CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

In Nigeria today and world over, one issue that has

constantly draw the attention of government and

environmentalists is the management of waste and

protection of the decaying environment. The problems of

solid waste are real and can be seen as litters or heaps along

roads and streets in our cities and towns.

Generally waste is closely tied to economic prosperity

and increased urbanization. Increased urbanizations have a

direct--- on the problems facing management of waste and

disposal options available. Today we talk about clean cities

such as London, Newyork, Paris and Florida. [California

integrated waste management board (2002)].

If the problems associated with improper handling of

wastes were merely physical that is noxious, unsightly and

dirty as thought by so many, it would have been treated

lightly. Unfortunately chronic and acute waste problems

exist as result of chemical constituents which are either

dangerous or are capable of transforming into other lethal

by-product.

Municipal solid waste (msw) may refer to the materials

discarded in towns and urban centers which may include

household refuse¸ institutional wastes, street sweepings,

commercial waste, as well as construction debris.

 Waste generation in Portharcourt is about 1.2 million

tons per annum composition is about 50% organic matter,

and about 30%-40% recyclable materials namely plastics,

glass and other metallic. Ubaro C Rupert 2002. According to

zero waste America, waste is a resource that is not safely

recycled back into the environment. Waste can also be

defined as anything or material discarded because it has no

further use for the owner, producer or processor. Christian T.

H and Cossa (1998). However contrary to this view, waste is

actually a resource.

Appropriate technologies for waste burning is about to

control the generation, storage, collection, transportation

and disposal of solid waste using engineering principles in

the way and manner that are economically suitable and

environmentally friendly. Management of waste in Nigeria

and word over has been carried out using technologies such

as¸ Incineration, Recycling, Composting, dumping (open),

Sanitary landfills, Compactors, and other mechanical-

 biological means. Transportation of waste is also a key point

in waste management.

In this project work we have x-rayed the composition of

solid waste as a raw material or input for Incinerators,

charcoal as a moderator for keeping the walls of the

refractor for some time, utilizing the heat for baking food

items in an inbuilt oven inside the incinerator, equipment

redesign (incineration), since in developed world they use

incinerator to generate electricity, here we use to reduce the

volume of waste to be generated by each household to the

municipality and with careful selection and pyrolysis for

plastics, rubber bags as a recycling technology.

Significantly the work has exposed the management

systems that are proper for municipal solid waste in Nigeria,

and utilizing the heat being generated by this waste and

given economic conditions that are prevalent and the

environment in mind.

1.1 AREA OF STUDY

 The management has a pressing effect on human

populations, as material consumption expands. In error, one

might reason that the economic hardship in Nigeria would

have a positive effect on the nature and quality of waste

generated, but this is not to be.

Numerous bottlenecks have been linked with the

existence of waste in the environment, the indiscriminate

dumping on street and water ways. Put severally, the lack of

appropriate technology has been the major cause of heaps

of refuse on roads, blocked water ways, unhealthy

environment etc

The research studies the available technology word

wide and has recommended solutions to the seemingly

unresolved Nigeria waste management problems.

1.2.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

I. To reduce the volume of waste being generated by each

household to the community

II. Ensuring safe handling disposal and burning of solid

waste.

III. To avoid environmental pollutions.

IV. To ensure the application of appropriate technology to the

management of domestic solid waste and to protect the

environment.

V. To reduce burning of hydrocarbons generated by

polythene and rubber bags which is harmful to man and

animals and the environments.

VI. To reduce global warming/dimming.

1.3 SCOPE OF STUDY

Waste is of different type of character, ranging from

gaseous waste to liquid waste to sewages, hazardous waste,

to radioactive waste and solid municipal waste.

This project is restricted to the handling of domestic

waste only with careful selection and extraction of cooking

and cooked foods to be dried and used for animal feeds,

polythene bags for pyrolysis, also utilization of heat being

generated by the incinerator for baking, with the aim of

reducing the volume of waste generated by each household

to the community.

1.4 METHODOLOGY

In order to achieve the set objectives of this project ,

we reference literatures on similar researches, on

improvement incineration and incinerators, they include

publications, conference proceeding, textbooks, journals as

well as electronic library (internet).

Contact has been made to the center of industrial

studies (C.I.S) of the Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University

(ATBU) for the construction of the incinerator casing and the

inbuilt oven, while also contact was made to the industrial

design program (I.D.P), the ceramic guiding and preparation,

molding, firing and building of the refractory lined material

inside the incinerator.

2.0.4 Other types of incinerators that can be

constructed cheaply are:

 Water wall incinerators

 Multi-waste incinerators

 Refractory lined incinerators

2.0.5 Water wall incinerator: These are incinerator used

mainly to heat water through a pipe passing through a

building to heat the water in toilet, and also heat the

building, these are mainly used in Europe. Christian T. H and

Cossa (1998).

2.0.6 Multi-waste incinerator: These are incinerators used

to burn different kind of waste ranging from polyethylene

bags, papers, grass, shrubs, woods etc. it is widely employed

to burn different waste without the use or utilization of the

heat. Christian T. H and Cossa (1998)

2.0.7 Refractory lined incinerators: This is the type of

incinerator which is built with refractory lined bricks, to hold

the heat being generated by the waste and this heat may be
 utilized for something else. Christian T. H and Cossa (1998).

In this work, careful study is being made on our point of

interest which is the refractory lined incinerator with an

inbuilt oven, to utilize the heat for the baking of bread, cake

etc.

2.0.8 Construction of the planet: how we are going about

constructing the incinerator, the frame will be made with a

11/2ll x 11/2ll pipe to be welded into rectangular shape, before

using a mild steel metal to cover the rectangular frame by

welding or with the use of welding.

2.0.9 the baking oven: the baking is made up of aluminum

sheet which is a very good conductor of heat and it will be

painted black to enable it absorb heat much more, or

because we know that black body is a very good conductor

of heat.

2.1.0 Fire brick lining: the larger type of flue can be linned

with firebricks. These linning are usually a half or one while

brick in thickness, this work can be done with either dense

 refractory firebricks or the lighter type of fossalsil flue bricks.

BS1758 covers the requirement refractories which include;

1. The chemical composition, the silica and

aluminum content laid down as follow;

 Class K1, K2, L and M all containing 75% silica

 Class N 28-35% alumina

 Class P1 and P2 35- 40% alumina

 Class Q1, Q2 and Q3 40-45% alumina

 Class K1 and K2 are special parpose type (W.G. Nash Brick work 3)

2. Dimension tolerance: 95% of the bricks taken for testing

should not vary from there stated dimensions by more than

2%. Their cavity should not be more than 1.6mm in 305mm

for class K and not more than 3.2mm in 305mm for other

class (W.G Nash Brick works 3 pg 270-283).

3. Coniditions and workmanship: bricks and shapes shall be

true to form and have sharp edges. They shall be free from
deleterious cracks, laminations, cavities and black core. W.G

Nash Brickworks 3.
 4. Identification: suitable means shall be provided to identify

the class of all consignment of bricks and shapes. W.G Nash

Brickworks 3.

2.1.1 Refractory linings:

Fire bricks can generally be divided into various categories in

accordance with BS 1758 as follows;

1. High-duty fire bricks: these contain about 40-42%

alumina and are capable of withstanding sever

operating conditions. They are exceptionally resistance

to slag attack and erosion by grit laden gasses at high

temperature, these would have a cold crushing strength

of about 211 kgf/cm2.

1 P1 medium firebricks: these have slightly higher silica and a

little lower alumina content. They are first class-bricks for

general purposes and are able to withstand rapid thermal

changes without cracking. They would have a cold crushing

strength of about the same as for the high duty firebricks.

2 N-general duty firebricks: these are general purpose where

conditions are not sever enough to warrant the use of

aluminous firebricks, but where the volume stability and high

mechanical strength of these bricks can be used to advantage.

The cold crushing strength of this groups is about 246 kgf/cm2

The second and third group would generally be suitable

for the lining of the second and third group would generally

be suitable for the lining of chimneys. These are embedded

with a powdered fire clay mixed with water to a soft

consistency. It is usually “buttered” on the brick rather than

having the bed spread on the which have already being laid,

as for normal brickwork the mixed fireclay is better handled

if it is put into shallow boxes rather than attempting to put it

on a mortar board. The joints should be kept thin as possible,

though well filled with fireclay. W.G Nash Brickworks 3.

2.1.2 Fossalsil lining: These bricks should be stored under

cover and kept dry until needed, they must not be exposed

to frost if they have advertently become wet.

 These bricks should be soaked for about an hour before

they are laid. The bricks are sets in a mortal consisting of

four fossalsil powder to one part Portland cement by volume.

No sand should be added to the mix. The mortar should be

applied to the brick which is being laid rather than spreading

it along the wall as for normal brick work. The joint should be

kept as thin as possible to ensure sound joint, 3mm in all

that is necessary. The consistency of the mortar should be

somewhat wetter than ordinary mortar and should be placed

in a shallow sided box rather than put on a mortar board.

For estimating purposes 152.4 kg of fossalsil powder is

required per 1000 fossalsil bricks. 609.6 kg of cement are

required for each 10.6 kg of fossalsil.

In frosty weather, fossalsil work must be covered up

overnight and in severe conditions, a fire can be lit at the

bottom of the flue to keep work warm and free from frost

attack. W.G Nash Brickwork 3.

2.1.3 Furnace lining with refractory concrete: Refractory

concrete has to withstand high temperatures, thermal stress,

abrasion, corrosion and slag attack. It is therefore essential

that no further load should be placed upon it, so super-

imposed load should be kept at a minimum. Tensile and

bending loads must be avoided as it is almost impossible to

reinforce refractory linings in the same way as structurally

reinforced concrete. Heavy reinforcement expands at a

greater rate than refractory concrete at high temperatures

and can therefore disrupt the concrete and causes severe

cracking.

Despite the fact that heavy structural reinforcement is

not suitable, the modern practice of lining furnaces

monolithically with relatively thin walls of refractory concrete

something makes it necessary to support the lining from the

furnace casing or other structural framework.

Metal anchors are commonly used for these purpose, if

these are positioned so that each anchor has one end fixed

to the steel work exposed to air, the other end protected

from the furnace temperature by a suitable cover of each

refractory concrete with a relatively low thermal

 conductivity, the anchor will remain relatively cool and will

afford effective support. W.G Nash Brick work 3.

2.1.4 Joint In refractory lining.

For furnaces which operate at a temperature of about

10000c, it is usually possible to dispense with expansion

joint. If a wall is cast cheque-fashion in built-jointed bags

about 1m2 each butt joint may open slightly when the

structure cools after the structure cools after the first firing.

The thermal characteristic of refractory concrete are

responsible for this. These joint will however close when the

furnace again at operating temperature. It is important that

sand or scale particles do not become lodged in this joint as

they may cause spalling in the refractory concrete. The joint

therefore must be designed to prevent this from happening.

W.G Nash Brick works 3.

2.1.5 Repairs of fire brick work

A mix of one part of high alumina cement to 21/2 parts

of 3mm to dust of firebricks can be used when thin joint are

not needed in the repairs. But for laying or painting firebricks

work a finer mix of one part high alumina cement to two

parts of 2mm to dust of firebricks should be used. If more

plasticity is needed, then raw fireclay up to percent of the

weight of the cement can be added.

For stopping cracks or leaks in firebrick work the following

mix can be used;

 One part high alumina cement, one part of fire

brick dust 2mm down.

1
 One part raw ground fireclay, /4 part short

asbestos fiber.

The dry ingredients are thoroughly blended and water is

added to give required consistency W.G Nash Brickwork 3.

A visit to the ceramic section of the industrial design

programme (I D P) of the Abubakar Tafawa Balewa

University Bauchi, exposed us readily available and cheaply

methods of moding 3 types of refractory bricks of your

choice, these includes;

2.1.6 laterite: this is the common laterite sand found almost

everywhere in Bauchi, they are categorized based on their

mixture content.

2.1.7 laterite mixed with cement: this is a 90% mixture of

laterite sand and 10% of cement. When mixed properly,

water will be poured gently and turning it at the same time.

When mixed it will stick to your hand and some quantity will

be fetched with hand and drop with the force of gravity, on

the ground, when it separates or scattered, on reaching the

ground, it simply means that it is properly mixed, then the

mixture will be taken to a molding press to be put inside the

mould and pressed. When it is press, then a brick will be

taken out of the press and placed on a flat surface, sprayed

with a lather. At that point in time you will be able to climb

unto the fresh brick, it will not deform it no matter your

weight.

The molded brick will be covered with a leather for one

week, after a week it will be opened and watered to add

more strength to the brick. After watering for a week, then

the brick can be immersed in water for one more week, it

will be noticed that there will be no crack, no melting or

dissociation of its particles.

Advantages of laterite mixed with cement bricks

1. It does not allow heat to pass or escape through it ,

thereby it used to be lined after the laterite.

2. It is going to be fired in oven or in space, thereby no

wastage of fuel and time.

3. It does not allow impact of rainfall and the environment

to deface the brick.

Disadvantages of laterite mixed with cement bricks

1. It has more weight when compared to with laterite

bricks and Kaoline/saw dust bricks.

2. It does not withstand high temperatures for example

from 700-9000c

Laterite bricks: This is a refractory bricks made with purely

laterite without the mixture of cement. It is mixed with water

when sticky then a handmade mould is used to mould the

bricks, then it will be left to dry until when there is no any

amount of moisture detected on the bricks, then it will be

gathered and placed on top of woods in an open space,

woods will also be placed on top of the bricks until it was all

covered. Then fire will be lit and the brick will be heated for

about 4-5 hours, then the bricks will be allowed to cool itself,

after cooling before it will be gathered and stored for used.

Advantages of laterite bricks

1. It has more weight when compared with laterite

mixed with cement.

2. It can withstand more heat than the laterite

cement for about 800-9000c.

3. It does not allow heat to pass through it through

like the kaolin/sawdust bricks.

Disadvantages of laterite bricks

 1. It has to be fired to archive strength and withstand

heat and abrasion, thereby causing the waste of

fuel and time.

2. It is heavier than the kaoline/sawdust refractory

bricks

3. It can not withstand heat like that of

kaoline/sawdust refractory linning bricks.

2.1.9 kaoline and sawdust refractory bricks:

This is a brick made with kaoline and sawdust of 50%

each combination. It will be measured on a wheel barrow of

saw dust is exactly one bag of kaoline which is 50% each. It

is poured on a bare floor and mixed together, and it

becomes sticky very well.

Then the mixture will be matched with bare foot to

soften the mixture and prevent cluster mixing, then the

mixture will be covered and allowed to stayed for at least

12-16 hours, probably the next day.

 After the next day, you bring out your mould and start

to mould the brick of your required shaped and sizes. After

the bricks has dried then it will be taken into oven and fired

for up to 12000c.

Advantages of kaoline/sawdust refractory bricks.

1. It is lesser in weight as compared with the laterite

mixed with cement and laterite refractory bricks.

2. It has the ability to hold heat or to withstand heat of

about 1900-20000c

3. It has high strength, more than the two types mention

above.

4. These materials are sourced locally and they are cheap

and readily available.

Disadvantages of Kaoline/sawdust refractory bricks

1. It losses heat more easily than the laterite mixed

with cement and laterite bricks.

 When kaoline/sawdust bricks are used to build kilns to

hold the heat while the laterite/cement is used to cover

the koaline/sawdust briks to prevent rain and other

environmental impact on the surface of the kiln.

Industrial design program (I.D.P) ceramics section ATBU

Bauchi.

2.2.0 Flues for industrial appliances

All flues must be fitted with an insulating liner. This will

provide a smooth base for the gasses to pass through and

will protect the surrounding brickwork or stone work against

damaged which might be cause by condensation of the fluid

gasses, water vapor is one the chief products of combustion

and it has been estimated for every kilograms of fuel

burned, the amount of water vapor outlined below are

produced.

 Solid fuel – 0.4kg of water vapor

 Oil – 1.2kg of water vapor

 Gas – 1.33kg of water vapor

 Therefore the concentration of water vapor is least for

solid fuels and highest for gas, fact which in turn mean the

fuel temperatures must be kept at the higher level for gas

fired boilers if condensation is to be avoided.

In other to archive this, the flue liner must be insulated

by a cavity between the liner and the surrounding brickwork.

This cavity should be either left hollow or filled with light

weight insulating material such as exfoliated mica. This will

prevent the heat from being transferred through the liners

into the surrounding structure. The gasses will then remain

warmer and consequently the amount of condensation will

be reduced. It is also must important to ensure that there is

no possibility of any rain getting in between the brick work

and liners, which would drastically impaired insulation.

Therefore the chimney stack must provide good

protection against the destruction of rain with properly

constructed capping, suitable flashing and a damped proof

course.
 Flues should be as straight as possible, bends and

offsets increase heat losses from the gasses and reduced the

available flue drought, which increases the risk of

condensation. If bends are necessary (e.g where boiler

output pipe is connected to external chimney) the angle the

pipe makes with the horizontal should never be less than

450.

Due to characteristic, suitability, affordability, readily

availability of materials and cheap methods of production,

we decided to use the kaolin and sawdust refractory bricks

to lined our incinerator and to serve as the parameters that

will govern our design.

The parameters which govern our design are:

 The refractory bricks

 Temperature and

 Time

2.2.1 OTHER WASTE DISPOSAL TECHNOLOGIES

 These options cover a spectrum that ranges from

simple sanitary landfills of untreated domestic refuse,

through various transfer stations to remote landfills sites and

to the higher capital cost of recycling plant pyrolosis and

composting. Every one of these alternative require lands for

its residue and in general operational cost and capital

investments are inversely proportional land or volume

consumed by the system.

2.2.2 OPEN DUMPNG

Here refuse is dumped indiscriminately on the ground

or in open pit. Open dumping is a common practice in most

part of Nigeria and Bauchi in specific. The disposals

technique is most crude and primitive. Disposal of this kind

of unsightly, smells foul and possess health risk to the

human populations.

2.2.3 SEA DUMPING

This disposal open option involves the dumping of

waste with large garbage barges into water bodies at

sufficient distance away from the shores.

2.2.4 SANITRY LANDFILL

Final disposal of waste at sanitary landfill is giving the

lowest priority in an integrated waste management

approach. It consist of placing the solid waste in spreading

and compacting it into layers and covering with soil, typically

6 inches deep per 4ft layers of solid waste. Sanitary landfill

may include trench method which employs existing gullies or

pit. Disposing all municipal waste collected at landfills is not

desirable from the social, economic and environmental point

of view. Landfill that are not properly handled causes

leachate (Obika, co. 1998).

2.2.5 COMPOSTING

Composting is an ecosystem which generates its own

heat that is temperature within the composting mass rises

faster than it is dissipated to the surrounding. The

composting process is currently viewed as waste

management method to stabilize organic waste as manure,

 yard trimmings, municipal bio-solids and organic urban

waste, (Aemurerhimen, D.C 2004)

Compost from solid waste has good moisture retaining

capacity and is not easily washed away as chemical

fertilizers.

Window composting is an established technology for

dealing with green waste, where the material is pilled in

elongated rows and aerated through either turning of

windrow or through air forced through the material

2.2.6 RECYCLING

The definition of recycling is to pass a substance

through a system that enables the substance to be reused. It

also refers to the recovery of materials from solid waste

stream for use as raw materials in the manufacturing of new

products. Waste recycling involves the collection of waste

materials and the separation and clean-up of these waste

materials.
 Recycling means that fewer new product and

consumables needs to be produced, saving raw materials

and reducing energy consumption.

2.2.7 COMPACTORS

These are mechanical piece of equipment that can be

used to compress trash and reduce their volume at source.

Compactors are of different types, electrically operated

VERT-1-PACK (V.I.P), MINI-MAC APARTMET COMPACTOR,

JETPACK (JP-6) and MPT (CONTAINER, PRECRUSHER

COMPACTORS AND STATIONARY COMPACYORS)

According to Ibokun 2004, because of the high cost of

electrically operated ones, manually operated ones are

imminent.

2.2.8 OTHER PRE-TREATMENT OPTIONS FOR RESIDUAL

WASTE

 STEAM REFORMATION PROCESS: In these processes,

wastes are subject to autoclaving or steam processing.

 This helps to sanitize and reduce reduce residual

municipal solid waste to a “flock” like material with

metals and glass partially cleaned for extraction as

recyclable.

 PULVERISATION: this is amechanical separation that is

archived by the action of metal balls to facilitate

separation into useful fraction. (Martin 2003)

2.2.9 LIMITATION AND MODIFICATIONS

OPEN DUMPING AND LANDFILL SITES

The more waste we generate the more we have to

dispose off. Some methods of waste disposal release are

pollutants and green house gasses into the atmosphere.

Waste recycling offer one means of reducing the impact of

waste disposal on the atmosphere, but there are other

methods of waste disposal which are more environmental

friendly.

As observed, the most common disposal methods,

particularly in Nigeria are open dumping, landfill that are

 unsanitary and to a lesser extent incineration. Some waste

from sewage sludge, is also placed in landfill sites, along

with waste from mining home hold solid waste.

Furthermore, the leachate fluids formed from

decomposing waste can permit through the underlying and

surrounding geological strata, polluting ground water which

may be used for drinking water supplies.

2.3.0 INCINERATION

This is the second largest disposal method in most

countries. In most advanced countries, approximately 5% of

house hold waste, 7.5% of commercial waste, and 2% of

industrial waste is disposed by incineration. When burning

waste, a large amount of energy carbon dioxide and other

potentially hazardous air pollutants is giving off. High

moisture content posses serious problems to incineration of

organic waste in Nigeria. This makes the system

uneconomical. Mustapha, R .2004

2.3.2 MODIFICTIONS

Modern incinerators can use this waste energy to

generate electricity or for heating water, buildings, baking

etc and hence prevent the energy from being wasted and

prevent pollution of the environment.

Incinerator plant ranges from large scale, mass burn

and municipal waste incinerator to smaller clinical waste

incinerators used in hospitals.

Waste recycling: Recycling of waste is an effective mean of

disposal with the little problems of construction of recycling

plant. (Ubaro C. Rupert 2002)

In this project we have critically studied incineration,

pyrolysis, home composting, equipment redesign and

recycling in an improved manner as to solve the seemingly

unending wasting management disposal and burning and

also the waste of the energy being produced by these waste

when burnt.