c




In the ~

  electrons are c

 V
emitted from matter (metals and non-metallic
solids liquids or gases) as a consequence of
their absorption of energy
from electromagnetic radiation of very
short wavelength such
as visible or ultraviolet light. Electrons
emitted in this manner may be referred to as
"photoelectrons". First observed by Heinrich
Hertz in 1887 the phenomenon is also
V

  
V
known as the "
 " although the

V

V c

 V
latter term has fallen out of general use.
V

V 
 
V
Hertz observed and then showed
V


V

V V 


that electrodesilluminated with ultraviolet
V

light create electric sparks more easily.

The photoelectric effect requires photons with energies from a few electronvolts to over
1 MeV in high atomic number elements. Study of the photoelectric effect led to
important steps in understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and
influenced the formation of the concept of wave±particle duality.[1] Other phenomena
where light affects the movement of electric charges include the photoconductive effect
(also known as photoconductivity or photoresistivity) the photovoltaic effect and
the photoelectrochemical effect.


 


The photons of a light beam have a characteristic energy determined by the frequency
of the light. In the photoemission process if an electron within some material absorbs
the energy of one photon and thus has more energy than the work function (the
electron binding energy) of the material it is ejected. If the photon energy is too low the
electron is unable to escape the ma terial. Increasing the intensity of the light beam
increases the number of photons in the light beam and thus increases the number of
electrons emitted but does not increase the energy that each electron possesses. Thus
the energy of the emitted electron s does not depend on the intensity of the incoming
light but only on the energy or frequency of the individual photons.
El t f t i i t  tt ll f ll
ll t i i i l . All f t f t t
t li t l t f t i i i  t i itt . If t t
i  ft li t t l t f t t  t
[Ã

]
t ti t t t l t ' i ti f ti l .

Experenta esuts thehotoeectrcEsson

½. i t l f fi i t i ti  t t t i
t l t j t i i tl ti lt t i t it ft i i t li t.

2. i t l t xi t t i i i f f i i t i ti
l i t l t itt . i f i ll t t l
f .

3. i t l f ti l f ti i i i t it fi i t
i t it ft t l ti t t t lt i
t .

4. i t l f ti l f ti i i f fi i t
i t xi i ti it i t t l t itt  t
t t l ti t i t t t lt i .

5. A t t l f t xi i ti ft itt
t l t t f ft i i t li t ti i t ft
i t it ft i i t li t l t l tt i tt i

6. ti l t t i i f i ti t i i f t l t


i ll l t ½ .

. i ti i ti ti f itt l t i t i ti f l i ti
t i ti ft l t i fi l ft i i t li t if it i li l l i .




    ~

The ma imum kinetic energy ÿma of an ejected electron is given by

where is the Planck constant
is the frequency of the incident photon and  =
0 is
the work function (sometimes denoted ) which is the minimum energy required to
remove a delocalised electron from the surface of any given metal. The work function
in turn can be written as

where
0 is called the threshold frequency for the metal. The ma imum kinetic energy of
an ejected electron is thus

Because the kinetic energy of the electron must be positive it follows that the
frequency
of the incident photon must be greater than
0 in order for the photoelectric
effect to occur.

Ê ~

In the X-ray regime the photoelectric effect in crystalline material is often decomposed
into three steps:

(1) Inner photoelectric effect (see photodiode below). The hole left behind can give
rise to auger effect which is visible even when the electron does not leave the
material. In molecular solids phonons are e cited in this step and may be visible
as lines in the final electron energy. The inner photoeffect has to be dipole
allowed. The transition rules for atoms translate via the tight-binding model onto
the crystal. They are similar in geometry to plasma oscillations in that they have
to be transversal.
( ) Ballistic transport of half of the electrons to the surface. Some electrons are
scattered.
( ) Electrons escape from the material at the surface.
In the three-step model an electron can take multiple pa ths through these three steps.
All paths can interfere in the sense of the path integral formulation. For surface
states andmolecules the three-step model does still make some sense as even
most atoms have multiple electrons which can scatter the one electron leaving.
‘
 

W f i x t l t ti i ti t i
t l f t i ll i i l li tf l li t l  lt i l tf t
t l  xt lt i l tf t l t i ti i
l t itt . Li t i ll lt i l t li t i ti l
l t ifi i it t ti f ft t t . U
t i i t it i tl i i . fi t f t
i t ll i ½. fi t L
i ½ .

lt i l t li tt t ff t t i f l 
i i  i it i ti il t i i
t i l t li tf i i i i lt i l t .S li t i t i i lt
i l t  t t t  it t
l l ff t t li t. t i t l i
ti l t i it t ti f lt i l t li t: li t ft t ill
f i G. C. S i t .K l .

½ thcentury
I ½3 Al x E B l i t t lt i ff t il t i
.
t ff t f li t l t l ti ll t i l tt t t l ti ff t
i t lt i i t t li i t l ti i t
li t l t i ti f t i l . I ½3 Will
S it i t ti it i l i il t ti t t l f it i
i t ti i j ti it i i l i i t l l .
J El t ½54 ½2  G it l ½55 ½23 t t i i l 
l t fi t ti l t l ti ll t t l t t
i t it f li t.El t G it l i ti t it t t ff t
li t l t ifi i .
I ½ i i t t t l t i ff t t ti
ti f l t ti . li t ti i t
j lA l P i . i i i t f il it 
l t ti f l t ti . l t
t i xt t tt .  ti t tt
xi l t i t x. A l l l t t
6
 f lt ti  6 
t  i  6 

lt i lt 
iti  t t
66i6t
t  lt 6 i j
i  66 t  . W   
 t  6 lt

l
i6.  6 

6 i 6 lt   6
6tit
t

t
f  l66 6
t
6  t 6  UV 
iti . t  l


i6  t 6 f
i 6titi  
 t
t  6
lt6 ti
. 
i
 t f
t  
6
 i 6titi 
f t i6 fft.

i6   t i ½ t t t  ii
 f
lt  i lt lit   6 
filitt
t 66 f t 6  l
i
itl t  6i6 f i 6titi 6
 ll 6  Rii 
St lt [  t fft f lit 
6ill f
lt 
i lt lit  

i6. It 6  
 t6 i 6titi 6 tt  l
l
6
f f i if 
it ti  ltiit i
l l 66 ti6 
   6ll it   
lt  i lt lit fll6
  t 6
f il if t
6
f i6

t i it it 
i6   6iti    x 6
t t
lit t ti  ltifiti   i
t it t 6  i t tl i6
6



 ti6  6iti  ltifiti    
 i6

iti  6t 
il6t i6t t 6
f. If    t i 6
f i6  6iti l ltifi
it 6
ff6
 l 66 f   x 6
t t lit: ti6 6
lt 6  
6ti 
 
t  
f
l xiti  f t     El6t 
Gitl 6 6  tt t l 66
6 


 ti i
6t6 i6

 t t
i6  t lit flt
f 
t i 6
f f ti  ltifiti   i
i  

t 6 i


 t
 6iti   t ti  ltiit

 t ifl
 f t lti f il
 i

 t t  6iti l ltifi
6
f.
Wit 
t t ‘


Ã
 t 66 f  t 6tt 6 
 t  lxit
f t    f  t lti fti
 ² tt i6 t  66i 
ii
ti  f t
fft 6 

  f6 tlli 6
f6. A 
i t  i tt 6
 Will ll6   l
 i tt t i t   .  
t lt6 t 6
 6 xi
ti  t 
i
it t 
 f  li6 f t 6
f
t. It 6 t t ti  t   6
 tt t fti
 i6 6t i  

.

I t i
f  
 ½ 

til ½½ 
til
l6i6 f  t fft 6
f 
 Al 6
 St lt it 6
lt6 
li6
i 6   6 f
 f t
i

     i i   Ã t6lt
f  R
66i 

t l6t   i  . i6t i t6   6 St lt i t

 
xitl 6t
 i 6   6
itl f   
titti  l6i6 f  t fft.
U6i ti6 6t
 
i6 
t
it   ti lit t t it6it f lit

t i


 t lti 
t t fi6t l f  t  fft  St lt '6 l.
 f i6 t fi
i6 6
lt
f  6
t6 f t

 f t
it6it f t lti  t 
t  t 6 66
   f

t xi6t
 f  til 6 66
 P   6 
i t  xi
  t 
t ti6  t
6
6
f   ti  f 6 l ll6.
I ½ J. J.  6  i 6tit

lt i lt lit i C 6 t
6. Ifl

 t
  f J6 Cl xll  6 



tt t
 6  6i6t
f
ti l 
til6 lt  ll
lt 6 i  ll
 
6l6. I t
6  6  l 6
 tl lt  t
 i  

 t
 
x 6

it t i f
 
iti . It 6 t
t tt t 6illti lt ti fil
6

6
t t 6' fil
t 6 t 
 ft i  ti lit

 
6

6
t i  
6l t  itt
 

t t 
tt
.  
t f ti6

t i
it t it6it 
 l
 f t 
iti . L 
iti  it6it 
f
 
l


   
t.

6 thentury

i6  f t i iti  f 66 
lt  i lt lit 6 
  Pili
L
i ½ . A6 t fft 6 


 66 6 l tit6 f i 


 t  6iti  
6ll ti  i 6 it 6 t
l t itt t   
6
i
J. J.  6  6  ‘


Ã

  t 6 li
 li
i
til6 6t i t
6.
I ½ 2 L
6 
tt t  f i
i i

l itt
lt 6 i6
it
t f
 i i6 lt
t t  l  f t lit. i6 
t  t

6
it J6 Cl xll'6   t  f lit i 6 t
t t 
it tt t
lt   
l
   ti l t t it6it f t 
iti .

I ½ 2 L
6 
t iti  i lt   it lit f
. 
6

  f
l lti  l i l

i t i 6tit l 6 i it6it


6
ffiit   t l i t i 6tit t  iti  f  ttil it lit
f
. i6 xit
itl 6

 ttil6  t lt  iti : 
f

t lt    lti it t t xi
 6t i  ttil lt i 
 t t
.  f

tt t l
lt
xi
 lt  iti  i6
ti

 t f
 f t lit.  xl  i6 i f
 6
lt6 i 

i6 i t xi
 iti  l
lt
f   lt 
  liti  

lt i lt 
iti  
l

i  i li
6t i  ttil t 6t  
t i
  t t
 t l
 lit.   L
'6 6
lt6  
litti  t t

titti  
6 f t
iffi
lt i f i t xit6: t xit6


t 
  f6l 
t tl 6 tt t 
 tl 6 6 
 
t it
xi
i6
i  tt f i
t6   i t til 

6 
6
.  
t
itt
 t 6
f 6
ti
 t lit'6 it6it  it66:

li
t it6it f t lit

l
t 
 f lt 6 itt
f  t 6
f.
 66 f L i 
t 6 f E
 Bl    6  tt t t
t f t L
fft i6 til

 t ti6 ' t fft'.  L
fft
  t
6 it6lf  tl66
6 xi6t. Rf

 J. J.  6  
t  
i6i l
 Pl it 6 6t

i

6 

ifft ti6ti6 t t 6 t fi6t
tti
t
t it  L 
.

I ½ 5 Alt Ei6ti 6 l 
ti6 t 
x 
6ii lit 6   6

f
i6t 
t   ll
 t 6 t t  ti

6  6. B6

  x
Pl '6 t  f l 
 
iti  Ei6ti t i
tt t  i 

t
 f lit 6 
l t t f
 
ltili
   6tt lt
ll
Pl '6  6tt. A  t     t 6 l
f
 6 t 
i

 t jt  6il lt  ti t 6 

fft. i6
i6  l
t t

t
  l
ti  i 6i6 

Ei6ti t N l Pi i P6i6 i
½2½. B  til

lit t fft   l

l i t6 f  6
t
  t 6   itl.

Alt Ei6ti'6 ttil

6iti  f   t  t lti fft 6 
6

 6 ti  f 
t f lit   ll

 t 6 6 i  f i6 ½ 5 6

‘
à  

à 
Ã




 
. i6    6
t 6il
6iti  f lit 
t   t 6 

6 
  t xli
6
   6 t  t lti fft. i6 6il
xlti  i t6 f 6 ti  f
i6t 
t f lit xli
t ft
6 f
t    
t ti6ti f
. Ei6ti'6 xlti  f t
 t lti fft   i t N l Pi i P6i6 i ½2½.
 i
 f lit 
t  it x Pl '6 
li6
l f l 


iti  


 

 
 !Ã
 . Al

P6i 4 ½ ½  66
i tt ti 6illt 6 
l
l xi6t t
i6    ti l t t f

f t 6illt    
   i6 Pl '6
 6tt. B 66
i tt lit t
ll  6i6t
f
i6t   t6 Ei6ti
 t  
ti  f  t  t lti fft tt fit xit6. It xli
 t
 f  t lt 6 

t l  t
à f t ii
t lit 

 t  it6 

:  l it6it if
 6
 
l

6
l  f i
  t 6 6  i it6it l f
 6
 
l
6
l 
 t 6 f 6
ffiit i
i i

l  t
i6l
  lt 6. i6 6   
6
t til l 
t t  t 6 6t l 6i6t
t fi6t 
6 it  t
it

t   t  f lit tt f ll 

t
ll f  J6 Cl xll'6 
ti 6
f  lt ti  i  
  ll t 66
ti  f ifiit

i i6iilit f  i 6il 66t6. E  ft xit6 6 

tt Ei6ti'6

ti 6 f  t  t lti fft  
t 6i6t t t i
 f  t 6
 ti

 6i it 
t  t
it xll'6 
ti 6 i  ll


6t

ifi
.

Ei6ti'6   
it
tt t  f i
i i

l jt
lt 6 i66
lil it t f
 f t lit. P6 6
i6il t i6 lti 6i 

 t t tt ti  t6t

. B ½ 5 it  6   tt t  f  t lt 6
i66 it i6i
à f ii
t lit 
i6 i

t f
t 

 f t lit.   t  f t i6 6  t xitll

ti

til ½½5  R t A
6 illi  6 
tt Ei6ti'6 
iti 
6  t.

  t lti fft l

 l t t i  t f t

li6ti t

f lit tt lit 6i
lt
6l  66666 t ti6ti6 f  t  6 

til6  i if6t

 
i t t i
6t6.  fft 6
i 66il t

6t
i t6 f t l66il  
6iti  f lit 6 t
 f t itt
lt 6
i
 t

 t it6it f t ii
t 
iti .
Cl66il t  
it
tt t lt 6 
l
't
'    i
f
ti 
t  itt
.

º




hotoutpers
Ê6  xtl lit66iti  

 t
6 it   t t
  t
t t
 
 6i
 f t i6i
 f t  l . Ê  t t
  ti6  iti 6
f til6 6
 6 6i
 
i
i
 
ti  6ill 6lt
t  i
 
l    f
ti  6  ill
it
    l  l l6 f lit t
 t t
 
il l6 6 lt 6. B 6 f  6i6 f lt
6

6
t  i  ttil6 t6 lt 6  lt

6
6ttill i6
i

 t
 6 
 i66i  t  i
  
il
ttl
t
t 
t.
P t 
ltili6  6till   l
6
  l  l l6 f lit 
6t 
tt
.

agesensors
Vi
  t
6 i t l
6 f tl i6i 
6
t  t lti fft f 
xl Pil 6 t'6 I
i66t 
6
 6 
 t
 t lti fft t t6f   til i it  6
lt i 6il.
 
hego eafeectroscope

G l
lf lt 6 6 
6i
t
tt 6tti ltiit. C l
 t
tl  6
6 t t 6t 
t  l
lf f t lt 6 . B
6 t t
  t 6  t 6t 
lf  l  t. Êi6 ill 
6 t lf t

 f  t 6t. Ê lt 6  i6  i tt t l i ill
6tti t
 t lti fft. Lt
6 6 tt t 6  i6 ti l 
t

t. Ê
i6  x66 f lt 6 
t lf i6 6 t
f  t 6t. B
t if  t 6i
if
 lit t t  t 6 
i66 
t lf ill fll li. Êi6 i6

6 t f
 f t lit 6ii  t  i6   t '6 t6 l

f
. Ê  t 6 i t lit   
  t lit lt 6 f  t

 

i it6 ti  . Êi6 ill
i6  ti l 
lt 6 

f
t    6iti  lt 6 .   if t lt ti 
iti 
itti t tl 
6  t    i 
 f
 it6 f
 i6 l  t
t6 l
l
 f  t  t t lf ill  
i6  tt   l  
6i6 t l f
 lit t t .

hotoeectronspectroscopy
Si t  f t  t lt 6 itt
i6 xtl t  f t ii
t
 t  i
6 t til'6   f
ti   i
i  t   f
ti  f 
6l  
ti
  
i it it     ti X 6

 UV 6
 
6
i t iti 
i6ti
ti  f t lt 6 itt
.
P t lt  6t 6  i6
 i  i 

  i t 6i t lt 6

l
 6tt
 6  l
l6 if t  6t. Ê lit 6
   
l6 
i6 t
   6 t  
iti  6
.

Ê  ti i6il l6 C A i6  til lt   l 

66  lti fil

t  t
iti 6 f ii
t lt 6

i  ti
iti i6.    lt 
  t i itl t ill  
ifft
i
i . Ê  lt 6 t
f   f t6  iti 6 ill 6 

 6 6i 6 i t l
t
t 
t6  
6
t
ti t ltl
  6iti  f t 6l.

pacecraft
Ê  t lti fft ill 
6 6ft x 6
t 6
lit t
 l    6iti 
. Êi6  t
 t t t6 f lt6. Êi6    j   l 6 t t6
f t 6ft i 6

 l   ti  
 t 6 l il lt 6 f 
 l6 
t il 
i6 t

lit ltil
  t6. Ê 6tti t
 t  t lti fft i6 6lf liiti t


6    il 
jt i 6
 it6 lt 6 l66 6il.

oon ust
Lit f  t 6
 itti l


6t 
66 it t   
t
 t
 t lti fft. Ê 


6t t l6 it6lf 
lift6 ff t 6
f f
t   lt 6tti l itti .Êi6 if6t6 it6lf l 6t li   t 6 f

6t i6il 6  ti  

l
i f
i6tt ft
6 
i6il 6 
i l 
ft t 6
 6 6t. Êi6 6 fi6t  t 
 t S
      6 i
t ½6 6. It i6 t
t tt t 6ll6t til6  ll

 t il t6 i

tt t til6   i f
ti6 6 t  

i6.

ghtson eces
P t 6 itti  ti fil f l li tl  6i 

t  til 6
 6 lli

6i
 i  i it6ifi t
 
6 t jti  f  t lt 6

 t t
 t lti fft. Ê6  lt
  lt 6tti fil
 t 6ti 
  6   t
6   ti t lt 6  it  t 6. It6ifiti  f
t 6il i6 i 
it t
 lti  f t lt 6   i6i t

 f lt 6 t
 6 
 i66i 6 6
 6 it  i l lt.
S ti6   iti  f  t t
6 
6
. A

iti l iti  i6


i
t    lt 
t f t  

ti  

it t 

 l l. Êi6
i6   6 t lt  ffiit f t  t t
 
i6  t i t
 t i66i  t t t f i

 
 xli
 t 
 
l. S 
til6 6
 6 Glli
 A6i
    ffti  lt  ffiit tt i6 l  t
l l f t  

ti  
. I t6 til6 lt 6 tt   t t  

ti 

 ll f 6
ffiit   t  itt
f  t til 
6 6
 t fil
tt 6 6  t 6   
it ti . Ê6 til6    6 ti 
lt  ffiit til6.



 

Ê  t lti fft i6  itti  i6 t  t 6 

t 6. It i6
 f ½2 t till  66il itti 6 .

At t i  t  i6  l t t lt  6t 

f 5½½ V C t  6tti  t  66  t  l. A  ti ti6
½. 22 V i 

ti   t  l.C t  6tti 
i 

ti 
  xl f t t  ti i66.

I

   if t  t lti fft i6 t f

ti  f   ti
l 6il 
 t  

lt  itti  t 6
lt i6 l6 6
jt t 6tti6til  666 

i6  t 
t
 lit t  t  6 til
i6

 

lt  
6  xit

6
ll K  L 6ll lt 6 t 
l  i6. Ê
 ilit f t  t lti fft 
i i6 6

 t  66 6ti  f
itti  ı. Êi6 6  f

t   f
ti  f t t i 
 f t tt
t  
 t  . A 

  xiti  f   t  i6   t i6t
t i i
i  i6 i  .
Here Z is atomic number and › is a number which varies between and . (At lower
photon energies a characteristic structure with edges appears K edge edges M
edges etc.) The obvious interpretation follows that the photoelectric effect rapidly
decreases in significance in the gamma ray regi on of the spectrum with increasing
photon energy and that photoelectric effect is directly proportional to atomic number.
The corollary is that high -Z materials make good gamma-ray shields which is the
principal reason that lead (Z = 8 ) is a preferred and ubiquitous gamma radiation shield.