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Name: _______________________________________
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
P = 45, TOTAL = 45
4
INDEX
SIGN. OF
Expt. Title MARKS
DATE THE
NO. (10)
STAFF
1
10
11
12
13
Total Marks
EXPT. NO.:
DATE:
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
In Servo applications, DC motors are generally used in the linear range of the
magnetization curve. Therefore, the air gap flux φ is proportional to the field current.
φ α If
φ = Kf If ,where Kf is a constant. ----------------------------- (1)
The torque Tm developed by the motor is proportional to the product of the armature
current and air gap flux.
Tm α φ Ia
Tm =Ki φ Ia = Ki Kf If Ia , where Ki is a constant --------------(2)
In the armature controlled DC motor, the field current is kept constant. So the above
equation can be written as
Tm = Kt Ia , Where Kt is known as motor torque constant.------ (3)
From equations (8) to (10) , the transfer function of the system is obtained as
7
Block diagram
Using the above equations, the block diagram for the armature controlled DC motor is
given below:
E(s)
+ θ (s)
ω(s) 1/[Ra+sLa] Kt 1/s[Js+B]
- Eb(s)
s Kb
PROCEDURE:
Tabulation to determine Kt
Tabulation to determine Kb
-
Tabulation to determine Ra
Tabulation to determine Za
Average Za = ________Ω
11
MODEL GRAPH
To find Kt To find Kb
Torque Eb( V)
(Nm)
Ia(A) ω(rad/sec)
MODEL CALCULATION
Ra = ……..Ohms
Za = …….. Ohms
La = √(Za2 –Ra2 ) / 2πf = ……. H
f = 50 Hz
J = 0.074 kg/m2, B = 0.001Nm/rad/sec
From Graph,
Kt = Torque constant = ∆T / ∆ Ia = ………… Nm / A
Kb = Back emf constant = ∆Eb / ∆ ω = ………. V/(rad/s)
RESULT:
INFERENCE:
12
EXPT. NO.:
DATE:
AIM:
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
The transfer function is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of the output
variable to the Laplace transform of input variable at zero initial conditions.
In Servo applications, the DC motors are generally used in the linear range of the
magnetization curve. Therefore the air gap flux φ is proportional to the field current.
φ α If
φ = Kf If ,where Kf is a constant. -------------------------------- (1)
The torque Tm developed by the motor is proportional to the product of the armature
current and air gap flux.
Tm α φ Ia
Tm =K′φ Ia = K′ Kf If Ia = Km Kf If , where Ki is a constant ----(2)
Now the shaft torque Tm is used for driving the load against the inertia and frictional
torque. Hence,
Tm = Jd2θ/dt2 + B dθ/dt ------------------------------------------- (4)
Solving equations (5) to (7), we get the transfer function of the system as
14
PROCEDURE:
ii) To determine Rf
iii) To determine Lf
Tabulation to determine Rf
Tabulation to determine Zf
Average Zf = ________Ω
17
MODEL GRAPH
To find KmKf
Torque
(Nm)
If (A)
MODEL CALCULATIONS
1. Rf = ……..Ohms
2. Zf = …….. Ohms
3. Lf = √(Zf2 –Rf2 ) / 2πf = ……. H
4. f = 50 Hz
5. J = 0.074 kg/m2, B = 0.001Nm/rad/s
6. From Graph, KmKf = ∆T / ∆If = ………… Nm / A
RESULT:
INFERENCE:
18
EXPT. NO:
DATE :
AIM:
APPRATUS REQUIRED:
FORMULA:
THEORY
When the objective of a system is to control the position of an object, then the
system is called a servomechanism. The motors that are used in automatic control
systems are called servomotors.
Servomotors are used to convert an electrical signal (control voltage) into an
angular displacement of the shaft. In general, servomotors have the following
features.
1. Linear relationship between speed and electrical control signal
2. Steady state stability
3. Wide range of speed control
19
The transfer function of the AC servomotor can be obtained by torque equation. The
motor developed torque is given by
Tm = K1 e c – K2 dθ…………………………………(1)
dt
The rotating part of the motor and the load can be modeled by
K1 e c – K2 dθ /dt = J d 2θ + B dθ …………....(3)
dt dt
Taking Laplace Transform
θ (s) K1 Km
T.F = = =
Ec (s) s (K2+s J+B) s (1 +s τm)
K1
Where motor gain constant Km =
B + K2
J
and motor time constant τm =
B + K2
20
PROCEDURE:
Vc = Vc = Vc =
Load N Torque Load N Torque Load N Torque
g rpm N-m g rpm N-m g rpm N-m
Model Graph
Torque
N-m
Speed (rpm)
21
N1 = N2 = N3 =
Load Vc Torque Load Vc Torque Load Vc Torque
g V N-m g V N-m g V N-m
Model Graph
Torque
N-m
From Graph , K1 =
K2 =
Given , B=
J=
From Calculations, Km =
τm =
22
RESULT:
INFERENCE:
23
EXPT. NO:
DATE :
AIM:
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
Order of the system:
The order of the system is given by the order of the differential equation
governing the system. The input-output relationship of a system can be expressed by
transfer function. Transfer function of a system is obtained by taking Laplace
transform of the differential equation governing the system and rearranging them as
ratio of output and input polynomials in ‘s’. The order is given by the maximum
power of ‘s’ in denominator polynomial Q(s)
T(s) = P(s) / Q(s)
Type of the system is given by the number of poles of the loop transfer function at the
origin.
G(s)H(s) = K P(s) / Q(s)
1 1
C(s) = ------------------------------------(4)
s (1+sτ)
PROCEDURE:
1. Give the connections as per the block diagram in the process control simulator
using the front panel diagram .
2. Set the Input (set point) value using the set value knob.
3. Observe the Output (process value or PV) using CRO and plot it in the graph.
4. Tabulate the reading and calculate the % error.
5. Repeat the procedure in closed loop condition.
25
RESULT:
INFERENCE:
27
EXPT. NO:
DATE :
(i) Digital Simulation of first order Linear and Non Linear SISO Systems
AIM:
APPARATU REQUIRED:
THEORY:
SISO linear systems can be easily defined with transfer function analysis. The
transfer function approach can be linked easily with the state variable approach.
The state model of a linear-time invariant system is given by the following
equations:
X(t) = A X(t) + B U(t) State equation
Y(t) = C X(t) + D U(t) Output equation
PROGRAM:
29
RESULT:
INFERENCE:
30
AIM:
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
• PC
• MATLAB Package.
THEORY:
u1(t) y1(t)
u2(t) Controlled system y2(t) U Controlled Y
. State variables (n) . system
. .
um(t) yp(t)
. ....... X
x1(t) x2(t) xn(t)
.
X(t) = A X(t) + B U(t) State equation
Y(t) = C X(t) + D U(t) Output equation
The state vector X determines a point (called state point) in an n - dimensional space,
called state space. The state and output equations constitute the state model of the
system.
31
PROGRAM:
32
RESULT:
INFERENCE:
33
Expt. No.:
Date:
AIM:
APPARATU REQUIRED:
SIMULINK MODEL:
RESULT:
INFERENCE:
35
Expt. No.:
Date:
AIM:
To analyze the stability of linear system using Bode plot/ Root Locus / Nyquist
Plot.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
PROCEDURE:
1. Write a Program to obtain the Bode plot / Root locus / Nyquist plot for the
given system.
2. Determine the stability of given system using the plots obtained.
PROGRAM:
36
RESULT:
INFERENCE:
37
EXPT. NO:
DATE :
AIM:
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
A pair of potentiometers is used to convert the input and output positions into
proportional electrical signals. The desired position is set on the input potentiometer
and the actual position is fed to feedback potentiometer. The difference between the
two angular positions generates an error signal, which is amplified and fed to
armature circuit of the DC motor. If an error exists , the motor develops a torque to
rotate the output in such a way as to reduce the error to zero. The rotation of the motor
stops when the error signal is zero, i.e., when the desired position is reached.
1/T1
Position
Sensor
Fig.(2.).Front Panel
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the system. Keep the pulse release switch in OFF position.
2. Vary the set point with the pulse release switch in the ON position and
note the output position.
3. Note SP voltage , PV voltage, P voltage and PI output voltage.
4. Calculate KP using the formula KP = P/(SP-PV).
39
TABULATION
RESULT:
INFERENCE:
40
EXPT. NO:
DATE :
AIM:
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS
WORKING PRINCIPLES
The stator windings are excited by voltages of equal rms magnitude and 90 o
phase difference. This results in exciting currents i1 and i2 displaced in phase by 90 o
and having identical rms values. These currents give rise to a rotating magnetic field
of constant magnitude. The direction of rotation depends on the phase relationship of
the two currents (or voltages). The exciting current shown in fig.2 produces a
clockwise rotating magnetic field. When i1 is shifted by 180 o, an anticlockwise
rotating magnetic field is produced. This rotating magnetic field sweeps over the rotor
conductors. The rotor conductor experience a change in flux and so voltages are
41
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch ON the system. Keep the pulse release switch in the OFF position.
2. Vary the set point with the pulse release switch in the ON and note the output
position.
3. Note the SP voltage, PV voltage, P voltage and PI output voltage.
4. Calculate KP using the formula KP = P/(SP-PV).
TABULATION
RESULT:
INFERENCE:
43
Ex. No:
Date:
STEPPER MOTOR
Aim:
To study the Stepper motor
Theory:
Stepper motors are highly accurate pulse-driven motors that change their
angular position in steps, in response to input pulses from digitally controlled
systems.
A stepper or stepping motor converts electronic pulses into proportionate
mechanical movement. Each revolution of the stepper motor's shaft is made up of
a series of discrete individual steps. A step is defined as the angular rotation
produced by the output shaft each time the motor receives a step pulse. These
types of motors are very popular in digital control circuits, such as robotics,
because they are ideally suited for receiving digital pulses for step control.
Fig.1
In addition to the paper drive mechanism in a printer, stepper motors are also popular
in machine tools, process control systems, tape and disk drive systems, and
programmable controllers.
• Load Independent – Stepper motors will turn at a set speed regardless of load
as long as the load does not exceed the torque rating for the motor.
• Open Loop Positioning – Stepper motors move in quantified increments or
steps. As long as the motor runs within its torque specification, the position of
the shaft is known at all times without the need for a feedback mechanism.
• Holding Torque – Stepper motors are able to hold the shaft stationary.
• Excellent response to start-up, stopping and reverse.
Fig.2
The teeth on the rotor surface and the stator pole faces are offset so that
there will be only a limited number of rotor teeth aligning themselves with an
energized stator pole. The number of teeth on the rotor and stator determine the
step angle that will occur each time the polarity of the winding is reversed.
The greater the number of teeth, the smaller the step angle.
45
Fig.3
The holding torque is defined as the amount of torque required to move the rotor
one full step with the stator energized.
When the stator coils are energized, the rotor teeth will align with the
energized stator poles. This type of motor operates on the principle of minimizing
the reluctance along the path of the applied magnetic field. By alternating the
windings that are energized in the stator, the stator field changes, and the rotor is
moved to a new position.
The stator of a variable-reluctance stepper motor has a magnetic core
constructed with a stack of steel laminations. The rotor is made of unmagnetized
soft steel with teeth and slots.
The relationship among step angle, rotor teeth, and stator teeth is expressed using
the following equation:
46
N s − Nr
ψ= × 360° ------(1)
Ns × Nr
In this circuit, the rotor is shown with fewer teeth than the stator. This ensures that
only one set of stator and rotor teeth will align at any given instant.
The stator coils are energized in groups referred to as phases.
According to above Eq., the rotor will turn 30° each time a pulse is applied.
Figure (a) shows the position of the rotor when phase A is energized. As long as
phase A is energized, the rotor will be held stationary.
Fig.4
• When phase A is switched off and phase B is energized, the rotor will turn 30°
until two poles of the rotor are aligned under the north and south poles
established by phase B.
47
• By repeating this pattern, the motor will rotate in a clockwise direction. The
direction of the motor is changed by reversing the pattern of turning ON and
OFF each phase.
• The disadvantage of this design for a stepper motor is that the steps are
generally quite large (above 15°).
• Multistack stepper motors can produce smaller step sizes because the motor
is divided along its axial length into magnetically isolated sections, or stacks.
Result:
48
EXPT. NO.:
DATE:
AIM:
To determine the transfer function of separately exited generator.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
IL(s)/Vf(s) = Kg /(Rf+sLf)(Rl+sLa)
Where
Vf(s)- Excitation Voltage
Rf, Lf - Field resistance & Inductance
If(s) - Field Current
Kg – Induced emf constant in V/Amp
Ll – Total load Inductance
Rl – Total load resistance
DC GENERATOR
Circuit Diagram
DETERMINATION OF Ra :
Circuit Diagram
Tabulation
S.No Va (V) Ifa (A) Ra =Va/Ia(Ω )
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Mean value of Ra =
50
DETERMINATION OF Rf :
Circuit Diagram
Tabulation
S.No Vf (V) If (A) Rf (Ω )=Vf/If
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Mean value of Rf =
51
Determination of La
Circuit Diagram
Determination of Lf
Circuit Diagram
PROCEDURE:
Determination of Kg:
1. Give the connection as shown in fig to measure Ra & Rf and note down
the V & I
2. To measure La &Lf give the connection as shown in fig.
3. Apply an AC voltage & measure the field reactance Zf & armature
reactance Za.
4. Calculate Lf= Sqrt(Zf2 – Rf2) /2πf
5. Calculate La = Sqrt(Za2 – Ra2) /2πf
RESULT:
53
EXPT. NO.:
DATE:
STUDY OF SYNCHROS
AIM:
To study the characteristics of Synchros.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
phase transformer in which the rotor coil is the primary and stator coil is the
secondary.
Let Vs1, Vs2 & Vs3 be the voltage induced in the stator coils S1,S2 and S3 with respect
to the neutral. Then, for the rotor position of the synchro transmitter shown in the fig.
2 where the rotor axis makes an angle θ with the axis of the stator coil S2
When θ = 0, from equations (1), (2) and (3), it is seen that the maximum voltage is
induced in the stator coil S2 , while it follows from the equation (6) from that the
terminal voltage Vs3s1 is zero . This position of the rotor is defined as the “electrical
zero” of the transmitter and is used as reference for specifying the angular position of
the rotor. The input to the synchro transmitter is the angular position of its rotor shaft
and the output is a set of 3 single-phase voltages given by equations (4) to (6). The
magnitude of these voltages is function of the shaft position.
The outputs of the synchro transmitter are applied to the stator windings of a “synchro
control transformer”. The rotor of the control transformer is cylindrical in shape so
that the air gap is practically uniform. The system acts as an error detector.
Circulating currents of the same phase but of different magnitude flow through the
two sets of stator coils. This results in the establishment of an identical flux pattern in
the gap at the control transformer as the voltage drop in resistances and leakage
reactances of the two sets of stator coils are usually small. The voltage induced in the
55
control transformer rotor is proportional to the cosine of the angle between the two
rotors (φ) and is given by
When φ =900, the voltage induced in the control transformer is zero. This position is
known as electrical zero position of the control transformer.
PROCEDURE:
Tabulation 1:
1. Give connections as given in the circuit diagram.
2. Vary the input position and note the output position.
3. Plot the variation in output position with respect to the input position.
Tabulation 2:
1. Give excitation to the rotor winding.
2. Measure the output voltage across S1-S2, S2-S3 and S3-S1 of stator
windings for different rotor positions.
3. Plot the voltage Vs. angle characteristics.
56
TABULATION: I
TABULATION : II
RESULT:
INFERENCE:
57
EXPT. NO:
DATE :
AIM:
To design a compensator network for the process given in the Process Control
Simulator.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
Practical feedback control systems are often required to satisfy design
specification in the transient as well as steady state regions. This is not possible by
selecting good quality components alone (due to basic limitations and characteristics
of these components). Cascade compensation is most commonly used for this purpose
and design of compensation networks figures prominently in any course in automatic
control systems.
In general, there are two situations in which compensation is required. In the
first case the system is absolutely unstable and the compensation is required to
stabilize it as well as to achieve a specified performance. In the second case the
system is stable but the compensation is required to obtain the desired performance.
The systems which are of type 2 or higher are usually unstable. For these systems,
lead compensator is required, because the lead compensator increases the margin of
stability. For type 1 and type 0 systems stable operation is always possible. If the gain
is sufficiently reduced, in such cases, any of three components viz. Lag, Lead, Lag –
Lead must be used to obtain the desired performance. The simulation of this behavior
of the Lead – Lag Compensator can be done with the module (VLLN – OI).
An electronic Lead - lag network using Operational amplifiers is given
figure 1.
C2
C1 R2 R4
- -
R1 + R3 +
PROCEDURE:
RESULT :
INFERENCE:
61
EXPT. NO.:
DATE:
STUDY OF P, PI, PID CONTROLLERS
AIM:
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
THEORY:
Proportional control:
In presenting the various tuning techniques we shall assume the basic control
configuration, wherein the controller input is the error between the desired output and
the actual output. This error is manipulated by the controller (PID) to produce a
command signal for the plant according to the relationship.
U(s)=Kp (1+(1/sτi)+sτd)
Where Kp= proportional gain constant
τI= integral time constant.
τd= Derivative time constant.
PROCEDURE:
1. Give the step input to the system selected and obtain the response using
CRO.
2. For the obtained response (S-shaped curve), draw a tangent at the
inflection point and find its intersection with the time axis and the line
corresponding to the steady-state value of the output.
3. Find the dead time L where the tangent cutting X- axis, and the time
constant T which is specified in model graph.
4. From the value of L and T, find the value of Kp, τI and τd settings by using
the following formulas: Kp = 1.2(T/L) , τI = 2L and τd = 0.5L.
5. Connect the unknown system in closed loop with the help of a PID
controller and substitute all those values obtained in the previous step.
63
6. Simulate the system with a step input and view the response using CRO.
7. Comment on the response obtained using controller.
M(s)
R(s) E(s) C(s)
C(s)
RESULT:
INFERENCE:
66