Chapter

P-N DIODES

Junctions between n- and p-type semiconductors are extremely important for a variety of devices.
Diodes based on p-n junctions produce nonlinear current voltage characteristics which can be ex-
ploited for numerous applications.
 P-N DIODE: NONLINEAR CURRENT-VOLTAGE

An ideal diode is conducting in one direction of bias and non-conducting in the reverse
bias case.
• VC, the cut-in voltage in forward bias should approach zero.
• Io, the reverse bias current, should be zero.

V I

Conducting in
forward bias mode

p n
I

I
Io
VC V

Non-conducting in reverse
bias mode

Diode symbol

© Prof. Jasprit Singh www.eecs.umich.edu/~singh

 NON-IDEAL EFFECTS IN A P-N DIODE
A built-in voltage arises when a p-n junction is formed.
nnpp
Vbi = kBT ln ( (
ni2

Evac Evac

eχ eχ eφsn
eφsp
– – Ec – – – – – – – – Ec
++++++++ E
Fn

EFp
– – – – – – – – Ev
+ + + + + + + + Ev + +
(a)
Hole density, pp Electron density, nn
Electron density, np Hole density, pn

Junction
formation

Evac
⇓
Evac
Drift
Depletion of
– – – mobile charge
Ec
Diffusion of electrons

+ Electrons
++ – – – – – – – Ec
+ + + + + + +
– – – – – – – – Fermi level is flat
Ev – –
+ + + + +
–
Holes –
Diffusion

Wp Wn + + Ev
Drift
p-type n-type
(b)

Mobile carriers (electrons on n-side, diodes on p-side) are swept away from the depletion region.

© Prof. Jasprit Singh www.eecs.umich.edu/~singh

 DEPLETION REGION AND CURRENT FLOW
A p-n diode has a depletion region on the n-side and on the p-side.

2ε (Vbi –V) 1/2

Nd
Wp(V) = Neutral p-region Neutral n-region
e Na (Na+Nd)
1/2
2ε (Vbi –V) Na
Wn(V) = –– – + ++
e Nd (Nd+Na)
1/2 –– – + ++
2ε (Vbi –V) Na+Nd
W(V) = –– – + ++
e NaNd
Wp 0 Wn

negatively positively
charged charged
region region
(a)

F Electric field direction

Holes
{ Diffusion particle flow

Drift particle flow

Diffusion current flow

Drift current flow

Electrons
{ Diffusion particle flow
Drift particle flow
(b)
Diffusion current flow
Drift current flow

There are four terms in the current flow, as shown. At zero bias the total current is zero.
At forward bias the minority current injected over the junction increases exponentially.
At reverse bias the current saturates.

© Prof. Jasprit Singh www.eecs.umich.edu/~singh

 BAND PROFILE IN A P-N DIODE
EQUILIBRIUM FORWARD BIAS REVERSE BIAS
Vf Vr

AAA AA
A AA
AAA
p AAA
AAA
n p AA
A
AA
A
n p AA
AAA
AA
AAA
n
}

(a)
Depletion region

Vn
Vbi Vbi – Vf Vbi + Vr
Vp

(b)

EFn
EFp EFn
EFn eVf
EFp EFp
EFp EFp
eVr
EFn
EFn

(c)

FORWARD BIAS: Depletion region decreases. Minority carriers injected (electrons injected from the
n-side into the p-region + holes injected from the p-side into the n-region) control the current.

REVERSE BIAS: Depletion region width increases. Saturation current is made up of holes diffusing
into the p-side (from the n-side) and electrons diffusing into the n-side from the p-side.

© Prof. Jasprit Singh www.eecs.umich.edu/~singh

 CURRENT FLOW IN A P-N DIODE
Electron density in the Fraction of electrons able to
p-side depletion edge be injected into the n-side
Electron density versus

A AA
energy on the n-side
depletion edge

A
A
+
+ }AA
AA
–
–
–

AA
–
––
UNBIASED DEVICE ––

AA
–
– ––
–

AA AA
–
EFp –

AA EFn Zero bias:

+

AA
Diffusion current
+
++ = drift current

AA
+++
+
+ +

AA AA
++
++
++

AA} AA
++ +
+
Fraction of holes able to
be injected into the n-side

Fraction of electrons able to

AA AA
be injected into the n-side
Current increases

AA AA
exponentially with

AA AA
applied bias + –
+ –
+ –

AA AA
+ –
+ ––
+ ––

AA
FORWARD BIAS –
– ––

AA
–
–
–

AA
EFp Zero bias:
V EFn Diffusion current

AA
+ >> drift current
+

AA AA
+ +
+++
+

AA AA
+ +
+
+ ++ +

AA AA
++ +
++ +

Fraction of holes able to

be injected into the n-side

AA
Current
saturates
AA
AA
–
–
––
Negligible density of electrons
able to cross the barrier

AA AA
––
EFp ––
REVERSE BIAS

AA AA
+ –
+ V – –– Reverse bias:
++ – Diffusion current ~ 0

AA AA
–
Negligible +++ –
+ EFn

AA
density of holes + +
+
able to cross the + ++

AA
barrier ++
++

© Prof. Jasprit Singh www.eecs.umich.edu/~singh

 MINORITY CHARGE DISTRIBUTION AND CURRENT IN A
FORWARD BIAS DIODE

Depletion
region
– – + +
– – + +
p – – + + n
– – + +
– – + +
(a) –Wp 0 Wn

Excess holes are injected into

the n-side. Excess electrons are
injected into the p-side.

n(x) np + np p(x)
δn(x) = n(x) – np pn + pn δp(x) = p(x) – pn

np pn Equilibrium
(b) minority
x charge
Minority current (holes in n-
side, electrons in p-side)
decreases exponentailly in a
long diode and linerly in a
narrow diode.

I
Total current
Hole current Electron current

AAAAA
AAAAA AAAAAA
AAAAAA
Electron current
(minority)
Hole current
(minority)

(c) AAAAA AAAAAA Position x

© Prof. Jasprit Singh www.eecs.umich.edu/~singh

 CURRENT VOLTAGE IN A P-N DIODE

I
Forward current
Reverse bias voltage across the diode is
limited to VZ due to breakdown effects

Vo RL Vz

I V

Reverse
p n saturation
current
Vout = Vz

Reverse
current = (Vo – Vz)/RL

(a)

(Zener diode)

Forward bias:

I = IS exp eV –1
nkBT

n: non-ideality factor
n = 1 in ideal diode

Vertical: 5 mA/div
Horizontal: 5 V/div
(b)

© Prof. Jasprit Singh www.eecs.umich.edu/~singh

 NON-IDEAL EFFECTS IN A P-N DIODE

Recombination-generation effects in the depletion region allow

current flow which has a behavior

°
IGR = IGR exp ( ( –1
eV
2kBT
The total current voltage relation has the form shown below

HIGH INJECTION
REGION
Region Region Region
10–3 1 2 3
Diode behaves
Dominated by like an ohmic
generation- resistor
recombination VD
10–6 I=
rS
CURRENT I (A)

10–9
exp ( ( –1
eV
kBT

10–12 exp ( ( –1
eV
2kBT

10–15
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
FORWARD BIAS, V (volt)

Diode current:
I = IS exp ( ( –1
eV
nkBT
In poor quality diodes n ~ 2
In high quality diodes n ~ 1

© Prof. Jasprit Singh www.eecs.umich.edu/~singh

 IMPORTANT ISSUES CONTROLLING SWITCHING SPEEDS IN P-N DIODES

T=0

δp(x)
Excess minority charge is
injected in a forward bias
diode. This charge has to be Increasing time
removed to reverse-bias the
diode.

Device response in minority

carrier devices

How fast can minority charge

be altered?

Recombination with Recombination via Narrow width devices to

majority carriers.
• τ ~ 10–6 sec for
indirect gap materials
• τ ~10–9 sec for
direct gap materials
impurities or defects. extract charge through
contacts.
• τ can approach
a few picoseconds • τ dominated by transit
time effects

© Prof. Jasprit Singh www.eecs.umich.edu/~singh

 TURN-ON OF A P-N DIODE

i(t) VF

R +
+
v(t) 0
– –

VR

t1
(a) Time

IF ~VF
R
Current in the diode reaches IF

i(t)

t1 t
(b) Time

∆pn
Excess minority

Increasing time Minority carrier density builds up on

the n-side as the diode is forward
charge

biased

t< t1

(c) 0 n-side axis x

Voltage across the diode builds up to

v(t) V1 ~kBT n IF (I )
o
its final value

t1 t
(d) Time

© Prof. Jasprit Singh www.eecs.umich.edu/~singh

 TURN-OFF OF A P-N DIODE
IMPORTANT TIME CONSTANTS: Minority carrier lifetime (long diode) or minority carrier transit
time to the contacts (narrow diode) + RC time constants for the reverse biased diode.

i(t)

VF
R +
+
v(t) 0
– t2
–
VR
Time t

Diode current in time Diode current path

(a)

I Static current
IF

IF
i(t) t i Switching current
0
t2 t3 T/2 Va
τsd τt I0 0
–IR

(b) –IR

pn
Excess minority

Excess minority charge is removed in

t< t2 a time τsd
charge

pno
t=
Increasing time
(c) 0 n-region x

Diode voltage

V t
0
t2 τt Voltage across the diode remains
v(t) τsd positive until all of the excess
minority charge is extracted.
τsd is the storage delay time and τt is
the RC time constant

VR
Time
(d)
© Prof. Jasprit Singh www.eecs.umich.edu/~singh
 A MODEL FOR A P-N DIODE USED IN SPICE

RS

+
iD = IS exp ) eV )
D –1
nkBT
eτT eV
I exp )
nk T)
= CD CD = –1 D
= vD k T S
B B
v m
+ Cj0/(1 – V )
– D
0

(a)

Top contact p+

p n+
n epi p p+
taxy n+
n epitaxy
n+ body n+ buried layer

p substrate

Back contact
(b) (c)

DIODE CAPACITANCE: Diffusion capacitance (important in forward bias) + junction capacitance

Cdiff = e Iτ; τ = minority carrier lifetime (long diode)

kBT
τ = transit time to contact (narrow diode)
Cjo
Cj = Aε =
W
(1– VV )m
bi

m = 1/2 for abrupt doped diode

= 1/3 for linearly graded junctions

© Prof. Jasprit Singh www.eecs.umich.edu/~singh

 A MODEL FOR A P-N DIODE USED IN SPICE

APPLICATIONS OF DIODES

ELECTRONICS OPTOELECTRONICS

Logic Circuits Detectors

• Diode Transistor Logic (DTL)
• Voltage clamps to avoid swings
in voltage
Avalanche photodetectors

Rectifiers for wave shaping

Modulators

Varactor diodes for tuning circuits,

mixers Light emitting diodes

• Tunnel diodes Semiconductor lasers

• Microwave diodes

© Prof. Jasprit Singh www.eecs.umich.edu/~singh