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W.H. Mason
Configuration Aerodynamics Class
Typical Subsonic Methods: Panel Methods
• For subsonic inviscid flow, the flowfield can be found by
solving an integral equation for the potential on the surface
• This is done assuming a distribution of singularities along
the surface, and finding the “strengths” of the singularities
• The airfoil is represented by a series of (typically) straight
line segments between “nodes”, and the nonpenetration
boundary condition is typically satisfied at control points
• Some version of a Kutta condition is required to close the
system of equations.
node
N -1
N
N+1
2 1
4 3
panel
Comparison of Panel Method Pressure Distribution
with Exact Conformal Transformation Results
-2.50
PANEL
-2.00 Exact Conformal Mapping
-1.50
-1.00
Cp
-0.50
0.00
0.50
1.00
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
x/c
Convergence with increasing numbers of panels
0.980
NACA 0012 Airfoil, α = 8°
0.975
0.970
CL
0.965
0.960
0.955
0.950
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
No. of Panels
A better way to examine convergence: Lift
0.980
0.975 NACA 0012 Airfoil, α = 8°
0.970
CL
0.965
0.960
0.955
0.950
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
1/n
Convergence with Panels: Moment
-0.240
NACA 0012 Airfoil, α = 8°
-0.242
-0.244
Cm
-0.246
-0.248
-0.250
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
1/n
Convergence with Panels: Drag
0.012
0.010 NACA 0012 Airfoil, α = 8°
0.008
CD 0.006
0.004
0.002
0.000
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
1/n
Pressures: 20 and 60 panels
-5.00
NACA 0012 airfoil, α = 8°
-4.00
20 panels
-3.00 60 panels
-2.00
CP
-1.00
0.00
1.00
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
x/c
Pressures: 60 and 100 panels
-5.00
NACA 0012 airfoil, α = 8°
-4.00
60 panels
-3.00 100 panels
-2.00
CP
-1.00
0.00
1.00
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
x/c
Comparison with WT Data: Lift
- recall: panel methods are inviscid! -
2.50
2.00
NACA 4412
1.50
CL
1.00 NACA 0012
0.50
CL, NACA 0012 - PANEL
CL, NACA 0012 - exp. data
0.00 CL, NACA 4412 - PANEL
CL, NACA 4412 - exp. data
-0.50
-5.0° 0.0° 5.0° 10.0° 15.0° 20.0° 25.0°
α
Comparison with Data: Pitching Moment
- about the quarter chord -
0.10
NACA 0012
0.05
-0.00
-0.05
Cm
c/4
-0.10
-0.15
NACA 4412
-0.20 Cm, NACA 0012 - PANEL
Cm, NACA 4412 - PANEL
-0.25 Cm, NACA 0012 - exp. data
Cm, NACA 4412 - exp. data
-0.30
-5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0
α
For Completeness: Drag Data
Effect of Camber
2.00
Re = 6 million
1.50
1.00
CL
NACA 0012
0.00
data from Abbott and von Doehhoff
-0.50
0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018
CD
Comparison with WT Pressure Distribution
-1.2
-0.4
Cp
-0.0
α = 1.875°
0.8 M = .191
Re = 720,000 NACA 4412 airfoil
transition free
1.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
x/c
XFOIL: the code for subsonic airfoils
0.00
Trailing edge pressure recovery
α = 0°
-3.00
α=4
CP α=8
-2.00
-1.00
0.00
1.00
-0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1
x/c
Comparison of NACA 4-Digit Airfoils
0006, 0012, 0018
-0.30 NACA 0006 (max t/c = 6%)
NACA 0012 (max t/c = 12%)
-0.20 NACA 0018 (max t/c = 18%)
-0.10
y/c -0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
-0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1
x/c
Thickness Effects on Airfoil Pressures
Zero Lift Case
-1.00
Inviscid calculation from PANEL
-0.50
CP
0.00
0.50
NACA 0006, α = 0°
NACA 0012, α = 0°
NACA 0018, α = 0°
1.00
-0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1
x/c
Thickness Effects on Airfoil Pressures, CL = 0.48
-3.00
Inviscid calculation from PANEL
-2.50
NACA 0006, α = 4°
-0.50
0.00
0.50
1.00
-0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1
x/c
Comparison of NACA 4-Digit Airfoils
the 0012 and 4412
0.30
0.20
0.10
y/c -0.00
-0.10
NACA 0012 (max t/c = 12%)
-0.20 NACA 4412 foil (max t/c = 12%)
-0.30
-0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1
x/c
Highly Cambered Airfoil Pressure Distribution
- NACA 4412 -
-2.00
Inviscid calculation from PANEL
-1.50 NACA 4412, α = 0°
NACA 4412, α = 4°
-1.00
CP
-0.50
0.00
0.50
Note: For a comparison of cambered and uncambered
presuure distributions at the same lift, see Fig. 18.
1.00
-0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1
x/c
Camber Effects on Airfoil Pressures, CL = 0.48
-2.00
Inviscid calculation from PANEL
-1.50
NACA 0012, α = 4°
NACA 4412, α = 0°
-1.00
-0.50
CP
0.00
0.50
1.00
-0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1
x/c
Camber Effects on Airfoil Pressures, CL = 0.96
-4.00
Inviscid calculations from PANEL
-2.00
CP
-1.00
0.00
1.00
-0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1
x/c
Camber Effects on Airfoil Pressures, CL = 1.43
-6.00
Inviscid calculations from PANEL
-5.00
NACA 0012, α = 12°
-4.00 NACA 4412, α = 8°
-3.00
CP
-2.00
-1.00
0.00
1.00
-0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1
x/c
NACA 6712 Airfoil
- Heavy Aft Camber Geometry -
0.15
y/c 0.05
-0.05
-0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1
x/c
NACA 6712 Airfoil
- Heavy Aft Camber, Pressure Distribution -
-2.00
Inviscid calculations from PANEL
-1.50
α = -.6 (CL = 1.0)
-1.00
-0.50
CP
0.00
0.50
NACA 6712
1.00
-0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1
x/c
Whitcomb GA(W)-1 Airfoil
0.15
0.10
0.05
y/c 0.00
-0.05
-0.10
-1.00
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
x/c
Inviscid calculations from PANEL
-0.50
Cp
0.00
0.50 GA(W)-1
α = 0°
1.00
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
x/c
Liebeck’s Hi-Lift Airfoil: Geometry and Lift
- note shape of pressure recovery -
From Bertin,
Aerodynamics for Engineers
Camberline Design: DesCam
(Z-Z0)/C - DesCam
0.12 Z/C - from Abbott & vonDoenhoff 2.00
0.02 0.00
0.00 -0.50
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
X/C
Airfoil Selection
Issues:
• Cruise CL, and CLmax, don’t forget Cm0
-large LE radius?
-Near parallel trailing edge closure
• Profile Drag: Laminar flow?
• Thickness for low weight and internal volume
• Tails: often symmetric, 6 series foils picked
To Conclude