KJC 428

Structural Design IV
Design of Steel Structures
Pg KJC428-IX-1

IX JOINTS

IX-1 INTRODUCTION

1. Joints are areas of the structure where the loads are transferred from one element
to another. The joint details include:
i. Stiffeners at Concentrated load
ii. Bolted connections
iii. Welded connections
iv. Base Plate (Joints to foundations)

IX-2 STIFFENERS AT CONCENTRATED LOAD

1. At areas of concentrated loads such as point loads or reactions forces, the web
must check the web for web bearing and web buckling due to these large local
forces. If necessary, web stiffeners must be designed

Areas of possible web bearing and

web buckling due to large
concentrated forces.

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2. Web Bearing in Unstiffened Web [4.5.2.1]

Unstiffened implies no web stiffeners. This clause is used to determine the web
bearing capacitym, Pbw, of unstiffened web. If the bearing capacity is exceeded,
bearing stiffeners are required.

The stress dispersion is different for end of the member or away from end of
member.

i. End of Member

be b1 nk

T r
Dispersion of
Stiff bearing stress

ii. Not at End of Member

D
Stiff Bearing
Tb
Tb Dispersion of
T stress
r

b1

b1 + 2nk

b1 = D + 2Tb

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iii. The length b1 is defined as the stiff bearing length. See Fig. 13 for examples of
b1. The dispersion of stresses are at 45 deg in stiff bearing [CL 4.5.1.3]
iv. The web bearing capacity, Pbw, is given by:

Pbw = (b1 + nk) t pyw [CL 4.5.2.1]

Where
k = T + r for rolled UB or UC
k = T for welded UB or UC
n= 5 for bearing not at end of member
n = 2 + 0.6be/k ≤ 5 for bearing at end of member

3. Web Buckling in Unstiffened Web [CL 4.5.3.1]

i. End Bearing (ae ≤ 0.7d)

End bearing is defined as concentrated loads where the point of load
application (ae) is at a distant less than 0.7d.

d b1 nk
be
t

T r k Dispersion of
Stiff bearing stress
ae Px
End Bearing
(Defined as ae ≤ 0.7d)

The buckling capacity of unstiffened web in end bearing is given by:

a e + 0.7d 25εt
Px = Pbw [CL4.5.3.1]
1.4d ( b1 + nk ) d
where Pbw is from the web bearing capacity [CL4.5.2.1], and the definitions of b1,
n and k is similar to that of CL 4.5.2.1

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Intermediate Bearing (ae > 0.7d)

Intermediate bearing is defined as concentrated loads where the point of load

application (ae) is at a distant greater than 0.7d.

D
Px
Stiff Bearing
Tb
Tb Dispersion of
T k stress

b1
r
t
b1 + nk

ae

Intermediate Bearing
(Defined as ae > 0.7d)

The buckling capacity of unstiffened web in intermediate bearing is given by:

25εt
Px = Pbw [CL 4.5.3.1]
( b1 + nk ) d

NOTE:
For the web buckling of both end bearing and intermediate bearing, it is important
for stability reasons that the web is restrained against

• rotation or
• lateral displacement

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Structural Design IV
Design of Steel Structures
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Rotation

Lateral
Displacement
MUST NOT
HAPPEN

Many failures in steel structures have occurred because restraints against rotation or
lateral displacement have not been provided.

If the restraints against rotation or lateral displacement are not provided, the equation
for web buckling capacity, Px, given above cannot be used. Instead, the web buckling
resistance is reduce to Pxr, is given by:

0.7d
Pxr = Px [CL 4.5.3.1]
LE

where LE is from CL 4.7.2 (column buckling).

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IX-2 BOLTS AND BOLTED CONNECTIONS

1. INTRODUCTION

Thread

Hardened
Shank Washer

Hex Nut
Hex Head
L

Shank Thread

Bolt
Diameter, d Tensile Stress
Area

a. Types of bolts
i. Bearing Bolts (Non-Preloaded Bolts)

Grade Yield Stress Tensile Stress Comment

[kgf/mm2] [kgf/mm2]
4.6 24 40 Black Bolts
8.8 64 80 High Strength Bolt
Note: 1 kgf = 9.81 N

ii. High Strength Friction Grip Bolts (HSFG or Preloaded Bolts)

Friction Force

Bolt Tension
In HSFG bolts, the bolt tension develops friction force between the steel
plates, which resist the applied loads.

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2. BOLTS IN SHEAR (NON-PRELOADED BOLTS)

Mode of Failure
• Fracture at Net Section
• Bolt Shear
• End Failure of Plate
• Bearing
• Block Shear

a. Fracture at Net Section

This is a plate failure and NOT bolt failure, and this failure mode has already been
covered in tension member design.

b. Bolt Shear

Ps

Ps psAs

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Bolt shear Not in

thread

Bolt shear in thread

i. The bolt shear capacity is given by

Ps = ps As [CL 6.3.2]
Where
As = Shank area (A or Ash) if shear is not in the thread [CL 6.3.1]
= Tensile stress area (At) if shear is in the thread [CL 6.3.1]
ps = shear strength of bolts. [Table 30]

The tensile stress area can be found in bolt handbook and tabulated in
Appendix.

ii. Single shear and double shear

Ps

Ps psAs

Single Shear

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Ps
2 Ps

Ps

Ps

2 Ps psAs

psAs
Ps

Double Shear

Note that in double shear, the forces in the plate can be up to twice the
shear capacity of the bolts.

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b. Bearing & End Failure of Plate

e

Bearing Failure End Plate Failure

Pbb: Bearing stress Pbs: Bearing stress on bolt hole

on bolt [Table 31] of steel plate [Table 32]

Bearing failure can be due to excessive stress in the bolt (bolt bearing) or
excessive stress in the connecting plate (plate bearing).

i. The bolt bearing capacity is given by:

Pbb = d tp pbb [CL 6.3.3.2]

Where
tp is the plate thickness
d is the bolt diameter
pbb is given in Table 31

ii. The plate bearing capacity is given by:

Pbs = kbsd tp pbs [CL 6.3.3.3]

Where
kbs is the coefficient to allow for the type of bolt holes given in CL
6.3.3.3. For standard bolt hole, kbs = 1.0
pbs is given in Table 32

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iii. The end plate failure occurs if the end distant e is insufficient. The end
plate failure capacity is given by:

Pbs = 0.5kbse tp pbs [CL 6.3.3.3]

Where e is the end distance.

Note that BS 5950 combines the check for plate bearing and end plate
failure in the same clause.

c. Block Shear

Block shear failure is due to the combination of shear and tension failure in
a bolted connection. This failure mode has been discussed when we studied
Tension Members where the member is subjected to tension forces. Block
shear can also occur in members subjected to shear force.

Reaction Fr

Shear Failure Lv

Tension Failure
Lt

Check that Fr < Pr where

Pr = 0.6py t [Lv + Ke(Lt – kDt)] [CL 6.2.4 & Fig 22]

Where
Dt = hole diameter (for ordinary clearance hole)
k= 0.5 for single line of bolts
2.5 for two lines of bolts

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3. CLEARANCE HOLE FOR NON-PRELOADED (BEARING) BOLTS

[TABLE 33]

Standard Clearance

Bolt Diameter Hole Diameter

d D
d ≤ 12 13
16 ≤ d ≤ 24 d+2
d > 27 d+3

For other types of clearance (e.g oversize, short-slotted etc) see Table 33

4. BOLT SPACING
End Distant
sl e

Edge Distant
e

F
st

e
Edge Distant

Bolt Spacing (Non-corrosive environment)

14t ≥ sl ≥ 2.5d [CL 6.2.1.1 & CL 6.2.1.2]
st ≥ 2.5d [CL 6.2.1.1]

Edge and End Distant (Non-corrosive environment)

Rolled, machined flame cut (accurate fabrication)
11tε ≥ e ≥ 1.25D [CL 6.2.1.1 & Table 29]
Sheared, hand flame cut (not so accurate)
11tε ≥ e ≥ 1.4D [CL 6.2.1.1 & Table 29]

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5. BOLTS IN TENSION (NON-PRELOADED BOLTS)

S ≤ 0.55B

Ft ≤ Pnom
B

tp

Simple Method [CL 6.3.4.2]

Pnom = 0.8ptAt [CL 6.3.4.2]

Where
At = the tensile stress area
Pt = tension strength of bolts [Table 34]

In the simple method given by the above formula, the following are assumed:
• prying action need not be considered
• plate bending capacity per unit width is taken as tp2py/6 [kNmm/mm]

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Structural Design IV
Design of Steel Structures
Pg KJC428-IX-14

What is prying action?

Ft 2Ft
b a
Plate bending in
double curvature

b a

Ft + Q Ft + Q Ft + Q

Pry End Plate Under

Kuku kambing Tension Load
⎡a + b⎤
Ft + Q = Ft ⎢
⎣ a ⎥⎦

Prying action refers to the phenomenon whereby the bolt forces are increase from F to
(F + Q) due to lever action (See Fig 35). Note that for prying action to occur, the end
plate must bend, and in simple method, the bending capacity is limited as indicated
above.

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6. COMBINED TENSION AND SHEAR (NON-PRELOADED BOLTS)

Bolts in Tension and Shear

The interaction between shear and tension is given by:

Fs F
+ t ≤1.4 [CL 6.3.4.4]
Ps Pnom

and Fs ≤Ps

Ft ≤ Pnom
where
Ps is the minimum of (Ps [CL 6.3.2], Pbb and Pbs)
Fs is the applied shear force in the bolts
Ft is the applied tension force in the bolts.

The interaction can be depicted as:

1.0

Ft
Pnom

Fs
1.0 Ps
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7. PRELOADED BOLTS (HIGH STRENGTH FRICTION GRIP BOLTS)

a. Bolted connections subjected to vibration or load reversal NOT caused by

wind must be designed using HSFG bolts [CL 6.1.7]

b. The preloaded bolts shall be designed as one of the following cases:

i. bearing bolts [CL 6.3]
ii. non-slip in service load (bearing bolts in ultimate load)
iii. non-slip in both service and ultimate load

c. Case (i): Bearing Bolts

This design is similar to that of bearing bolts discussed above and governed
by CL 6.3.

d. Case (ii): Non-slip in service condition

• Service Condition
Friction force developed will resist the applied load with no slip between
the connected steel plates. The slip resistance Psl, is given by:
PsL = 1.1 Ks µ Po [CL 6.4.2]
Where
Ks = 1.0 for standard clearance
µ = slip factor (coefficient of friction) given in Table 35
Po = minimum shank tension

NOTE:
The slip resistance Psl, is checked against ultimate load even though the
check is for slippage in service condition [CL 6.4.1]

• Ultimate Condition
o Check shear
Ps = psAs [CL 6.3.2.1]
o Check bearing
Pbg = 1.5dtppbs ≤ 0.5etppbs [CL 6.4.4]

Where
pbs is the bearing strength from Table 32
e is the end distance

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Structural Design IV
Design of Steel Structures
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HSFG Bolt Friction Force

Fs Fs

Bolt Tension

No contact between bolt

and bolt hole Fs
Friction Force or Slip
Resistance Force PsL
Bolt Tension
Po
Service Condition

Contact between bolt and

bolt hole Fs
Bearing Force Pbg or
Shear Force Ps

Ultimate Condition

Fs ≤ MIN (PsL ,Ps, Pbg)

Always use ultimate load

e. Case (iii): Non-slip in both service and ultimate load

PsL = 0.9 Ks µ Po [CL 6.4.2]

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8. HSFG BOLTS SUBJECTED TO COMBINED SHEAR AND TENSION

[CL 6.4.5]

Case (ii): Non-slip in service condition (PsL = 1.1 Ks µ Po)

Fs F
+ tot ≤ 1.0
PsL 1.1Po
but
Ftot ≤ Atpt
Where
Ftot = total applied tension in bolts, including any prying action.
At = tensile stress area (bolt data)
Pt = tension strength of bolts [Table 31]
Po = specified bolt tension (bolt data)

Case (iii): Non-slip in both service and ultimate load (PsL = 0.9 µ Po)

Fs F
+ tot ≤1.0
PsL 0.9Po

9. HOW TO ENSURE THAT THE MINIMUM SPECIFIED BOLT TENSION

IS ACHIEVED?
a. Calibrated torque wrench
Torque wrench calibrated to achieve the desired tension in the bolts

b. Turn of Nut method

• Tightened bolts to snug tight, defined as the full human force until
there are not gaps between the surface in contact.
• Marked the nut position and turn another ½ to ¾ turn.

c. Tension indicators
• “Dimple washers”
• Tension control bolts

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Design of Steel Structures
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10. SUMMARY

NON-PRELOADED BOLTS OR BEARING BOLTS (GR 4.6, 8.8, 10.9)

a. Bolt shear [CL 6.3.2 & Table 30]

Ps = ps As

b. Bolt Bearing [CL 6.3.3.2 & Table 31]

Pbb = d tp pbb

c. Plate Bearing [CL 6.3.3.3 & Table 32]

Pbs = kbsd tp pbs ≤ 0.5kbse tp pbs

d. Bolt Tension [CL 6.3.4.2 & Table 34]

Pnom = 0.8ptAt

NON-PRELOADED BOLTS OR BEARING BOLTS (GR 4.6, 8.8, 10.9)

a. Bearing Bolt [Cl 6.3 & Table 30, 31 & 32]

Ps = ps As
Pbb = d tp pbb
Pbs = kbsd tp pbs ≤ 0.5kbse tp pbs

b. No Slip in Service Condition [CL 6.4.2, Table 35 & 32]

PsL = 1.1 Ks µ Po
Ps = psAs
Pbg = 1.5dtppbs ≤ 0.5etppbs

c. No Slip in Ultimate Condition [CL 6.4.2]

PsL = 0.9 Ks µ Po

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Structural Design IV
Design of Steel Structures
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IX-3 WELDED CONNECTIONS

1. INTRODUCTION
Welding Rod
Flux (Electrode)

Steel
Plates
High Current Source
Fillet weld Inert Gas (AC or DC)
(after cooling)

Molten Steel

a. Electric arc forms between the steel plates and welding rod (or electrodes) as a
result of the high electric current.
b. The heat generated by the arch (>3000 deg. C) melts the steel plates forming a
fusing bond when the molten steel cools down.
c. The high temperature also burns the flux, which produces inert (non-reactive)
gas. The inert gas (e.g. argon) then shields the molten steel preventing
impurities from dissolving into the molten steel. (Otherwise, dissolved
impurities will cause brittle welds)

2. ELECTRODES

Classification of Electrodes (Table 10)

Class Yield Strength Tensile Strength Minimum Elongation

(BS EN 440) (Ys) (Ue) [%]
[N/mm2] [N/mm2]
35 355 440 22
42 420 500 20
50 500 560 16

i. For fillet weld, always chose the electrode with yield strength equivalent
or greater than that of the parent steel plates. Also, the chosen electrode
strength must have Charpy impact value that matches or exceeds that of
the steel plates [CL 6.8.5].

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ii. For full and partial penetration weld, the yield strength, tensile strength,
minimum elongation and charpy impact values must match or exceed that
of the parent steel plates [CL 6.9.1].

iii. Class 50 is the most common electrode used.

3. TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS

a. Butt Weld, Fillet Weld & Welding Symbols

30o

30o
Double Bevel Butt Weld Single Bevel Butt Weld

Weld
Field Weld Symbol
Symbol Class 50 Welding
XX electrode Notes

30o

Weld Size

Welding Symbol (Partial

Penetration Butt Weld

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30o

Root
Butt Weld Edge Preparation

Backing Plate
Root Opening

XX Fillet Weld

• Butt weld is the most expensive, and requires most skill

• Fillet weld is the most economical and easiest

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b. Welding Position

Horizontal
Overhead

Most Economical Vertical Expensive

Least Skill High Skill

Pipe

All Position
Most Expensive
Most Highly Skilled

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4. FILLET WELDS [Fig. 27]

Effective length

L s (Weld leg length)

2s
(min)
Tw
Weld End
Return
L0
Weld stop short
Overall length

a. Weld end return ≥ 2s [CL 6.7.2.2]

b. Effective length [CL 6.8.2]

L = L0 – n s
L ≥ 4s
L ≥ 40 mm

Where n is the number of end return that does not continue around the corner.
In the above diagram, n=1.

c. L ≥ Tw [CL 6.7.2.4]

d. Lap Joints
Use double fillet weld

t
L

L ≥ 4t [CL 6.7.2.3]

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5. STRENGTH OF FILLET WELD

Positive Case (a) Equal Leg Fillet

curvature, Good [CL6.8.3, CL6.8.7.1 & Fig. 29]

a = s cos(45) < 0.7s

S Throat
a Thickness

Case (b) Unequal Leg Fillet

[CL6.8.3, CL6.8.7.1 & Fig. 29]

a = s2 cos(θ) < 0.7s

S1 where tan(θ) = S2/S1.
a

S2

Negative
curvature, Careful

Case (c) Acute Angled Fillet

S θ [CL6.8.3, CL6.8.7.1 & Fig. 29]
a
⎛θ⎞
a = s cos ⎜ ⎟ < 0.7s
⎝2⎠
S

Case (d) Obtuse Angled Fillet

[CL6.8.3, CL6.8.7.1 & Fig. 29]
θ
⎛θ⎞
a = s cos ⎜ ⎟ < 0.7s
a ⎝2⎠
.
S
S

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The design strength of the fillet weld, pw, over the throat thickness, a, is given
by [Table 37]. For Class 50 electrode, which is the most commonly used
electrode in building industry, the values of pw is also tabulated below:

Electrode Class 50

Steel Grade pw
[N/mm2]
Grade S275 (Gr 43) 220
Grade S355 (Gr 50) 250

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IX-4 BASED PLATE

1. PINNED VS FIXED COLUMN BASE

Column

Base Plate

Grout

Holding Down Bolts Concrete Foundation

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2. EFFCTIVE AREA METHOD [CL 4.13.2.1 & Fig. 15]

Actual Area 2c + t

Effective Area
2c + T

i. Effective area is that area in the base plate such that:

Fc
≤ 0.6 f cu [CL 4.13.2.1]
A eff
where
Fc is the applied axial load
fcu is the concrete grade

ii. The minimum required plate thickness,tp, for a concentrically applied axial
force (no bending moment) is given by [CL 4.12.2.2].

3w
tp = c but tp > T
p yp

where
Fc
w=
A eff
pyp = yield strength of the base plate

iii.

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Design of Steel Structures
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APPENDIX

Load Capacity (Grade 4.6 and Grade of S275 steel)

D Ash At Pt Shear Capacity Bearing capacity for bolts (kN) Bearing capacity for connected part
Single Shear for plate thickness (mm) (kN) for plate thickness (mm)
Shank Threads
2 2
Mm mm mm kN kN kN 6 8 10 12 6 8 10 12
16 201 157 30.6 32.1 25.1 41.7 55.6 69.6 83.5 44.1 58.8 73.6 88.3
20 314 245 47.7 50.2 39.2 52.2 69.6 87.0 104.4 55.2 73.6 92.0 110.4
22 380 303 59.1 60.8 48.4 57.4 76.5 95.7 114.8 60.7 80.9 101.2 121.4
24 452 353 68.8 72.3 56.4 62.6 83.5 104.4 125.2 66.7 88.3 110.4 132.4

Note:
D : Nominal bolt diameter
Ash : Shank area
At : Tensile stress area
Pt : Tension Capacity

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