Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Nimal R. Chandrasena
Ecosystem Restoration
1, Kawana Court, Bella Vista
NSW 2153, Australia
nimal.chandrasena@gmail.com
Abstract: Australians generally have a strong negative attitude towards weeds 1 , and a
tendency to label a large number of potentially useful plant resources as invasive species 2 ,
which should be controlled at any cost, while ignoring considerable evidence of the use by
both Indigenous Australians and by European settlers of plants, regarded as weeds. This
attitude may stem from the adjustments that early settlers had to make, to farm in an
environmentally harsh continent. More recently, the application of ‘species-focused’ weed
risk assessments- a field well developed in Australia, may have also contributed to the
maligning of many plant taxa as ‘invaders’ in the public mind. A large number of recent
publications, including government-sponsored reports, have highlighted the losses of
agricultural production caused by weeds, and the threats posed by such species to
biodiversity. The plants in question are mostly ‘colonisers’, which have the capacity to
rapidly occupy human-modified environments. The focus in Australia has been so much on
waging a protracted war on weeds that land managers have tended to overlook the potential
of using these plants as resources.
The literature in a number of fields provides evidence that many colonising taxa may
form worthy resources in diverse areas of human interest. These include their traditional uses
as food, for both humans and animals, and continued use as therapeutic plants. There is
considerable interest at present in obtaining pharmaceuticals from many taxa occupying
disturbed habitats. Other major areas of significant interest include the use of the colonising
strengths of several species in the remediation of water and terrestrial environments that have
been damaged by human activities. Among some outstanding prospects are the potential to
use aquatic species, such as Water Hyacinth [Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms] in
pollution removal, and the use of some strong colonisers in wastewater treatment systems, or
in the rehabilitation of riparian zones of watercourses and rivers. The Common Reed
[Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.] and Cattails (Typha spp.) are examples of such
taxa. Globally, there is considerable interest in using the large biomass produced by these
species in a variety of beneficial ways, including as raw materials for a range of products and
as bio-fuels of the future.
1
The general use of the term weed in Australia encompasses its broadest contemporary
meaning, i.e. a ‘weed’ is any plant growing where it is not wanted. A more technical
commonly used definition is: ‘a weed is a species that adversely affects biodiversity, the
economy or society’ (Groves et al., 2005).
2
Invasive plants in Australia are defined as naturalized species that are spreading;
‘Naturalized’ species are those from distant ecosystems, outside a given region that can
maintain populations in the wild.
In addition, there are many opportunities for using colonising plants in phyto-
remediation, to scavenge soil pollutants. Furthermore, the awareness of the role of weeds as
part of biological diversity is increasing, and there is continuing interest in creating more
sustainable farming systems, in which colonising species are appreciated. There are also
significant opportunities to further exploit chemical warfare between plants (allelopathic
phenomena) in beneficial ways. These include the discovery of new bioactive chemicals and
the use of allelopathic plant residues within low input agricultural systems. Many colonising
plants are useful in providing such benefits.
The conflict between humans and weeds will continue, so long as humans modify
ecosystems. However, a fresh look at the potential of ‘co-existing’ with weeds and using
them as resources is overdue, given the many possibilities demonstrated. In many cases, the
focus is on managing problematic species in specific situations, rather than on their
utilization. However, if land managers can be led to appreciate the extraordinary strengths of
the colonising taxa, this will allow a better integration of these species into our economies.
Improved understanding of the causes of biological invasions should help to reduce the
current confusion and negative attitudes towards invasive species. This essay discusses the
above viewpoints, and provides examples to illustrate that not all weedy taxa are bad all the
time, just because they may interfere, under certain circumstances, with human interests.
Introduction
We tend to dislike some plant species, because they interfere with our endeavours, such as
agriculture or animal farming, recreational pursuits, including gardening, bush walking,
transport, and water sports. Collectively, we call them ‘weeds’ or ‘invasive species’ and they
include many herbaceous species- grasses, sedges, and small broad-leaved plants, as well as
woody shrubs, medium-sized trees and scrambling vines.
There is no doubt that weeds compete with crop plants, reducing yields and crop
quality, and take the space of native bushlands or garden plants. Some can also taint milk,
and others could be poisonous to humans and domestic animals. Still others have attributes
like thorns and spines, which cause physical injury. They may act as host plants for parasitic
insects or diseases, while yet others can be parasitic on other plants. Through these direct or
indirect effects, weeds often increase the cost of farming and decrease the value of land.
Under some circumstances, they may even threaten the biodiversity of landscapes. Our
dislike for weeds is reflected in the global figures from agrochemical sales. In 2005 alone,
globally we spent approximately $ 33,600 million on agrochemicals, of which 45.8% was
spent on herbicides (AGROW, 2006).
Species can become weeds because they are competitive, adaptable, highly fecund,
and are capable of exploiting man-made habitats. They are not ecologically ‘plants out of
place’, as some older definitions have suggested. In fact, in an ecological sense, the opposite
is true. Weeds are opportunistic species or ‘pioneers of secondary succession’ (Bunting,
1960), that are well adapted to grow in locations where disturbances, caused either by
humans or by natural causes, have opened up space (Grime, 1979). A set of common
biological characteristics (Baker, 1965) appears to allow them to colonise such habitats, to
form extensive populations and, sometimes, to dominate landscapes. These include high
fecundity, the ability to grow rapidly, and a wide range of tolerance to environmental
conditions. However, a species may become an invader of landscapes only if a chance
combination of circumstances makes its attributes particularly advantageous to its growth
and survival (Naylor and Lutman, 2002). In many cases, this opportunity arises because the
lack of specific parasites or herbivores (i.e. ‘natural enemies’) gives them an advantage over
the crops and the native flora. However, in the right place, many of these extraordinary
plants can provide benefits that can be sustainably exploited for human welfare.
In terms of evolutionary success, generally accepted to mean the continuation of a
genetic line over time, most weeds are highly successful because of the numbers of
individuals they produce, their reproductive capacity, and the area and range of habitat they
can occupy (Baker, 1965). Therefore, in terms of the Darwinian concept of the struggle for
existence, weeds, as a class are amongst the most successful plants that have evolved on our
planet (Auld, 2004). However, instead of a balanced view, a somewhat negative attitude
towards weeds is prevalent in Australia, which has led to a large number of plants being
branded as ‘thugs’. This negative attitude towards weeds could arise, at least in part, due to
the harsh farming life that the early European settlers and their descendants experienced over
the past two centuries. It may also be a reflection of the uncompromising way in which
colonisation of the continent occurred 3 . Most people tend to agree that past activities, such as
the large-scale clear felling of native forests to make room for pastoral agriculture, have left
the Australian environment in a perilous state.
Many books, review papers, and government-sponsored reports (e.g. Humphries et al.,
1991; Low, 1999; Brinkley and Bomford, 2002; Virtue et al. 2004; Coutts-Smith and
Downey, 2006) have highlighted the adverse impacts weeds have on biodiversity. These, and
other publications (Lonsdale, 1994; Groves, 1999; Groves and Willis, 1999; Richardson et
al., 2000; Williams and West, 2000; Randall, 2001; Grice and Ainsworth, 2003; Glaznig et
al., 2004a; 2004b; Randall and Kessal, 2004; Spafford-Jacob et al., 2004; Glaznig, 2005;
Groves et al., 2005), have focused attention on the dangers posed by environmental weeds 4
and sleeper weeds 5 . The primary objective of these publications has been to highlight that
some species are already serious problems for Australia, and others can become so in the
future. However, their message can be misconstrued. Weeds are a favourite topic of the
popular media, including magazines, newsletters, and Gardening TV programmes. Most
people are quite happy to use a variety of costly means, in terms of both energy and
resources, to undertake control of various species, regarded as undesirables. There is little
discussion in the same articles that ‘weediness’ is an ill-defined man-made concept; if man
thought about the world differently, there would be no weeds. The absence of discussion on
beneficial aspects of ‘colonising’ species in the afore-mentioned publications may have also
contributed to the hardened negative attitude towards a large number of taxa, presumed to
cause problems all the time. Such attitudes prevent people from considering that colonising
species are useful resources.
3
A controversial concept- terra nullius (Latin for ‘land of no one’) has been used to justify
the colonisation of the continent (Horton, 2000). Essentially, the rationale was, if you did
not farm in the European sense - and Indigenous Australians did not - then, you did not
deserve to keep the land. Anthropologists like Horton (2000) believe that much of
Australia’s environmental problems are the result of the destruction wrought by the
application of British farming practices to a ‘land that deserved better’
4
Environmental weeds are defined in Australia as naturalized plant species that are
deleterious to native vegetation (Humphries et al., 1991). The species are presumed to
impact negatively on native species diversity or ecosystem function. Environmental weeds
are usually non-native species, although native plant species that are invasive beyond their
indigenous range are also included (Groves et al., 2005).
5
‘Sleeper Weeds’ have been defined as a sub-group of invasive plants that arrive at a
region, naturalize (i.e. establish and self-reproduce), and remain localized for a period of
greater than 50 years between naturalization and a marked increase in population growth
and then commence to spread and become seriously invasive (Groves, 2006).
The inclusion of some plants of world importance, (e.g. Taro [Colocasia esculenta
(L.) Schott], Neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss), Guava (Psidium guajava L.) and ‘Ipil Ipil’
[Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) De Witt]), as ‘invasives’ within an Australian context, tends
to confuse the consideration of which taxa should pose serious problems. Often landholders
and public officials do not take into account the full-published details or the rationale for
listing such species. Instead, the information is often misread and misquoted, leading to the
summary condemnation of useful plants. Listing of such species is the result of a narrow,
species-focused approach based on ‘weed risk assessments’, which is largely a product of the
past twenty years. Assessing the potential risk of a species becoming an invader by its
invasiveness elsewhere is widely supported in Australia and New Zealand (Williams and
West, 2000; Arcioni, 2003; Gooden et al. 2006). However, this approach could lead to errors
in judgement, because plant invasions are not taxonomic phenomena, but are often related to
complex bio-geographical factors (Colautti and MacIsaac, 2004). The tendency to categorise
individual taxa, or groups of taxa, as ‘invasives’, because of weed risk assessments, raises
doubts in the public’s mind whether all non-native species are bad for the environment. It
also leads to a negative perception of plant resources of potentially significant value, and this
‘branding’ tends to be perpetuated.
The proliferation of descriptions like ‘invasives’, ‘aliens’, ‘noxious’ and ‘thugs’ in
Australia has led to divergent interpretations, and subconscious associations of some plant
taxa as undesirable 6 . The more serious issue is that, by attributing blame to imprecise plant
characteristics, the significance of human-mediated factors in the spread of plants that may
later invade human-modified environments is downplayed. Human activities are, directly or
indirectly, the major factors implicated in plant or animal invasions in different regions or
continents. Whilst some invasions are related to large-scale disturbances, such as land
clearing or to the discharge of ships’ ballast, vehicles, and machinery, others result from
deliberate or accidental introductions of organisms into new areas. One survey in Australia
(Lonsdale, 1994) showed that 463 grasses and legumes were deliberately introduced between
1947 and 1985, and 60% of those are weeds from an agricultural or conservation perspective.
Other activities, like increased farming in marginal lands, changing farming from sheep to
cattle, and provision of artificial water holes in grasslands, where none existed before, are
also implicated in the spread of invasive species. The latter, presumably to increase
productivity from the plains, has led to farm animals grazing over vast extents of land, and
causing a range of significant negative impacts on the environment (James et al., 1999).
An indicator of a ‘trend’ in thinking within a scientific discipline is often the number
of papers presented at successive conferences of that discipline. Based on this indication, the
‘trend’ in Australian Weeds Conferences over the past 20 years has been almost exclusively
to highlight weed problems, of one kind or another, and their management. The number of
papers espousing any virtues of colonising plants is very low, and is restricted to occasional
papers with different anthropocentric angles; e.g. those which trace the origins of Australian
weeds to overseas floras, or the changes in weed floras occurring in Australia due to human
influences (Kloot, 1987). Perhaps, attitudes have so hardened that consideration of weeds as
a potential resource is seen as outside the realm of Australian Weed Science!
Globally, the utilization of weeds has been patchy over the past five decades. The
most significant uses have been largely restricted to aquatic weeds. These have most often
been used for nutrient removal, with the plant residues largely utilised as mulches. Some
species have been used as sources of food, fibre and pharmaceuticals, and a variety of minor
6
The use of emotive terms and phrases, like ‘Garden Thugs’ (Randall, 2001; Glaznig et al.,
2004b), ‘Damned Weeds!’ (Arcioni, 2003), and ‘Jumping the Garden Fence’ (Groves et al.,
2005) is common in Australia.
uses, mostly in developing countries. Nevertheless, there is a renewed interest in focusing on
utilization of weeds in productive ways, so that people may benefit from an aspect that has
been largely ignored. The need to have a fresh look at weeds was highlighted by several
contributors (Ishizuka, 2001; Harada, 2001; Kim, 2001) to the recently launched Japanese
journal Weed Biology and Management.
Given the magnitude of the negative publicity attached to weeds, it seems paradoxical
to consider that these ‘maligned’ plants may be beneficial as resources. Nevertheless, if we
are concerned about man’s relentless impact on the environment, perhaps we should question
the validity of the summary condemnation of plant taxa. The main objective of this paper,
therefore, is to examine some examples of human uses of colonising plants, from both
Australia and elsewhere, and to discuss the prospects for a better appreciation, and utilization
of such species as biological resources. Part of the essay provides an overview of prevailing
attitudes and opinions towards weeds that have thus far delayed this exploration. If an
attitude change can be stimulated, it will be for the benefit of both the environment and
humans (both present and future generations) in Australia and elsewhere.
7
With the exception of Antarctica, Australia is the world's driest continent. More than a
third of the continent is effectively desert; over two-thirds is arid or semi-arid. The wet
summer conditions of northern Australia are suited for cattle grazing in inland areas, and
the growing of sugar and tropical fruits in coastal areas. The drier summer conditions of
southern Australia favour wheat and other dryland cereal farming, sheep grazing, and dairy
and beef cattle. Within regions, there is a high degree of rainfall variability from year-to-
year, which is most pronounced in the arid and semi-arid regions. The seasonality and
variability of rainfall in Australia is very high by global standards and often results in
lengthy periods without rain. This requires that water be stored. The development of large-
scale irrigation schemes has opened up areas of inland Australia to agricultural activities,
which otherwise would not have been possible, and 70% of water consumption is
accounted for by the agricultural sector (ABS, 2007).
colonisation of Australia in 1788 8 , with species imported for productive and ornamental
purposes. From that beginning, through to the mid-1980s, Australian governments actively
encouraged the use and introduction of species, which are now recognised as weeds
(ARMCANZ, 1999) 9 . There is no evidence of Aborigines introducing species into Australia.
However, their use of fire may have had some minor impact on the distribution of existing
species within the continent (Horton, 2000).
In Australia, weeds are disliked, and are not seen as of much use except for some
recognition that they are part of nature or ‘wilderness’. The main reason for the dislike is that
weeds were estimated to have cost the Australian economy $4 billion in 2001-02 in lost
agricultural production and control costs (Sinden et al., 2004). This figure does not include
flow-on costs to the environment, and would have been significantly higher had those been
estimated. Thee figure of $ 4 billion per annum losses to agriculture is often quoted, and
there is significant concern that Australia’s primary production, unique environment, and
biodiversity are under threat from invasive weeds. The campaigns and government-
sponsored attempts to influence farmer attitudes and modify poor land practices are
decidedly less vigorous compared to the assault on weeds.
The relationship of many Australian weeds to Settlers’ origins, patterns of settlement,
and ‘lines of communications’ between their countries of origin and Australia, as well as to
pastoralism and land management practices is well established (Kloot, 1987, and references
therein). Many problematic species were unintentionally introduced by Europeans
throughout the world they went and ‘colonised’. Some of Australia’s weeds, like Prickly
Pear, resulted from the first contact, but others came later, being associated with continuing
lines of communication (i.e. Europeans maintaining contact with their original lands of
descent). Still others are associated with collections of plants en route to Australia,
contaminated ballast, fodder, and packing. Spread of species, which were later labelled
weeds, occurred through contaminated machinery, footwear, and implements, as well as
through propagules attached to animal coats and fleeces during the earliest periods of
settlement. The establishment of some species can be traced to the way settlement of the
continent occurred. These include the initial sub division of land as grazing properties
(Kloot, 1987), and later sub divisions of such properties for cereal cropping. The spread of
weeds was facilitated further by the abandonment of old gardens and their amalgamation
with adjoining properties. Later additions of species were largely intentional - as fodder
plants. Kloot’s analysis shows that other critical factors implicated in the spread and
successful establishment of these so-called ‘undesirable’ plants are biological (i.e. lack of
natural enemies) and environmental (i.e. climate similarities, water availability, and
suitability of soil). The introduction of species to Australia reads as a human folly of large
proportions, which is likely to be repeated many times over again.
Since the First Fleet arrived in late 18th century with their crops and ornamental plants,
approximately 30,000 plants have been imported into Australia (Groves, 2006). Now,
slightly less than 10% of these are established in the wild (‘naturalised’), and this number
increases by about 10 species per year (Groves et al., 2005). Some naturalised plants have
become environmental weeds, and a large number of others remain as ‘sleepers’ until the
right conditions to ‘awaken’ arrive, which could be a disturbance of some kind. The
heightened concern is that some of these may pose significant threats to biodiversity in
8
The manifest of the First Fleet of 1788 indicates that plants and seeds of Cocoa, Cotton,
Coffee, Eugenia, Guava, Lemon, Oranges, Tamarind were brought, along with Spanish
Reed and Prickly Pear (Opuntia spp.). [http://home.vicnet.net.au/~firstff/story.htm]
9
Promotion of Pampas grass [Cortaderia selloana (Schult. & Schult.f.) Asch. & Graebn.]
as a windbreak, ARMCANZ, 1999. National Weeds Strategy, pg 23.
important wilderness areas, largely through habitat modification, competition, and alteration
of disturbance regimes (Mack and D’Antonio, 1998; Coutts-Smith and Downey, 2006).
There is little doubt that some colonising species have the ability to displace native
species, and the effects may flow on to animals that rely on native plants for food and shelter.
Some of these may also be either more flammable or more fire retardant than the Australian
native species that they allegedly displace. This can alter the fire patterns of the communities
they invade, which may have effects on native animals living in those communities.
However, the same species provide food and shelter for native fauna, birds, and pollinating
insects, as well as to some introduced animals, which are also often maligned as ‘invasive’
from agricultural or conservation perspectives.
Many land managers and most farmers recognise that weeds are an integral part of the
landscape, and often seek information in order manage their adverse effects. Scientists agree
that the factors, which cause biological invasions to occur, or ‘sleeping weeds to ‘awaken’
are poorly understood (see discussion in Groves, 2006). Among the conservationists, there is
strong appreciation of strengths and attributes of all plant species, and an interest in utilizing
plants to improve not just the environment, but also the general well being of humans.
However, the hardened attitude towards weeds is likely to continue due to the past
agricultural history, despite the fact that combined pastroalism and cropping agriculture has
contributed less than 3% to the Nation’s Gross National Product (GDP) in recent years (ABS
2007) 10 . Yet, Australian farmers are very protective of their land-holdings and are usually
suspicious of any discourse that might lead to a reduction of profitability from their farms.
The Australian National Weed Strategy 11 (ARMCANZ, 1999) defines a weed as a
plant, which has, or has the potential to have, a detrimental effect on economic, conservation,
or social values in Australia. The Strategy evolved within a wider political and social climate
that was supportive of change towards greater environmental accountability. The Strategy
states that weeds cause major economic, environmental, and social impacts in Australia,
causing damage to natural landscapes, agricultural lands, waterways, and coastal areas. It
also provides guidelines under which more effective weed management can be achieved
strategically, with community participation, integrating the efforts of all stakeholders -
government, industry, landholders, community groups and the public.
Thorp and Lynch (1999) explained that the emphasis of the government Strategy is to
address weed problems, which threaten the profitability or sustainability of Australia’s
principal primary industries, conservation areas, environmental resources of national
significance and biodiversity. Whilst, the National Strategy does touch on why some plants
have become undesirable in landscapes, under certain conditions, there is no recognition of
the beneficial impacts of some colonising species on Australia’s overall biodiversity and
landscapes, and on people’s lives. By focusing wholly on waging a war against weeds,
perhaps an opportunity has been lost to influence the way land managers, including farmers
and private landholders think about weedy taxa, and their potential value as biological
resources, at least under certain circumstances.
10
While Australian agriculture no longer contributes a large share to GDP, it utilises a large
proportion of natural resources, accounting for 70% of water consumption and almost 60%
of Australia's land area (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2007).
11
In 1996, the Australian federal government endorsed a National Weeds Strategy (NWS)
with a promise of $19 million (AU) over five years for its implementation. Developed with
the involvement of federal and State governments, technical experts, industry and the
public, the NWS is the formal outcome of an extensive social process.
Weeds or Useful Plants- a ‘matter of opinion and circumstances’
Grice and Brown (1996) highlighted the dilemma of labelling a weed in relation to managing
Australian rangelands. From a conservation perspective, a species may be called a weed
because it is non-native; from a land use perspective, a native or an exotic species may be
labelled a weed because it is toxic to livestock, or reduces productivity from pastoral
agriculture. From an ecological point of view, a species may be called a weed because it
changes the structure of a plant community, or modifies the hydrology of an ecosystem. The
same species may be identified in another situation, by a different group of users, as a useful
plant, and in another, as a weed.
Many species, previously introduced for beneficial purposes by land management
authorities are now classed ‘undesirable’ and are controlled at large costs. Among examples
are several legumes, such as Prickly Acacia [Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile], Mesquite (Prosopis
spp.) 12 , and Parkinsonia (Parkinsonia aculeata L.). These were introduced to grasslands in
Central-West Queensland for their nitrogen-fixing capacity, fast growth, and provision of
fodder. The grass plains had been cleared of native trees during the previous 150 years or so,
and revegetation from native perennials was poor, because of factors related to the shrinking
and expanding of clay soils. The legumes were probably thought of as ‘saviours’, which
could tolerate these harsh conditions, and transform the landscape to a more productive state.
Without competition from native trees, the legumes expanded their range in the new
habitats, particularly in the arid and semi-arid grass plains. Their obvious strengths: nitrogen-
fixing capacity and high fecundity, would have contributed to rapid growth, and subsequent
expansion in relatively poor soils. Furthermore, both Prickly Acacia (CRC, 2003a) and
Mesquite (CRC, 2003b) became problems when animal farming shifted from sheep to cattle.
While sheep digest a majority of these seeds they consume, cattle do not, and so act as major
vectors. The extent of Prickly Acacia in the Mitchell Grasslands Bioregion in Central-West
Queensland is estimated as 7 million ha, and the economic costs of this invasion have been
high, with recent estimates that $5 million is lost per year in productivity, and a further $4
million spent on control. All three species, once thought to make the grasslands more
productive, have had the opposite effect as they formed extensive impenetrable thickets.
Economic costs to landholders stem from increased difficulty in mustering stock, a reduction
in stock access to watering points and a decrease in carrying capacity of the grasslands
invaded by the species. Additionally, Parkinsonia infestations are known to provide refuges
for feral pigs (CRC, 2003c). These negative impacts have resulted in costly management
programmes, and the listing of the species as Weeds of National Significance (WONS) 13 .
The European Olive (Olea europaea L.) further exemplifies the dilemma. It was
introduced to the continent in 1805, and was first planted in a farm near Sydney (Dellow et
al., 1987). At that time, Olives were highly regarded for its edible fruit and oil, a view that
prevailed for more than 150 years. In recent times, there has been a significant expansion of
Olive plantations in South Australia. However, ‘feral olives’- those that spread outside
12
Four Mesquite species P. pallida (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Kunth, P. velutina
Wooton, P. glandulosa Torr. and P. laevigata (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) M. C. Johnst.
and their hybrids are recognised as having a serious adverse impact on the grasslands.
13
Weeds Of National Significance (WONS) is a list of 20 species, nominated under the
National Weeds Strategy of 1997, which require a national (trans-boundary) effort to tackle
their management. These weeds affect extensive land use systems, such as conservation
areas and grazing systems, rather than cropping systems. The major criteria used in listing
species are: (1) Invasiveness, (2) Impacts, (3) Potential for Spread, and (4) Socioeconomic
and Environmental Values (Virtue et al., 2001).
plantations, are regarded as a major threat to native vegetation. The spread of feral olives is
largely attributed to birds like starlings and changes in grazing management. There are now
several large-scale projects, such as in the Adelaide Hills in South Australia, to contain the
spread of ‘feral olives’ (Crossman, 2002).
Other taxa, much valued in the past, but now outlawed, include Bitou Bush
[Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. monilifera (L.) Norl] and Willows (Salix spp.). Bitou
Bush was accidentally introduced to Australia with ships’ ballast. However, land managers,
such as the NSW Soil Conservation Service and companies extracting Titanium from sand,
saw its potential for stabilising sand dunes. The species was extensively planted in Eastern
Australia during 1946-1968. Spread by birds, wind, and human vectors, Bitou Bush
colonised vast areas of the eastern seaboard, adversely impacting on native vegetation.
Large-scale control programmes have been on going since the 1980s (Holtkamp et al., 1999).
Bitou Bush is now a declared WONS species in Australia.
Similarly, Willows (Salix spp.) were imported from temperate Europe and planted
widely across the States of NSW, Victoria, and Tasmania to prevent stream bank erosion. At
least 32 naturalized and 47 cultivated species of Willows are now present in Australia, and
many are seen growing along watercourses. The negative impacts of Willows on riparian
ecology are poorly understood, but adverse effects on the abundance and diversity of
woodland-dependent native bird species have been highlighted. Once considered extremely
useful in the Australian environment, all species of Willows except Salix babylonica L.
(Weeping Willow), S. x calodendron Wimm. and S. x reichardtii A. Kern. are now declared
as WONS. These include the most invasive ones: Crack Willow (S. fragilis L.), Black
Willow (S. nigra Marshall), and Grey Willow (S. cinerea L.). The eradication of Willows
and their replacement with native vegetation along watercourses in NSW, Victoria, and
Tasmania is now well underway (Ladson and Gerrish, 1996).
These examples demonstrate the tenuous nature of the human judgement on the
virtues of a species, whether it is a weed or a useful plant. Clearly, this is a matter of opinion,
largely based on human needs, wants, and perceptions, at a particular time, place, or
circumstances. Such opinion is easily swayed by the needs of a situation, short-term gains,
and profit motivation, and there is room for significant error.
Indigenous Australians and Uses of Weeds
Aboriginal Australians have occupied the continent since about 50,000 years (Horton, 2000).
Their relationship with plants, and indeed with the landscape, is acknowledged as unique.
For these hunter-gatherers, the use of plant resources was not a matter of choice. They would
have used the broadest possible range of plants, primarily as food, followed by use as tools,
weapons, medicines, and shelter materials.
There is no evidence that any plant was regarded as particularly undesirable by
Indigenous Australians. On the other hand, there are many examples of ‘weedy’ species that
they have used widely. For instance, Common Reed [Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex
Steud.], often described as troublesome in wetlands, has been referred to by various
Aboriginal names in different languages, which reflect the different uses of the plant 14 .
Stems of Phragmites were highly prized for spears, and were cut into short pieces for
necklaces or nose ornaments (Australian National Botanic Gardens, 1998). Sharp edges of
the reed provided ready cutting tools and the leaves were used for making bags and baskets.
14
Some Aboriginal names for Phragmites and language/region: Charr-ak [Djadja wurrung],
Kaerk [Djab wurrung], Taark [Gunditjmara], Jaark [Lake Boga], Djarg [Wemba Wemba],
Kowat [Gunai/Kurnai]
Stems were also bound together for making large rectangular rafts used for mussel collecting
on inland lakes. Tasmanians also ate the shoots of the underground stems (rhizomes).
Bull Rushes or Cumbungi (Typha spp.) in Australia comprise three species: broad-
leaved Cumbungi (Typha orientalis C. Presl), narrow-leaved Cumbungi (Typha domingenis
Pers.) and Cumbungi (T. latifolia L.). All are wetland species, which are generally regarded
as undesirable. However, for Aboriginal Australians, who called all Cumbungi Poorteetch
[Gunditjmara], these were important plants. Their extensive root systems and rhizomes were
cooked by steaming, and chewed to remove starch. The remaining fibre was used to make
string (Australian National Botanic Gardens, 1998). The young shoots were eaten raw as a
salad. Records indicate that Typha was the most important food for people living along the
Murray Darling River systems. Common Nardoo (Marsilea drummondii A. Braun) is another
species commonly called a wetland weed. Indigenous Australians called this species Dullum
Dullum [Wemba Wemba], and used it extensively as a food plant. The root masses were
made into dough and cooked; Spores were either roasted or ground to make flour (Australian
National Botanic Gardens, 1998).
As the oldest continuous culture on earth, Aboriginal Australia contains significant
empirical knowledge and sophisticated understanding of plants as a whole. Much of this
herbal knowledge may have been lost after colonisation of the continent in late-18th Century.
However, many species with the label ‘weed’ have been used by Indigenous Australians for
medicinal purposes. Some examples are provided in Table 1.
‘Weeds are not a pain, but a blessing’ is the by-line of one website (www.detox.net.au),
which promotes the consumption of a variety of herbaceous weeds for their therapeutic
values. However, the practice is not very common, despite the fact that more than 500
Australian plant species growing in the wild have been used as medicines, either in Australia
or overseas (Cribb and Cribb, 1981). Early settlers introduced and cultivated many for herbal
remedies or for culinary purposes, and some of these may have later escaped to become
weeds or wild plants (Dwyer, 2006) 15 . However, examples of plants considered ‘weeds’ used
as medicines are not as numerous in Australia as in Chinese Medicine or in Ayurvedic
Medicine. The predominant Australian medicinal ‘weeds’ are mostly derived from Europe,
China, and other Pacific Rim countries, and there are a very large number of species (see
Cribb and Cribb, 1981). Table 2 provides some outstanding examples, to illustrate the point.
The subject of weeds as medicinal plants for various traditional and modern cultures,
all over the world is vast and a review is beyond the scope of this essay. However, there is
strong recent evidence, discussed below, that weeds are major sources of pharmaceuticals in
the modern sense. Stepp and Moerman (2001), and Stepp (2004) showed that weed species
form a substantially higher proportion of source plants in pharmacopoeias than would be
expected from their proportion in the general flora. These studies provide valuable insights
of the potential of weedy taxa and the promise they hold for drug discovery. Secondary
compounds in colonising species are important chemical defenses against herbivory, and are
implicated in allelopathy as well, where chemicals released by one plant affect the growth of
other plants (Rice, 1984; Putnam, 1994; Rizvi et al., 1992).
Feeny (1976) and Coley et al. (1985) attributed the presence of biologically active
compounds in different plants to two major anti-herbivory chemical defense strategies. The
first strategy is the reliance of long-living plants to concentrate metabolically inactive
immobile compounds (quantitative defenses), such as tannins and lignins, which reduce
digestibility. These compounds are not biological toxins, and anti-herbivory is largely
dependent on having a sufficiently high quantity, to make leaves unpalatable. The second
strategy, used by ephemeral, successional, short-lived, or colonising species is one that relies
on low molecular weight, mobile (qualitative defenses), such as alkaloids, cardiac glycosides
or terpenoids (Feeny, 1976). For these fast-growing, often herbaceous plants with short-lived
leaves, deterrence of herbivores is achieved by small amounts of highly potent, biologically
active compounds, and many species have been found to possess such chemicals.
The evidence of allelochemicals in plants has generated considerable interest in
colonising species as sources of compounds of high pharmacological value. Stepp (2004)
draws attention to the well-known example of a plant from disturbed habitats- Catharanthus
roseus (L.) G. Don, (Holm et al., 1977) 16 , which is a weed of exceptional value to modern
pharmacology. This plant provides two of the most important cancer treatment drugs in the
world, vincristine and vinblastine.
15
Apart from Prickly Pear (Opuntia sp.), which is listed in the manifest of the First Fleet,
‘Jalap’ is one of the plants taken on board at Rio de Janeiro in August 1787 (Collins, 1971,
quoted by Dwyer, 2006). It is probably related to blue-morninglory (Ipomoea indica Burm.
Syn. I. congesta R.Br.). The colonial use of Ipomoea as a purgative may have contributed
to their widespread cultivation. Several Ipomoea species are now environmental weeds.
16
In Sri Lanka Catharanthus roseus is often found growing in disturbed habitats, such as
cemeteries; the local Sinhalese name ‘Mini Mal’ reflects this, meaning ‘Plant found
associated with cemeteries’.
Table 2. Other examples of weeds used as medicinal herbs in Australia
Edible Weeds
As in most countries, Australians use a variety of plant species as food. However, the use of
weeds as food is no longer common among those of European descent. On the other hand,
most Australians of South and South-East Asian ethnic origins, attach a high value to several
‘weedy’ species as foods. ‘Kang Kung’ (Ipomoea aquatica Forssk.), several amaranths
(Amaranthus spp.), including Amaranthus viridis L., Marsh Water Cress [Rorippa palustris
(L.) Besser], Fennel, and Purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.) are examples of edible herbage
weeds valued by such communities. All of these are commonly available for purchase in
markets and shopping centres in major Australian cities, albeit in small quantities.
Records indicate that early settlers in Australia used a variety of wild or feral plants as
vegetable foods. Examples are: Cobblers pegs (Bidens pilosa L.), Dandelion, Plantain
(Plantago major L.), flick weed [Cardamine hirsuta (DC.) Hook. f.], Chickweed [Stellaria
media (L). Vill.], Wild Carrot (Daucus carota L.), Wild Mustard (Sinapsis alba L.), Scurvy
Weed, Sorrel (Rumex spp.), Clover (Trifolium spp.), Variegated Thistle, Fat hen
(Chenopodium album L.) and Purslane. Such edible weeds are promoted for consumption by
various web sites, magazine articles and books, although their actual use is insignificant,
except for a few species seen in markets.
The importance of the food value of many colonising species cannot be ignored. The
case of the Sri Lankan community contributing to the spread of Alligator Weed
[Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb] in Australia through mis-identification is a
classic case (Gunasekera and Bonilla, 1999). New immigrants from Sri Lanka mistook
Alligator Weed for a similar species, a popular vegetable in Sri Lanka: “Mukunuwenna”
[Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC.]. This example demonstrates how the fondness of
immigrant groups for edible herbs, which are traditional foods in their home countries, could
lead to increased spread of a species. Successful educational campaigns have arrested the
problem. Sri Lankan Australians, nowadays eat the native Alternanthera species- A.
denticulata R. Brown and A. sessilis itself, which have been distributed as substitute
vegetables. Both species are sometimes regarded as weeds.
Taro (Colocasia esculenta) is another valuable food plant with strong colonising
attributes. Nutritionally, Taro compares favourably with other major root crops of the world.
The U.S. National Academy of Science (1975) named Taro as a potential food plant of the
future. Taro’s significance as a food crop is well recognized in Africa and Asia-Pacific
countries (Matthews, 2004) and in Central America (Gomez-Beloz and Rivero, 2006). It is a
common food found in Australian markets yet the plant has been considered to pose an
ecological threat to tropical Queensland and parts of NSW (Groves et al., 2005).
The problems posed by plants with colonising abilities are recurrent themes in
developed countries. Many edible ‘weedy’ species are no longer valued as food, possibly
because no high yielding varieties have been developed for commercial use. The issue
though, can be resolved by a balanced point of view, which recognises the high economic
value and utilization potential of species like Taro to some societies, while acknowledging
the unsuitability of certain taxa for particular landscapes, at a particular time. Taxa like Taro
are too important for human welfare to be summarily dismissed as ‘invasives’.
17
As opposed to ‘invasive’ weeds, beneficial weeds are defined as species that provide low
levels of competition with an arable crop and have potential values as resources for higher
trophic consumer groups.
Positive impacts of colonising species on biodiversity in Australia are not well
researched, at least for the time being. However, there are some significant studies (Date et
al., 1996; Buckley et al., 2006; Gosper and Vivian-Smith, 2006), which indicate the benefits
of introduced and ‘invasive’ species to birds. For instance, Date et al. (1996) reported that in
Northern New South Wales, several indigenous fruigivores rely heavily on the fruits of
Camphor laurel [Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Nees], one of the plants introduced by
European settlers. Similarly, Gosper and Vivian-Smith (2006) established the dependence of
fruigivorous birds on Lantana (Lantana camara L.), a widespread, aggressive scrub, well
known in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world 18 . The general view is that ‘alien’
species may have helped buffer some fauna populations from the broad-scale destruction of
their natural habitats. Studies, like those of Gosper and Vivian-Smith (2006) have focused on
examining Australian native fruit-bearing species, which might be promoted as replacements
for Lantana in management programmes.
Whilst future research and discussions on weeds and their role in biodiversity will
continue, introduced species, including ‘invasive’ species, stimulate new species and
community interactions through antagonistic or mutualistic relationships with soil biota all
the time Reinhart and Callaway (2006). The potential enriching effect of colonising species
on biotic communities should also be recognised, just as much as negative impacts, as some
of the interactions and impacts of ‘new immigrants’ are bound to be beneficial.
18
Lantana is also a Weed of National Significance in Australia.
Altieri (999) also suggested that, in order to improve biodiversity within annual or
perennial cropping systems, there should be better utilisation of crop diversification options
that have been known since the early days of agriculture. Rotation of crops and multiple
cropping systems are effective management strategies for annual monocultures. For
perennial cropping systems, much research suggests that cover crops transform orchards and
vineyards into agro-ecosystems of increasing ecological diversity and stability by influencing
key processes and system components. Many cover crops are fast growing colonising
species. They provide habitat for beneficial insects, activate soil biology, add organic matter
continually to soil, modify microclimate within cropping systems and some can fix
atmospheric nitrogen. In such agro-ecological approaches, no species is regarded as
particularly undesirable. Species with colonising attributes are essential, because of their
capacity for nutrient recycling, biomass production and accumulation, and soil amendment
through both physical breaking up and the chemical changes in soil they sponsor.
The above concepts are reflected in the Permaculture movement, which originated out
of Landcare movements in the 1970's. The permaculture strategy, accepts a greater role for
trees, perennial plants and fast growing species in the stabilisation of degraded, human-
modified landscapes. In that sense, it is the equivalent of a large-scale revegetation strategy.
As in agro-ecology, the primary agenda of the permaculture movement is to assist people to
become more self reliant through the design and development of productive and sustainable
gardens and farms. This agenda includes mimicking what nature does, producing food
locally with minimal outside inputs, creating healthy ecosystems, building soil, constructing
housing based on local, renewable resources, ending pollution, erosion and degradation of
landscapes. Colonising plants are generally not condemned within this framework; instead,
the permaculturist’s view is that every plant has its uses and weeds are no exception. An
often-used slogan in the movement is ‘one person's weed is another's medicine or building
material’. Although the number of people committed to the austere lifestyle promoted by the
permaculture movement is still minuscule, its attitudes, favouring sustainable land use
thinking, resonate with the view that plant resources should not be devalued.
Agro-ecological or permaculture designs are intended to reach noble goals, namely,
improved living systems, which are both economically and ecological sustainable, and are
‘in tune’ with the locally available biodiversity. However, to be sustainable in developed
countries, such as Australia, these approaches need primarily to meet the aspirations of
landholders and farmers and, secondly, to contribute to meeting the broader environmental
and socio-economic and political agendas of governments.
Discussion
19
This famous quote, spoken by Hamlet in a conversation with a friend, Rosencrantz, is
from William Shakespeare’s Hamlet (Act II, Scene 2).
Definitions of a similar nature are common within the Weed Science ‘body of
knowledge’. Part of the negative attitude towards weeds, is due to the lack of clarity on
man’s own role in creating disturbed habitats. As Bunting said, ‘an essential feature of all of
man’s activities, in agriculture or otherwise, is the production of open, or at least disturbed,
habitats’. Downplaying man’s part in creating much of the disturbance to which ‘colonising
plants’ naturally respond, has led to misconceptions, and, over time, to the hardened attitude
towards ‘weedy’ taxa.
Until about the 1970s, weed issues were discussed only from the perspective that they
were problems to crop production. In subsequent decades, attention turned to weeds as
environmental problems affecting landscapes. Weeds are now projected as a major problem
affecting all aspects of our daily lives, and much energy and resources are spent fighting
them. However, given the evidence, is the problem really weeds or is it our perception of
them? As Auld (2004) states, weed occurrence is inevitable. This is because man’s activities
will continue to disturb environments, and movement of people across continents will
exacerbate introductions into new areas. There is no simple remedy for the weed problem in
its many manifestations. Therefore, whilst continuing to study the reasons why colonising
species come to dominate landscapes, the best management strategy would be to use several
control tactics in an integrated manner. Management approaches need to be designed to
prevent new introductions to disturbed areas, and to minimise the undesirable impacts where
the conflict exists between man and the colonising species. However, this must be done with
a proper ecological understanding, and with a balanced view of economic implications, but
without dramatising weed issues, and certainly avoiding messages that create a visceral
dislike for some plant taxa.
Conservation of biodiversity
In essence, biodiversity is a term to describe the assemblages of organisms that have evolved
together to exploit the resources of particular areas or environments in ways that maximise
the cycling of energy and nutrients within a certain area- an ecosystem. Plants are key
components of such systems, with different species filling a variety of roles. By their nature,
ecosystems are dynamic, and change in response both to environmental changes and to the
adaptive evolution of their constituent species.
We also need to realise that the aim of mechanized, large-scale, modern agriculture, as
opposed to subsistence agriculture, is to export nutrients and energy from an area. Therefore,
there is a natural antithesis between agriculture and conservation of biodiversity- we can
never completely reconcile the two, but can we minimise the conflict? Humans clearly
present the greatest threat to nature, wilderness and biodiversity, of which both people and
colonising species are constituent parts. This message needs to be given much more intense
publicity, to achieve a better balance between human greed, genuine development aspirations
of nations, and global biological diversity. There are strong moral, aesthetic, social and
economic reasons for protecting biodiversity. Marshall, (2001), points out that, “a culture,
which encourages respect for nature and wildlife is preferable to one that does not”.
Nowadays Australians value the preservation of what remains of the continent’s
native landscapes. They recognise that much damage has been done to native vegetation
since European settlement in the 18th century and that farming practices of the past,
particularly large-scale land clearing for pastoralism, have caused enormous losses of native
vegetation communities, and native animals.
It has been argued strongly in numerous publications that colonising species threaten
biodiversity. However, it should be evident that they also provide benefits that are not yet
fully understood. A key message from agro-ecology is that, if correctly assembled in time
and space, biological diversity is capable of repairing landscapes, sponsoring soil fertility,
protecting crops, and increasing productivity. Given the opportunity, colonising species will
be at the forefront of remediation of land that had once supported large forests. Australian
studies on such possibilities are almost non-existent, whereas much has been written about
the negative impacts of ‘invasives’. To redress the imbalance, we need to reappraise our
approach to the discipline of Weed Science.
The search for self-sustaining, low-input, diversified, and energy-efficient agricultural
systems is now a major worldwide concern. A key strategy in sustainable agriculture is to
restore both the structural heterogeneity at the different spatial scales of field, farm, and
landscape (Krebs et al., 1999) and the functional biodiversity of the landscapes (Altieri, 1999).
This can be achieved in time through age-old practices like crop rotations and sequences, and
in space in the form of cover crops, intercropping, agroforestry, and crop/livestock mixtures.
Plants with colonising abilities are very much a part of biodiversity in arable fields, or in
non-cropped areas; they add much to biotic interactions by way of their highly developed
chemical defences, and they perform a variety of ecosystem services. Creation of appropriate
biologically diverse cropping and non-cropping landscapes is likely to result in increased
pest regulation through restoration of natural control of insect pests, nematodes and diseases
caused by fungi, bacteria and viruses, and to produce optimal nutrient recycling and soil
conservation by activating soil biota. All of these factors should lead to more sustainable
yields, better energy conservation, and less dependence on external inputs. However,
adoption of such approaches will depend on demonstration of the synergies of biodiversity
conservation and the economic profitability of farming.
Weeds will always present a stimulating challenge
Without any doubt, weeds have contributed enormously to the development of the
‘innovative thinkers’ amongst humans. From the earliest development of subsistence
agriculture to the modern agricultural revolutions, they have challenged our way of living.
This has led to inventions from the earliest digging sticks to sophisticated machinery and to
the development of agronomy, irrigation, and surveying and of the agrochemical industry.
The development of genetically modified crops by multi-national biotechnology
companies during the last two decades also falls into this category. The advances in
biotechnology that have created modified organisms that can be grown and harvested on a
large scale to feed growing populations must rate high in the continuum of human
innovation. The stimulus that profits can be made from such innovations came from the
challenge offered by weeds.
Colonising species will always be the ultimate survivors in the conflict with man.
Rather than a zero tolerance towards particular taxa, it would seem reasonable to propose
‘ecological management’ of problematic populations, with an eye on their potential benefits,
on a ‘case-by-case’ basis. This requires synecological 20 models that capture all of the key
factors that govern the dynamics of populations in a given location. These differ from
autecological, ‘species-led’ approaches that are more concerned with the reactions of single
species. The agro-ecology approaches, extensively covered by Altieri (1999), are invaluable
ecological risk management models, in the sense that the practices promoted have long-
proven benefits in ecosystems. They also encourage positive thinking, linking people with
nature, and stimulate people to closely integrate with all components of biological diversity,
including ‘colonising species.
20
Synecology is the branch of ecology that deals with the structure and development of
entire ecological communities, their interactions with the chemical and physical
environment, and the complex interrelationships between all plants and animals within
them.
Will there be a change in attitude?
The hardened attitude towards colonising plants in Australia, and perhaps in other affluent
countries, is related to the profits that can be made by individual landholders through
farming. Despite the fact that agricultural production represents only a declining 3% of the
nation’s GDP, Australian farmers form a powerful lobby, whose concerns receive the
attention of many politicians. Many farmers resist change because of personal learning
experiences, property-related factors, and economic factors. Shifting the emphasis of weeds
from ‘foe’ to friend’ will require strong campaigning, both from governmental and non-
governmental initiatives. Relaxing the attitude towards colonising species may come with
time, and this can be hastened by economic incentives to manage biodiversity within
farmlands, and landscapes, as has been done in European countries.
Given that colonisation of the continent is only two centuries old, there may also be a
lack of collective ‘traditional wisdom’ upon which sustainable societies and cultures are
usually based. For early Australians of European origins, much of their ‘traditional
knowledge’ of wild plants, herbs and weeds came from European farming. Many growers
and farmers, with deeply entrenched perceptions, often mistrust alternatives. The collective
wisdom of all weed scientists and weed managers in Australia may be required to bring
about a change in farmers’ mind-set, as well as an attitude change amongst landholders.
Pratley (1995) noted that the discipline of Weed Science in Australia is poorly
developed in terms of educational programmes, and that there has been limited support by
government agencies and funding bodies for weed research. He was enthusiastic about the
establishment of the government-sponsored Cooperative Research Centre (CRC), for Weed
Management, the first of its kind that came into being around that time. The CRC has
improved the status of knowledge about invasive species. It has also increased public
awareness in Australia of potential undesirable effects on ecosystems of unmanaged
population explosions. However, perhaps because it was focused on the waging a war against
weeds, the CRC has not investigated the potential value of investment in their utilization.
This probably reflects the prevailing lack of discussion on possibilities, and the commonly
held view that most weeds are ‘alien’ species of no value. There is also a general view that
utilization of weeds, such as harvested aquatic weeds, is costly and, therefore, not
economically worthwhile (Howard and Harley, 1998). Nevertheless, not everyone will agree
that human endeavour should always be measured in monetary terms. Investment in
utilization of weeds is one area, which is justified not just because it is a good management
practice, but also because provides a positive message for the public.
An Ethno-biological perspective- Link between Plants and Humans
In discussing the relative variety and intensity of uses of Phragmites by human groups,
Kiviat and Hamilton (2001) suggested that the utility of a plant to humans is related to: (1)
abundance and distribution of the plant; (2) length of time the plant and a human group have
been in contact; (3) invention or transmission of traditional ecological knowledge of the
plant; (4) ease of managing, acquiring, and processing the plant; (5) physical and chemical
qualities of the plant (e.g. pharmaceutical or toxicological properties, fiber characteristics,
nutritional composition); and (6) availability and quality of alternate taxa. These ideas reveal
why some taxa are much valued, and others much disliked. Discussion of such ethno-
biological perspectives is important in building better relationships of plants by humans,
particularly in developed countries where the conflicts between the two are more profound.
The importance of traditional cultures, their wisdom and sustainable interactions with
plants and animals is a routine subject in Anthropology, and Social Science. Interactions
between the humanities and a discipline like Weed Science are not strong and hence both
sides may gain from a closer exchange of views. Journals dedicated to Ethnobotany and
Economic Botany often carry articles relating to human uses of colonising plants. Increased
appreciation of plant resources can be achieved by studying these ethno-biological
appraisals, as well as by exercising more common sense. Improved understanding of plants
of value to humanity may assist those who consider ‘weed risk assessments’ when deciding
whether or not to list particularly resourceful taxa as ‘invasives’ that should be controlled at
any cost. The presumption here is that ‘branding’ of taxa tends to stick in the minds of the
public. Applying ‘a guilty until proven innocent’ approach to taxa with colonising abilities,
as has been widely practiced in Australia, belies common sense, is disrespectful to nature,
and may not be tenable for long.
The Way Forward
Making the case for utilization of weeds is not difficult. The compilation of existing
knowledge from different cultures should assist this task and, in that sense, there is much to
learn from the existing Economic Botany and Ethnobotany ‘body of knowledge’. Ishizuka
(2001) stated that the biodiversity of weeds should be investigated in terms of both constant
and changeable species-specific adaptive traits. For this reason, Weed Science should pay
attention to the development of new aspects of research. His view was that disciplines such
as agronomy, horticulture, agroforestry, ecology, biology, genetics, physiology,
biochemistry, gene technology, and even economics may be useful for the clarification of
biodiversity of weeds and should be integrated into Weed Science. It is hard to argue against
these views, given the evidence presented. Harada (2001) pointed out that humans have for
long used colonising species as foods, medicinal plants, animal feeds, housing materials, raw
materials for handicrafts, ornaments, and so on. He considered that, before they are
forgotten, priority should be given to the investigation and recording of the ways in which
traditional cultures in the Asia-Pacific region have used weeds. He strongly argued for more
cooperative research on utilization of weeds in the future.
This essay highlights the indifferent attitude in countries like Australia, towards the
use of colonising plant species as resources. This may be a sign of the times we live in. On
the other hand, traditional societies, including indigenous Australians, have used plants
wisely and have ‘co-existed’ with them. Are there not lessons from previous generations, that
plant resources should be respected rather than maligned? In the attempt to maximise
agricultural production in developed countries, anything other than the crop plant whose
yield brings profit, is regarded as undesirable. This view is seriously flawed and is not
sustainable under the commonly accepted principles of Ecologically Sustainable
Development, to which many affluent nations have committed.
Perhaps the ‘paradigm shift’ required in the field of Weed Science in the 21st Century
is to recognise the potential of colonising plants and to find ways to integrate them into our
lifestyle. The vast amount of literature on Ethnobotany and Economic Botany, some of
which is referenced in this essay, seems to point to possibilities that cannot be ignored.
Rather than over-dramatising the negative aspects of plants regarded as weeds, the Weed
Science community, in Australia and elsewhere, needs to bring about a balance and to
emphasize the utilitarian value of colonising plants, with their tenacity and vitality, and to
reconsider the advantages of putting these into practical use. Utilization, instead of attempts
to eradicate, these maligned taxa will lead to their effective management in most situations,
where the potential undesirable effects of a large population are untenable.
By 2025 AD the global population is expected to reach 8.5 billion, of which 83% will
be living in developing countries. Most would agree that one of the greatest challenges
facing mankind is to increase food production in landscapes where productivity has been
generally declining. The challenge is to increase food and fibre production in a sustainable
manner, while maintaining systems and landscapes for future generations. Therefore,
particularly in the less affluent countries, a negative attitude towards any group of plants,
including those that sometimes interfere with human affairs is unwarranted, and making such
a mistake is not affordable. The examples discussed show why this is so.
In order to alleviate socio-economic hardships, and to conserve biological and cultural
diversities, it is necessary to build on existing links between people and biological resources.
The level of success of this, however, is dependent on accommodating local knowledge,
aspirations and priorities of communities, including indigenous people and farmers, with
some trade-offs between development and conservation initiatives. The ultimate goal must
be for the present generation to be ‘custodians of landscape’, as indigenous Australians see
themselves to be, instead of being exploiters, and this task requires positive messages and a
proper appreciation of plant resources.
Conclusions
Weeds are ‘colonising plants’ or ‘pioneers of secondary succession’ and need to be
understood in this way. Wherever or whenever man disturbs a habitat, they will be among
the first to make use of the opportunity of space. This ecological emphasis has been
downplayed in a large number of publications, perhaps inadvertently, because the focus has
been on weed control. Weeds are not the culprits; they are just a symptom of the real cause,
which is ecologically destructive land-use practices by humans, including land clearing,
overgrazing, and introductions of species for short-term profit. In natural or man-made
ecosystems, many weeds serve valuable ecological functions that need more recognition.
Examples of their complex biological interrelationships, such as providing resources for
wildlife, slowing erosion, building soil, and generally enriching biological diversity need to
be studied and given wider publicity.
Many species of plants are currently considered as invasive weeds. Much of the time
publicity in developed countries is a blitz against weeds, often over-emphasizing the conflict
man has with some species. The fact that so many colonising species grow and coexist in the
same environments with native species and crops tends to be overlooked. Because of their
adaptability, weeds will always compete with other plants, like crop plants, or slow-growing
perennials. Whilst the economic consequences of this interference with crops have been
clarified, the ecological consequences of colonising species are not well understood. Some
generalities have been made, such as that weeds reduce biodiversity and the regeneration of
native species, but these views overlook the fact that weeds themselves are part of biological
diversity, enriching nature and stimulating biotic interactions all the time. Given that most
weed invasions can never be reversed, they can only be controlled by reducing their
populations to a below a level that might be construed as unacceptable, the challenge is to
better understand the negative impacts of weeds on the environment.
In a strategic approach to managing weeds, the utility of these plant resources needs to
be highlighted, and people should be encouraged to look at different ways of using them. The
summary condemnation of plant taxa because we may not like to have them in particular
situations or enterprises is not a sensible way to approach a s complex man-made problem. A
much broader appreciation of the useful attributes of plants and their applications in
improving the human condition is a high priority. Weeds are clearly highly successful plants,
largely due to characteristics that confer superior colonising ability and competitiveness. As
demonstrated in this essay, these attributes can be very useful, not just in repairing damaged
ecosystems, but also in providing food and fibre for all animals, including humans.
As human enterprises expand, population increases and pursuit of material wealth
continues, the mode of existence of some colonising plant taxa will increasingly clash with
our existence. It is through no intrinsic fault of the plants themselves. The same attributes
that make a plant ‘invasive’ will be sought after under a different set of circumstances. The
examples discussed demonstrate the two sides of the argument. The way forward is to
broaden our understanding of plant resources, and their crucial role as integral parts of
biological communities. In the case of taxa with strong colonising abilities, their resilience,
tenacity, and capacity to adapt to environmental disturbances need to be recognised. Perhaps
this understanding would help modify our attitudes, or allow us to avoid creating conflicts
with plant taxa, and getting into situations from which we cannot win.
As in many other fields, it is necessary from time to time, to realign the focus of a
scientific discipline, and Weed Science may have reached that stage. Whilst there is a vast
amount of disparate literature, some of which has been reviewed in this essay, the future
requires a ‘body of knowledge’ of utilization of colonising species to be established, so that
present and future generations could benefit from that knowledge.
Acknowledgements
I thank Professor K. U. Kim for the invitation to write this essay. Dr. Peter Michael and
David Eccles critically reviewed the document and provided valuable comments. Dilsiri
Chandrasena is acknowledged for assisting with the review of literature.
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