss of adhesion since, unless quickly brought
under control, the motors can reach speeds far higher than they would do under normal
circumstances. This can not only cause problems for the motors themselves and the gears, but
due to the differential speed between the rails and the wheels it can also cause serious damage
to the rails and wheel treads as they heat and cool rapidly. Field weakening is used in some
electronic controls to increase the top speed of an electric vehicle.

CHAPTER 5
5 SOFTWARE DISCRIPTION

5.1 CCS C Compiler

Intelligent and highly optimized CCS C compilers contain Standard C operators and
Built-in Function libraries that are specific to PIC registers, providing developers with a
powerful tool for accessing device hardware features from the C language level. Standard C
pre processors, operators and statements can be combined with hardware specific directives
and CCS provided built-in functions and example libraries to quickly develop applications
incorporating leading edge technologies such as capacitive touch, wireless and wired
communication, motion and motor control and energy management.

5.2 BENEFITS OF C COMPILER

CCS provides a complete integrated tool suite for developing and debugging embedded
applications running on Microchip PIC®MCUs and dsPIC® DSCs. The heart of this
development tools suite is the CCS intelligent code optimizing C compiler which frees
developers to concentrate on design functionality instead of having to become an MCU
architecture expert.

• Maximize code reuse by easily porting from one MCU to another. Device Support

• Minimize lines of new code with CCS provided peripheral drivers, built-in
functions and standard C operators

• Built-in functions are specific to PIC® MCU registers, allowing access to hardware
features directly from C

5.3 DEVICE SPECIFIC OPTIMIZATION AND INITIALIZATION

Device specific include files contain all the information the compiler needs to optimize
code generation for the specific PIC® MCU.

• Op-code length

• Memory size

• Pin functionality

• Memory banking
 • Peripheral resources

• Hardware stack size

This detailed information enables the compiler to make intelligent decisions regarding
code optimization at the sub family and device level, generating denser code than would be
possible if the compiler treated all devices within a Microchip PIC® family the same. Learn
how an optimizing C compiler.

The device specific include files also initialize device registers and peripherals,
relieving developers from the tedium of studying data sheets to learn register map details,
flag settings, etc.

The compiler can handle in-line or separate functions, as well as parameter passing in
re-usable registers. Transparent to the user, the compiler handles calls across pages
automatically and analyzes program structure and call tree processes to optimize RAM and
ROM Usage.

5.4 COMPILER DEVICE SUPPORT for PIC16F877A

OPCODE RANGE

 Midrange; 14-bit opcodes; CCS PCM Compiler

H/W FEATURES

 UART(9)
 ADC(8)
 EEPROM(256)
 SPI I2C-M
 COMP
 VREF
 PSP
 TIMERS(3)
 CCP(2 )
 PRGMEM
  I/O Pins -33

Ready to run examples and tested peripheral drivers allow developers to quickly start
their project. To learn more about our C compiler, check out the compiler details and view
the CCS Compiler Quick Start Webinar.

The C Aware IDE is an ideal environment to create C source code with integrated
built-in functions, analyze it's performance, and debug the compiled code in real-time while
running on Microchip devices.

Key C Aware IDE Components:

• Project manager

• C-Aware text editor

• Compilation control to completely or partially build projects

• Utilities for file comparison, numeric conversion, disassembly, parametric device

selection and more

• C-Source code level in-circuit debugger

• Output file viewers for list files, symbol maps, call trees, etc.

• Documentation creation tools

5.4 EMBEDDED C PROGRAMMING

5.4.1 Syntax and Functions

Items marked with * are for PIC10 – PIC18 compilers only.

Items marked with + are for PIC24 and dsPIC® compilers only.

5.4.2 STANDARD C SYNTAX:

· if, else, while, do, switch, case, for, return, · Structures and Unions may be nested.
goto, break, continue

· ! ~ ++ -- * = = , & | · Custom bit fields (1-8 bits) within

structures.

· * / % << >> ^ && || ?: · ENUMurated types

· <= < > >= == != · Constant variables, arrays, structures and

strings.

· = += -= *= /= %= >>= <<= &= ^=m |= · Full function parameter support (any

number and kind).

· typedef, static, auto, const, enum, · C++ reference parameters and comments
allowed
struct, union

· Arrays up to 5 subscripts

5.5 BUILT-IN FUNCTIONS:

There are many built-in functions are available in the pic c compiler, that are use at the
time of programming to give an easier and efficient programming for the user here shown
below all the built-in functions of the compiler is listed below.

• _mul( ) • asin( ) • atof64( )+

• abs( ) • assert( ) • atoi( )

• acos( ) • atan( ) • atoi32( )+

• adc_done( ) • atan2( ) • atoi48( )+

• adc_done( ) • atoe( ) • atol( )

• adc_done2( )+ • atof( ) • atol32( )*

• adc_done2( )+ • atof48( )+ • bit_clear( )

• bit_first( )+ • delay_us( ) • get_capture( )+

• bit_last( )+ • disable_interrupts( ) • get_motor_pwm_cou

nt( )+
• bit_set( ) • div( )
• get_timer_x( )*
• bit_test( ) • dma_start( )+
• get_timerx( )+
• brownout_enable( )* • dma_status( )+
• get_timerxy( )+
• bsearch( ) • enable_interrupts( )
• get_tris_x( )
• calloc( ) • erase_eeprom( )*
• getc( )
• ceil( ) • erase_program_eepro
m( )* • getch( )
• clear_interrupt( )
• erase_program_memo • getchar( )
• cos( )
ry( )+
• getenv( )
• cosh( )
• exp( )
• gets( )
• crc_calc(mode)+
• ext_int_edge( )
• goto_address( )
• crc_calc8( )+
• fabs( )
• i2c_isr_state( )
• crc_init(mode)+
• fgetc( )
• i2c_poll( )
• dac_write( )
• fgets( )
• i2c_read( )
• dci_data_received( )+
• floor( )
• i2c_slaveaddr( )
• dci_read( )+
• fmod( )
• i2c_speed( )
• dci_start( )+
• fprintf( )
• i2c_start( )
• dci_transmit_ready( )
• fputc( )
+ • i2c_stop( )
• fputs( )
• dci_write( )+ • i2c_write( )
• free( )
• delay_cycles( ) • input( )
• frexp( )
• delay_ms( ) • input_change_x( )
• input_state( ) • ldexp( ) • output_low( )

• input_x( ) • ldiv( ) • output_toggle( )

• interrupt_active( ) • log( ) • output_x( )+

• isalnum( ) • log10( ) • perror( )

• isalpha(char) • longjmp( ) • pmp_address(address)

+
• isamong( ) • make16( )
• pmp_input_full( )+
• iscntrl(x) • make32( )
• pmp_output_full( )+
• isdigit(char) • make8( )
• pmp_overflow( )+
• isgraph(x) • malloc( )
• pmp_read( )+
• islower(char) • memchr( )
• pmp_write( )+
• isprint(x) • memcmp( )
• port_x_pullups( )*
• ispunct(x) • memcpy( )
• pow( )
• isspace(char) • memmove( )
• printf( )
• isupper(char) • memset( )
• psp_input_full( )
• isxdigit(char) • modf( )
• psp_output_full( )
• itoa( ) • nargs( )
• psp_overflow( )
• jump_to_isr( )* • offsetof( )
• psp_read( )+
• kbhit( ) • offsetofbit( )
• psp_write( )+
• label_address( ) • output_X( )*
• putc( )
• labs( ) • output_bit( )
• putchar( )
• lcd_contrast( )* • output_drive( )
• puts( )
• lcd_load( )* • output_float( )
• pwr( )+
• lcd_symbol( )* • output_high( )
• qei_get_count( )+ • restart_cause( ) • rtos_yield( )

• qei_set_count( )+ • restart_wdt( ) • set_adc_channel( )

• qei_status( )+ • rotate_left( ) • set_adc_channel( )

• qsort( ) • rotate_right( ) • set_adc_channel2( )+

• rand( ) • rtc_alarm_read( )* • set_adc_channel2( )+

• read_adc( ) • rtc_alarm_read( )+ • set_compare_time( )+

• read_adc( ) • rtc_alarm_write( )* • set_motor_pwm_duty

( )+
• read_adc2( )+ • rtc_alarm_write( )+
• set_motor_pwm_even
• read_adc2( )+ • rtc_read( )*
t( )+
• read_bank( )* • rtc_read( )+
• set_motor_unit( )+
• read_calibration( )* • rtc_write( )+
• set_power_pwm_over
• read_configuration_m • rtos_await( ) ride( )*
emory( )
• rtos_disable( ) • set_power_pwmx_dut
• read_eeprom( ) y( )*
• rtos_enable( )
• read_external_memor • set_pullup( )+
• rtos_msg_poll( )
y( )*
• set_pwm1_duty( )*
• rtos_msg_read( )
• read_program_eepro
• set_pwm2_duty( )*
m( )* • rtos_msg_send( )
• set_pwm3_duty( )*
• read_program_memor • rtos_overrun( )
y( ) • set_pwm4_duty( )*
• rtos_run( )
• read_rom_memory( ) • set_pwm5_duty( )*
• rtos_signal( )
+
• set_pwm_duty( )+
• rtos_stats( )
• realloc( )
• set_rtcc( )*
• rtos_terminate( )
• reset_cpu( )
• set_timerx( )
• rtos_wait( )
• set_timerxy( )+ • setup_crc(mode)+ • setup_rtc( )+

• set_tris_x( ) • setup_dac( ) • setup_rtc_alarm( )*

• set_uart_speed( ) • setup_dac( )* • setup_rtc_alarm( )+

• setjmp( ) • setup_dci( )+ • setup_spi( )

• setup_adc( ) • setup_dma( )+ • setup_spi2( )

• setup_adc( ) • setup_external_memo • setup_timer_0( )*

ry( )*
• setup_adc2( )+ • setup_timer_1( )*
• setup_lcd( )*
• setup_adc2( )+ • setup_timer_2( )*
• setup_low_volt_detect
• setup_adc_ports( ) • setup_timer_3( )*
( )+
• setup_adc_ports( ) • setup_timer_4( )*
• setup_motor_pwm( )+
• setup_adc_ports2( )+ • setup_timer_5( )*
• setup_opamp1( )*
• setup_adc_ports2( )+ • setup_timerx ( )+
• setup_opamp2( )*
• setup_capture( )+ • setup_uart( )
• setup_oscillator( )
• setup_ccp1( )* • setup_vref( )+
• setup_pmp( )*
• setup_ccp2( )* • setup_wdt ( )+
• setup_pmp(option,
• setup_ccp3( )* address_mask)+ • setup_wdt( )*

• setup_ccp4( )* • setup_power_pwm( ) • shift_left( )

• setup_ccp5( )* • setup_power_pwm_pi • shift_right( )

ns( )
• setup_ccp6( )* • sin( )
• setup_psp(option,
• setup_comparator( )* • sinh( )
address_mask)
• setup_comparator( )+ • sleep( )
• setup_qei( )+
• setup_compare( )+ • sleep_ulpwu( )*
• setup_rtc( )*
• setup_counters( )* • spi_data_is_in( )
 • spi_data_is_in2( ) • strlen( ) • tanh( )

• spi_read( ) • strlwr( ) • tolower( )

• spi_read2( ) • strncat( ) • touchpad_getc( )

• spi_write( ) • strncmp( ) • touchpad_hit( )

• spi_write2( ) • strncpy( ) • touchpad_state( )

• spi_xfer( ) • strpbrk( ) • toupper( )

• sprintf( ) • strrchr( ) • va_arg( )

• sqrt( ) • strspn( ) • va_end( )

• srand( ) • strstr( ) • va_start( )

• strcat( ) • strtod( ) • write_bank( )*

• strchr( ) • strtof( )+ • write_configuration_

memory( )
• strcmp( ) • strtof48( )+
• write_eeprom( )
• strcoll( ) • strtok( )
• write_external_memo
• strcopy( ) • strtol( )
ry( )*
• strcpy( ) • strtoul( )
• write_program_eepro
• strcspn( ) • strxfrm( ) m( )*

• strerror( ) • swap( ) • write_program_memo

ry( )
• stricmp( ) • tan( )

5.6 PRE-PROCESSORS:

• #ASM • #BANK_DMA+ • #BIT+

• #BANKX+ • #BIT =const.const* • #BUILD
• #BANKY+ • #BIT id=id.const* • #BYTE id=const*
• #BYTE id=id* • #PRAGMA cmd*
• #BYTE+ • #PRAGMA+
• #CASE • #PRIORITY*
• #DEFINE id string* • #RECURSIVE+
• #DEFINE+ • #RESERVE
• #DEFINEDINC • #ROM
• #DEVICE chip • #SEPARATE
• #ELIF • #SERIALIZE
• #ELSE • #TASK
• #ENDASM • #TYPE
• #ENDIF • #UNDEF id*
• #ERROR • #UNDEF+
• #EXPORT • #USE DELAY
• #EXPORT* • #USE DYNAMIC_MEMORY
• #FILL_ROM • #USE FAST_IO
• #FUSES options • #USE FIXED_IO
• #HEXCOMMENT • #USE I2C
• #ID "filename"* • #USE RS232
• #ID CHECKSUM* • #USE RTOS
• #ID number* • #USE SPI
• #ID+ • #USE STANDARD_IO
• #IF expr* • #USE TOUCHPAD
• #IF+ • #WARNING
• #IFDEF id* • #WORD
• #IFDEF+ • #ZERO_RAM
• #IFNDEF • _ _DATE_ _
• #IGNORE_WARNINGS • _ _DEVICE_ _
• #IMPORT • _ _FILENAME_ _
• #IMPORT* • _ _FILE_ _
• #INCLUDE • _ _LINE_ _
FILENAME"* • _ _PCB_ _*
• #INCLUDE+ • _ _PCD_ _+
• #INLINE • _ _PCH_ _*
• #INT_DEFAULT • _ _PCM_ _*
• #INT_GLOBAL* • _ _TIME_ _
• #INT_xxx
• #LINE*
• #LIST
• #LOCATE id=const*
• #LOCATE+
• #MODULE
• #NOLIST
• #OCS
• #OPT
• #ORG
• #PIN_SELECT
5.7 Optimized String Handling

String compression for 7-bit ASCII strings has been implemented for Microchip's 14-
bit opcodes PIC12 and PIC16 families. Studies conducted by CCS show that string functions
that used to take 2,300 bytes of ROM to implement now consume as little as 1,884, a savings
of 18%.

Strings can be used in switch statements, making it much easier developers to perform
string comparisons. Comparisons that can take many individual string handling function calls
to implement with other compilers can be handled directly in the switch statement, resulting
in tighter and more maintainable source code and a smaller ROM footprint.

• Variable Length Constant Strings

• Formatted printf allows easy formatting and display in HEX or decimal.

Efficient Bit Oriented Code

• Standard one bit type (Short Int) permits the compiler to generate very efficient bit
oriented code.

• Bit Arrays

Efficient Data Structures Mapped into Program Memory

• Flexible constant data structure handling allows the compiler to handle lookup tables
that are virtually unlimited in size. This is of particular interest to developers using
large lookup tables for trigonometric functions or storing FPGA configuration
memory images in on-chip MCU memory.

• Constants (including strings and arrays) are saved in program memory

• DSP performance can be enhanced by manually assigning variables to data spaces for
faster access with pre-processor directives
5.8 ARITHMETIC LIBRARIES
Standard C math libraries are supplied with the CCS compiler.

• 1, 8, 16 and 32-bit integer types and 32-bit floating point are supported for all devices

• 48 and 64-bit integer types and 64-bit floating point for PIC24 and dsPIC DSC
devices

The compiler also has the ability to represent decimal numbers using a new data type, the
fixed point decimal.

• Fixed point decimal gives you decimal representation, but at integer speed. This gives
you a phenomenal speed boost over using float.

DSP in-line assembly is supported for your most performance critical code.