Professional Documents
Culture Documents
February 2005
Women
and Water
Edwina Sandys
UNITED NATIONS
Division for the Advancement of Women
Department of Economic
and Social Affairs
women 2000 and beyond February 2005
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February 2005 women 2000 and beyond
away from a prime emphasis on pric- through greater and more effective equality in all the activities specified
ing and distribution issues to a focus participation. in Agenda 21, the Millennium
on the need for a more holistic view At the International Conference on Development Goals and the Plan of
of water resources management. Freshwater in Bonn in 2001, the policy Implementation of the Summit.10
Integrated Water Resources Manage statement emphasized the need for It has become increasingly accepted
ment (IWRM) is a cross-sectoral a gendered approach involving both that women should play an important
approach responding to the growing men and women, while also suggest- role in water management and that
demands for water in the context of ing that in order to achieve this, this role could be enhanced through
finite supplies. It is an approach that women’s roles in water-related areas the strategy of gender mainstreaming.
aims to secure the coordinated devel- needed strengthening.7 Further Gender mainstreaming is “the process
opment of water, land and related emphasis on equality (including gender of assessing the implications for
resources to optimize economic and equality) was given in the statement women and men of any planned action,
social welfare without compromising of the Third World Water Forum in including legislation, policies or pro-
the sustainability of environmental sys- Kyoto in 2003. In the quest for safe, grammes, in all areas and at all levels.
tems.5 Key points in policy include: clean water for all, many governments It is a strategy for making women’s
• Water should be treated as an face a crisis of governance and need as well as men’s concerns and experi-
economic, social and environmen- an integrated water resources man- ences an integral dimension of the
tal good; agement approach with transparent design, implementation, monitoring
• Water policies should focus on the and participatory approaches that and evaluation of policies and pro-
management of water and not just address ecological and human needs. grammes in all spheres so that women
the provision of water; The Ministerial Declaration stated, “In and men benefit equally.”11
• Governments should facilitate and managing water we should ensure In water policy, gender main
enable the sustainable develop- good governance with a stronger focus streaming is justified for reasons of
ment of water resources, including on household and neighbourhood efficiency and effectiveness; a gender-
a regulatory framework; community-based approaches by sensitive approach helps to ensure
• Water resources should be man- addressing equity in sharing benefits, that supplies are provided and man
aged at the lowest appropriate with due regard to pro-poor and gender aged more sustainably. It is also argued
level; perspectives in water policies. We that gender mainstreaming helps to
• There should be recognition that should further promote the participa- empower women and so furthers
women play a central role in the tion of all stakeholders and ensure broader goals of equality within society,
provision, management and safe- transparency and accountability in all contributing to poverty alleviation and
guarding of water. actions.”8 (emphasis added) social inclusion. In following sections
Other international meetings and some of these ideas are considered
policy statements, concerned with a in more depth and some of the key
Shifts in focus on women broad spectrum of goals from poverty implications for water resources man-
eradication to environmental sustain- agement are identified.
and gender equality
ability, have been concerned with both
In most recent international policy water and gender equality. The
statements and initiatives, a focus on Millennium Development Goals The importance of
women has been seen as critical to adopted at the Millennium Summit at gender perspectives
improving the management or gov- the United Nations in New York in
ernance of water within an overall 2000 included goals to “Promote
in water resources
context of poverty alleviation. At the gender equality and empower management
Second World Water Forum in The women” and to “Ensure environ
Hague (2000) it was recognized that, mental sustainability”. One of the
in addition to being prime users of targets for the goal on ensuring envi-
“domestic water”, women used ronmental sustainability is to “Halve Defining gender
water in their key role in food produc- by 2015 the proportion of people perspectives
tion and that women and children without sustainable access to safe Although many policy statements
are most vulnerable to water-related drinking water and basic sanitation”.9 still focus on women as disadvan-
disasters.6 The forum concluded that At the World Summit on Sustainable taged, others argue that it is inef
women’s involvement would improve Development in Johannesburg (2002) fective to focus on women in isola
governance. Since women bear the commitments were made to promote tion from their broader social
brunt of the burden of poor manage- women’s empowerment and eman- relationships. A concern for women
ment, they could be empowered cipation and incorporate gender has been expanded into a gender
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women 2000 and beyond February 2005
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February 2005 women 2000 and beyond
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women 2000 and beyond February 2005
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February 2005 women 2000 and beyond
may help to identify complemen minimization of losses within this. water, and that therefore the burden
tarities between different uses of The emphasis has been on water of responsibility for such management
water and facilitate integrated water users as farmers and on the outputs (and its outcomes) should fall upon
resource management. A brief out- in terms of increased agricultural them. This simplified approach has
line of the differing interests in production. Irrigation management been replaced by a more nuanced
water will help to illustrate some of transfer programmes encourage understanding that men and women
these linkages. farmers and rural communities to do have different priorities and per-
Women have long been a focus become the managers of such sup- ceptions regarding natural resources
in the domestic water subsector, their plies, with a particular concern with and that these will shape their involve-
central place based primarily on the devising workable rationing and dis- ment in management.
idea of their “natural” role as house- tribution systems. Local manage- In areas of environmental degrada-
hold managers. For many years ment, often conducted through irriga- tion and high male labour migration,
women have been identified as the tion committees or farmer for example, women assume the
main drawers of water,21 the primary associations, is usually dominated by prime responsibility for food produc-
promoters of hygiene behaviour men. Studies have shown the strate- tion and so changes to land access,
among children and those most likely gies that women farmers have to water supplies and labour availability
to benefit from improved water sup- employ to secure their irrigation may disproportionately affect them.
plies in terms of alleviation of the needs, such as stealing water, taking Poor rural families tend to depend
burden of their domestic tasks. In the water at night, and using male rela- heavily on common property
1980s, much of the work associated tives as champions to secure access resources such as water sources,
with the International Drinking Water to such water.24 Access to irrigated grazing lands and forests for food,
Supply and Sanitation Decade empha- water is also heavily dependent on fuel and fodder. Entitlement and
sized the water sector as a “women’s land rights (in which women often access to natural resources are often
sector” based on women’s responsi- have disadvantageous positions) and shaped by gender and other power
bilities and the household division of on control over labour. Many irrigated relations. A gender perspective could
labour.22 Much work identified multiple fields are worked by women and help to analyse how land rights, rights
public and private roles for women in children, and yet it is the men who of use and command over labour
the management of domestic water, dominate decision-making about the help to define inclusion in and exclu-
detailed the complexity of interaction distribution of water and often market sion from such resources, particularly
around women’s water use and high- the proceeds and determine the use in times of environmental stress and
lighted the need for planning within of the cash generated. natural disaster. For example, in
a social context. Women have played So far there has been little empha- Bangladesh people cope with floods
roles in this sector as village health sis on gender perspectives in subsec- by emergency selling of assets.
workers, hygiene educators and local- tors devoted to “Water for nature”,25 Women have been found to be at
level latrine builders and water-supply although it is well known that men greater risk of long-term flood-related
technicians. However, the domestic and women may have differing inter- economic loss than men, because
water subsector has been slow in ests in drought mitigation, flood pro- their assets such as jewellery and
expanding its focus to women’s pro- tection, and mangrove, forest and household utensils are devalued in
ductive concerns and to men’s involve- fisheries management. For example, such circumstances and command
ment in health and hygiene aspects in fishing communities men might lower prices than men’s assets such
of water and sanitation. fish in offshore or major inland water as farm implements and animals.27
A concern with gender perspec- bodies, while women fish close to A gender perspective also facili-
tives has only recently been incorpo- shore, and the fish-processing activi- tates looking beyond uses of water
rated into the irrigation sector, along- ties undertaken by women may be and other resources to the societal
side the recognition of women’s major under-recognized. In the 1980s and relations that place people in positions
role as farmers and producers of 1990s some “ecofeminists” claimed of advantage and disadvantage.
food.23 However, there are problems that women’s gender-specific inter- Recent work has used social and
with incorporating a gender analysis ests coincide with environmental gender analysis techniques to move
in irrigation, which has long been a conservation and that their instinctive beyond the identification of women’s
highly technical sector. Irrigation plan- understandings of nature make them and men’s separate vulnerabilities
ning is dominated by infrastructural “natural” environmental managers.26 towards understanding how building
and engineering approaches with However, such views are problematic on livelihood interdependencies
focus on the construction of systems, in gender-equality terms, as they within communities can strengthen
the proper maintenance of infrastruc- mirror ideas that women are the their resilience in the face of natural
ture, the distribution of water and “natural” managers of domestic disasters.28
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women 2000 and beyond February 2005
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February 2005 women 2000 and beyond
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women 2000 and beyond February 2005
ability to exercise agency in this way. constraining people’s active parti One study in Zimbabwe estimated
The strength of women’s negotiating cipation in water resources use and that the task of water collection
positions may depend crucially on the management. For example, in South required over 30 per cent of average
social and legal structure of rights Africa, women carers find themselves daily per capita calorie intake.38
within which these negotiations take physically taxed by the need to collect It should not, however, be
place. Women’s access to water and more water for bathing the sick per- assumed that all the health burdens
their role in management do not exist son. In urban areas loss of employ- associated with poor water supplies
in a vacuum, but are shaped by other ment and household income through are borne by women. In sub-Saharan
social relations and structures—rela- sickness leads to inability to pay for Africa, boys suffer more bilharzia
tions of family and marriage, caste utilities (water and electricity) and (schistosomiasis) than girls because
and class. ultimately disconnection.34 their gender roles as herders bring
Marital relations may play a large A gender analysis helps identify them into contact with water sup-
part in defining women’s access to ways in which the health impacts of plies contaminated with the parasite
resources and ability to act autono water resources affect women and more often.
mously, especially where they are men, girls and boys differently. For In South Asia, the division of
living with the husband’s family or in example, eye infections are particularly labour in irrigation work means that
the husband’s home village. Other common in water scarce areas, where women do not handle pesticides
examples show how women irriga- inability to maintain good hygiene is (for fear of adverse affects on their
tors are impeded from full partici an important factor in blindness and fertility). The detrimental side effects
pation in irrigation management by trachoma in children. Blindness also of pesticide use and pesticide-related
their lack of entitlement to inherit or affects the children’s main carers who deaths are therefore disproportion-
own irrigated land, while poor urban come into close contact with the infec- ately found among men.39 These
women suffer parallel disadvantage tions, and this is thought to be why examples illustrate the importance
in rarely having security of tenure of blindness disproportionately affects of a gender-sensitive understanding
their dwellings, and yet being respon- women worldwide.35 Malaria, a water- of livelihoods in relation to water
sible for raising cash to pay for water related disease that causes widespread resources and the differential risks
and sanitation facilities. morbidity and mortality in Africa, dis- inherent in these. While women may
proportionately affects women during generally bear the burden of inad-
pregnancy. Pregnant women with equate water supplies and water-
Women, water malaria are more likely to develop related work, there may also be
and health anaemia, which leads to higher risk of particular vulnerabilities relating to
maternal death. Infants born to moth- men’s roles. Gender analysis helps
ers with malaria are likely to have low identify and understand these risks
birth weight and thus be vulnerable to and illustrates how working towards
Linking water, other infections and diseases.36 gender equality should involve ben-
sanitation, health Another example of gender- efits to both men and women.
and hygiene practice specific disadvantage is the health
impact of water work on women.
There are clear benefits to be gained Where girls and women head-load Gender and sanitation
from improved access to water and water, this can have very negative
sanitation including reductions in water- health effects on them. It is common Improved sanitation is critically
related mortality and morbidity and to hear rural people say that men do linked to achieving the health benefits
positive impacts on productivity, child “heavy work” such as clearing fields, of clean water supplies, as it helps
development and quality of life. with the implication being that women to reduce the risk of faeco-oral trans-
Women’s care responsibilities are do comparatively light work. mission of disease. Well-used sanita-
often increased by water-related dis- However, buckets of water carried tion facilities, along with health educa-
eases, thus intensifying their labour, on the head can weigh up to 40 kg., tion and greater water use, are
reducing the amount of water they and the ergonomics of water carrying thought to reduce the mortality
can collect, and limiting the time they has been shown to have detrimental caused by diarrhoeal disease by about
can spend working or engaging in effects on the development and 65 per cent and morbidity by 26 per
community action. Additionally, the health of the spine, leading to deformi- cent.40 At the 2002 World Summit
impact of AIDS (although not a water- ties, arthritic disease and injury.37 The on Sustainable Development held in
related disease) is so far-reaching that energy consumption involved in water Johannesburg, South Africa, a target
it affects the whole range of house- collection can have negative impacts was set to reduce by half the propor-
hold capabilities and is increasingly on people with poor nutritional intake. tion of the 40 per cent of the global
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February 2005 women 2000 and beyond
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women 2000 and beyond February 2005
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February 2005 women 2000 and beyond
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women 2000 and beyond February 2005
However, gender approaches are their performance in this role neces- and benefits affect men and women
often implemented in a routinized sarily automatically advances gender differently. For the poorest people
and tokenistic way that does little to equality. In the Indian village studied the opportunity costs of such par
further goals of equality and effective- by Joshi, Lloyd and Fawcett, the ticipation may be prohibitive. Many
ness. A gender analysis of participa- diligent and enthusiastic woman poor households survive by hiring out
tion, decision-making processes and treasurer of the water and sanitation their own labour on a casual basis.
the workings of institutions helps us committee was the most vocal in If half a day spent at a meeting means
to understand why many efforts in pushing for the exclusion of the giving up half a day’s paid labour,
the past have led to women’s partial low-caste women of the village from such people are unlikely to participate.
involvement and why outcomes do all project benefits.51 The time constraints on women,
not necessarily favour them. particularly poor women, and the
limiting effects of this on their par-
The costs of ticipation have already been noted.
Essentializing Problems with long delays in
participation
replacing pumps and wells when men
women’s roles
The favoured way for managing are the caretakers led to calls for
There is a danger of perpetuating water at the local level is through the increased involvement of women.
myths and stereotypes about wom- establishment of user groups—water- Women often cite cultural constraints
en’s essential characteristics, that point committees, irrigators associa- on their mobility as a reason for not
not only ignore differences between tions and the like. An emphasis on attending meetings, particularly if
women, but also reinforce women’s the formalization of water manage- attendance involves travelling long
marginalization into areas where they ment through committees and con- distances or being out at night.
can exert little power or influence. tracts, and a concern with women’s However, women can sometimes
For example, there is an often- greater involvement in these, is con- use these cultural norms to their own
repeated assumption in the water sidered both efficient and empower- advantage, to avoid water manage-
sector that women make better ing. A gender analysis helps us to ment work. Women waterpoint com-
treasurers for water committees analyse both the costs and benefits mittee members in Zimbabwe were
than men.49 This assertion seems of women’s participation in such man- generally unwilling to take the extra
to be based on popular ideas that agement, and the ways in which their time, expense and inconvenience to
women are generally more reliable involvement advances or constrains travel to fetch pump technicians or
and trustworthy, more community their more general empowerment. to report pump breakdowns to district
spirited and less likely to spend on Participation in public decision- offices. They cited their domestic
personal consumption than men. making and in collective activities has responsibilities and “traditional” ideas
However, a gender analysis points very obvious costs and benefits in about the inappropriateness of travel-
towards a more complex view of terms of time and effort. Such costs ling alone in support of this reluctance
why and how certain women are
able to exercise authority as treasur-
ers. Dikito-Wachtmeister reported Overcoming gendered constraints
that the vast majority of water com- to articulation (Zimbabwe)
mittee treasurers she surveyed in
Zimbabwe were women who were
The following example illus older women, as this could be
reluctant to give men charge of the
trates the difficulties of secur perceived as being disrespect
money for fear they would spend it
ing all women’s participation. ful. I am a young woman who
on beer.50 But she also notes the
A study of women commit has just been married here
women actually chosen as treasurers
tee members in Zimbabwe for a few years, so I cannot
were generally older, richer women,
showed how wealth, kin be speaking often and taking
whose husbands did not drink, or
ship and marriage helped a lead in these things.”
who had jobs. Women reported that,
define which women were
“respected” enough to repre Source: Mercy S. Dikito-
in the case of working husbands, Wachtmeister, “Women’s
the money could be reclaimed from
sent others in water resources participation in decision-making
the man if the woman embezzled
management. One young processes in rural water projects:
it. Even if it were true that women
woman reported: “I cannot Makoni District, Zimbabwe (Ph.D.
possess naturally more trustworthy
be seen to be taking a leading thesis, University of Bradford,
role at meetings attended by 2000), p. 221.
characters and therefore make better
treasurers, it is questionable whether
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February 2005 women 2000 and beyond
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women 2000 and beyond February 2005
challenged or reproduced. Women they need to look beyond commit- of completing the project on time.59
may find it easier, less costly in terms tees and meetings. Negotiations Another project in India encouraged
of time and effort and more effective happen in various contexts and it is the participation of “prominent
to participate in water management important to understand how women” on water management struc-
informally, through social networks, gender-specific norms shape every- tures, as they were more likely to be
everyday contacts and activities. day access to water, power and able to get the job done.60
When women meet at a well to decision-making. Developing a gender-sensitive,
collect water, their discussions about socially informed approach to water
rationing and access should be seen resources planning involves learning
as management. Examples of such The tension between that takes considerable time and
management roles abound. Manage requires critical self-reflection on the
efficiency and equality
ment through such social networks part of development practitioners.
is not, however, necessarily any more In water interventions there may Progressive social change is an
equitable than management through be tension between the desire to get ongoing process and it is necessary
committees. One Zimbabwean the job done (provide improved water to revise methods and approaches
woman was observed taking water supplies, ensure their sustainable use constantly.
after the pump was “closed” by the and management) and the aim of Drawing on her experience with a
pump chairmen. Her relation through furthering broader social goals such water programme in the United
marriage to him and her good repu as women’s empowerment, gender Republic of Tanzania, House (2003)
tation meant that she could success- equality and inclusion of the marginal- reports the following practical meth-
fully bend the rules where others ized. For example, one participatory odologies for ensuring the participa-
could not.53 In the United Republic and nominally gender-sensitive project tion of women and marginalized
of Tanzania, caretakers of a village in India served to reinforce poor groups in decision-making:
pump, who were responsible for women’s marginalization by not taking • Ensure that project teams com-
charging users for water, used “esti- account of the ways in which caste municate separately with all key
mates” of usage when they had not interacted with gender relations to groups in communities where
been physically monitored. The esti- produce multiple dimensions of exclu- there was evidence of exclusion;
mations were shaped by prejudices sion from water supplies. Field staff • Support open discussions over dif-
about pastoralists’ excessive use of admitted that to insist on the Dalit ficult issues between representa-
water and pastoralist women’s ability (lower-caste) woman’s representation tives of minority and majority
to take “too much” water because on the water committee would have groups;
they used donkeys rather than head- antagonized the dominant higher- • Postpone meetings where women
loading it.54 While Cleaver docu- caste community in the village and were not present or were in a
ments a man in Zimbabwe unsuc- would have hindered their main aim minority;
cessfully trying to negotiate access
for his cattle at a waterpoint where
women were collecting drinking
Positive gender change resulting from a water project
water,55 House records Tanzanian
women waiting for men to finish A Tanzanian village woman, After he received education
cattle watering to allow them access evaluating the water proj on gender, he now allows
to drinking water. 56 Dikito- ect, gave reason for hope me to go for training. My
Wachtmeister records a discussion about the positive effects of husband even cooked for my
about the effectiveness of a water a gender-sensitive approach children when I went to do a
committee member.57 The discus- for both efficiency and equal training.”
sion took place not at a meeting, ity reasons. She said: “You
but while women were collecting should tell them that they Source: Sarah House, “Easier to
water together at the borehole. should continue to facilitate say, harder to do—gender, equity
And Joshi, Lloyd and Fawcett show women and men to be able and water”, paper submitted to
how caste-based social practices to work together. I would like the Alternative Water Forum,
excluded a low-caste woman from to give my personal experi 1-2 May 2003, Bradford Centre for
accessing water, even when national ence. I am a Water Committee International Development, Univer
policies, village structures and project member and early on my sity of Bradford, p. 10. Available
rules provided for access.58 husband would not allow me from: http://www.bradford.ac.uk/
For gender-sensitive approaches to attend a training session. acad/dppc/GTP/House.pdf
to water management to be useful,
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February 2005 women 2000 and beyond
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women 2000 and beyond February 2005
action between men and women. what this actually means and how it and relationships that manifest them-
There are implications in the work can be put into practice. This is made selves in different ways, according
they undertake and the environment worse by project documentation that to context, and that also change over
in which they conduct it. continues to talk in gender-neutral time. Views on the concepts of
terms referring to the “community”, gender equality are influenced by an
the “users” and the “consumers”, individual’s subjectivity, shaped by
Gender mainstreaming rather than referring to people in more the upbringing, education, experi-
in water resources socially specific terms, such as “poor ences and the norms of the specific
women”, “wealthy women” or “local society where the individual lives.
management male leaders”. This subjectivity applies to water
Mechanisms are needed to facili- planners and managers as much as
tate the dissemination and implemen- to water users.
Putting gender tation of a gender policy throughout It is increasingly understood that
awareness into practice relevant organizations both at the the adoption of strong gender policies
How can an awareness of the central level and in the field. These within organizations requires pro
complexity of issues around gender include policy statements and budget- cesses of critical self-reflection at all
and water be translated into practical ary commitments, procedures relating levels. This facilitates greater gender
actions with tangible results for both to institutional learning, responsibility awareness among all staff, and ways
efficiency and gender equality? and accountability, planning and evalu- of monitoring whether the organiza-
Gender mainstreaming strategies ation methodologies, personnel policy tion itself is operating in a gender-
require changes in institutions to facili- and training, and data collection. sensitive manner. Responsibility for
tate incorporating gender sensitivity Additionally, evidence suggests that gender concerns is often confined
at all levels and in all activities. these initiatives work best within a to a specific gender unit or to one
Putting commitments into practice legal framework that specifically rec- or two highly committed staff who
in the water sector is important. ognizes human rights and where there approach the subject with commend-
Although there is growing recognition are strong agencies advocating for able zeal but are sometimes sidelined
of the importance of social compo- the uptake of these rights. An impor- by the rest of the organization.
nents of interventions, technical and tant instrument is the Convention on Measures to increase the voice of
economic aspects continue to domi- the Elimination of All Forms of staff who champion gender-sensitive
nate and are often perceived as Discrimination against Women.61 approaches are needed. This can be
quicker and simpler to implement. It A number of manuals now exist achieved through recruitment and
cannot be taken for granted that the to facilitate gender mainstreaming in selection procedures and training and
existence of a gender-equality policy the water sector and several are listed capacity-building to ensure more
is sufficient to ensure women’s full in the appendix. The following section women in management positions.
participation in water programmes, will briefly consider the need for However, it should not be assumed
or that gender considerations are organizational change, the implica- that all women will automatically be
always taken into account. Generally tions for the project/programme plan- champions of gender equality. The
speaking there is a significant gap ning process, the issue of training value of men as advocates for gender-
between policy definition and imple- and the need for continued work with equitable policies is increasingly
mentation, linked to the fact that other agencies in the general legal recognized, as they are sometimes
gender analysis is still not a system- and political context. perceived as less threatening by
atic and integral part of the majority other men. Useful checklists for
of water interventions. assessing the competencies of man-
In many cases, gender policy docu- Organizational change agers in promoting gender-equitable
ments tend to be vague and approaches are contained in a recent
consist of catch-all phrases that offer Thinking about gender equality, report of the United Nations
little concrete guidance at the imple- social structure and participation Development Programme on main-
mentation stage. This may be exac- involves different skills and processes streaming gender in water resources
erbated by gender specialists whose to planning technical aspects of water management.62
advice is couched in general terms management. Unlike engineering,
rather than concrete guidance for there are no blueprints, no common
action. Phrases such as “a gender technically appropriate designs for Planning and evaluation
perspective should be adopted” or social analysis. An understanding of
“all gender-related issues should be gender equality requires considera- The need for a reflective approach
specified” leave staff at a loss as to tion of complex human motivations is reinforced by the lessons learned
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February 2005 women 2000 and beyond
from studies of organizations the impact of gendered approaches reporting of processes which may
attempting to implement participatory to water resources development. reflect on some of the more qualita-
approaches, and from advances in Despite calls in policy documents for tive issues of gender-based relation-
thinking about development planning sex-disaggregated statistics and for ships and interventions. More gender-
and management.63 Thompson finds the monitoring of gender-based specific information about household
that organizations can best imple- patterns of inclusion and exclusion, decision-making and its conse
ment participatory approaches when such data are often not routinely quences, livelihood practices and the
they themselves adopt a flexible, collected, processed or used. There public and private negotiation of gen-
“learning” approach to their work. appears to be a strong belief among der roles is urgently required, and
This involves interventions being policy makers that the kind of data both qualitative and quantitative data
viewed as experiments that require required is statistical (or “hard” data), could contribute to this. Experience
constant adaptation to circum- a reflection perhaps of the technical suggests that descriptive case
stances, managers being supportive nature of much water planning. studies and process reporting, written
of innovative and experimental Quantitative data might include count- up by the field staff, can help to
approaches and seeing “failure” as ing the number of facilities provided, reveal some of the dynamics of
generating useful lessons for future the number of women on decision- gender inequality and water use and
interventions. Participatory principles making bodies, counting the time/ also assist staff in developing critical
must apply to external funding and effort saved by women and men by self-reflection and awareness.
implementation organizations as improving water resources, enumer- Systematic incorporation and
much as to local partners. Develop ating increased water use and reduc- review of such data, and of the
ment planning and management that tions in water-related disease. Other experience generated in trying to
emphasizes “process” approaches, commentators, however, have sug- implement gender-sensitive
which are longer-term, more flexible gested that what is lacking is the approaches, can assist in processes
interventions, often based on general
guiding principles rather than tightly
specified activities, is desirable. Innovative participatory assessment techniques
Handbooks, guidelines and “tool
kits” exist to help planners to inte-
An interesting example of factors which the planners
grate gender concerns at every stage
applying gender analysis is had overlooked but which had
of development interventions. These
demonstrated by WaterAid, strong gender significance, for
provide a useful resource, combining
an NGO that used a variety of example the ability of women
general discussions of concepts
methods, many of them par with improved water supplies
with specific lists of questions to be
ticipatory, to review the impact
asked and techniques to be used to to maintain better menstrual
facilitate gender-equitable approaches.
of their work in four coun
tries over a 10-year period. and post-childbirth hygiene.
One example of such guidance is Additionally, the exercise
provided by Sida, which specified
This moved away from con
ventional assessments where provided a learning process
questions to be asked at each stage
project impacts are evaluated for the project staff of the
of the project cycle which cover
issues ranging from how consultation mainly in technical terms competence of the commu
is designed, how specific indicators of mechanical measures of nity members to reflect upon
of gendered involvement are used, inputs and outputs. Instead impacts of interventions on
to whether budgets are allocated to it situated projects within the their own lives. The method
ensure gender-equitable approaches.64 social context of the commu ologies used during the study
Such resources are to be welcomed nity, and measured impact
were subsequently integrated
although it should be emphasized using a combination of quali
tative and quantitative data. into impact assessment guide
that they will only be practical if used lines for the use of other pro
in a self-critical, reflective manner, Community members them
selves were helped to develop gramme staff.
adapted to specific contexts rather
than utilized as routine checklists. and reflect upon a number of Source: Impact Assessment
Checklists and other guidelines have key indicators that tracked the Guidelines (London, WaterAid,
little practical impact if they have not social, economic and health 2002) and Vicky Blagbrough,
been properly disseminated to staff. impacts brought about by the “How WaterAid looked back”,
The collection and use of data project. The learning from Waterlines, vol. 22, No. 1 (2003),
critically affect the ability to assess this process included some pp. 19-21.
19
women 2000 and beyond February 2005
of evaluation and impact assessment represented) do not necessarily yield in water as it involves looking at
and in institutional learning. the desired results unless linked with women’s and men’s lives as a whole
strong advocacy for positive and and how they are shaped through
sustained action to secure this. Deere gender norms and practices.
Training and Leon have speculated that in Secondly, gender sensitivity
various Latin American countries, necessitates a flexible learning
Training is repeatedly mentioned legal changes to secure such rights approach to development interven-
as vital to the promotion of effective for women have had unclear effects tions. Just as natural conditions and
gender analysis within organizations. on women’s actual control over land the uses of water vary from place
The aim is not to try to make everyone and water resources.67 Such control to place, so gender expectations and
in an organization a gender expert, has been most effectively achieved norms differ according to context.
rather to ensure that all staff have where strong lobbying movements Blueprint approaches to project plan-
the conceptual and analytical tools have kept these issues in the forefront ning and management cannot reflect
that will support utilization of gender of political and policy agendas. this, so development agencies need
and social analysis. For example, to pay attention to training and
water resources managers could use- Conclusions capacity-building which allows for a
fully understand why gender differ- reflective and flexible approach to
ences and inequalities are relevant in Gender-sensitive approaches to water resources management at the
specific situations; identify when par- water resources management are local level. Gender relations can and
ticular actions are required; know desirable for achieving efficiency, do change over time, and, by adopt-
where to go for additional support social equity and gender-equality ing participatory learning approaches,
and expertise; and know how specific goals. Targets, such as those in the it is possible for agencies to support
tools are applied.65 Suggestions for Millennium Development Goals relat- and facilitate such changes in pro-
training at a variety of levels include ing to water, are unlikely to be gressive ways.
the need for gender-awareness train- achieved unless gender perspectives Thirdly, gender relations also
ing for all staff; training in techniques are integrated into planning and imple- impact development institutions,
of social analysis; and training of mentation activities. Instrumental which need to pay attention to the
women in areas in which they are approaches to ensuring more reliable, way that such relations impact on
under-represented—in technical sustainable and well-managed water the functioning of their own work,
areas and in leadership roles. The supplies are essential to achieving as well as on water resources man-
importance of targeting awareness access to water for all, and for ensur- agement at the local level. This
training at men who will themselves ing the maintenance of water in the involves consideration of the type of
become gender trainers and facilita- interests of ecological balance and data collected, the gender balance
tors is also emphasized.66 Increasing the needs of future generations. of staff and the need for gender-
the “gender competencies” in the However, social and economic tar- awareness training within an
water sector must involve ongoing gets (such as eliminating poverty, organization.
processes rather than one-off efforts furthering empowerment of marginal- Frameworks for gender analysis
and as such need to be mainstreamed ized groups, supporting the resilience of water resources management
into staff development and capacity- of the vulnerable and ensuring that encompass issues of social and
building activities. resources are appropriately managed gender relationships as well as
One key aspect of gender training by those who use them) will only infrastructural provision are required
relates to developing the ability of be achieved by a wider focus on to track both collective and individual
gender specialist staff to reach out social and power relations. Adopting actions and recognize both the sep
to and communicate with non- gender-sensitive approaches there- arateness and interdependencies
specialists in non-judgemental ways. fore means rethinking water develop- of women’s and men’s interests.
This is particularly important in the ment in a number of ways. Such an approach is unlikely to be
multi-disciplinary water sector. Firstly, it is critical to recognize the achieved through the use of check-
Additionally, water interventions will need for intersectoral cooperation. lists alone, and gender analysis can-
deliver best results when linked to People’s livelihoods are not divided not be achieved in a one-off event.
other complementary initiatives, for into subsectors and imposing artificial Rather it requires a re-thinking of
example in education, community boundaries on the management of the way in which development
development and income generation. water for different uses is unlikely to accommodates diversity, complexity
Evidence suggests that changes in yield results. A gender-sensitive and change, while retaining overall
women’s legal rights (for example, approach helps to overcome some goals of an equitable and dignified
to hold title to land, to inherit, to be of the artificial subsectoral divisions life for all.
20
February 2005 women 2000 and beyond
http://www.unicef.org/programme/wes
Selecting resources United Nations Children’s Fund Water, Environment,
Sanitation and Hygiene Education programme. This web
site provides links to statistics, resources and details of
Journals UNICEF activities on water and sanitation.
Agriculture and Human Values, special issue “Choice,
complexity and change: gendered livelihoods and the http://www.wateraid.org.uk
management of water”, vol. 15, No. 4 (1998). WaterAid is an international NGO dedicated exclusively
to the sustainable provision of safe domestic water,
Environment and Urbanization, special issue “Water and sanitation and hygiene education to the world’s poorest
sanitation”, vol. 15, No. 2 (2003), International Institute people.
for Environment and Development. Available online from:
http://www.iied.org/eandu http://www.irc.nl/products/publications/ajw
Women, Water and Sanitation is an annual abstract
Gender and Development (Oxford, United Kingdom, journal.
Oxfam). Available online from: http://www.oxfam.org.uk/
what_we_do/issues/gender/gad/index.htm http://www.un.org/womenwatch
Womenwatch is a gateway to United Nations gender-
Natural Resources Forum, special issue “Women and related information on the advancement and empower-
natural resources management”, vol. 20, No. 2 (1996) ment of women.
(London, Butterworth-Heinemann for the United Nations
Department of Technical Cooperation for Development). http://www.worldbank.org/gender
The GenderNet site describes how the World Bank
Waterlines, special issue “Gender and water—six years seeks to reduce gender disparities and enhance wom-
on”, vol. 17, No. 1 (1998). Available online from: http:// en’s participation in economic development.
www.oneworld.org/itdg/journals/waterlines
http://www.worldwatercouncil.org
Web sites The World Water Council is an international policy think
http://www.un.org/womenwatch/ianwge/activities/tfs2003 tank dedicated to strengthening awareness and thinking
Inter-Agency Network on Women and Gender Equality about integrated management of the world’s water
(IANWGE) Task Force on gender and water resources.
http://www.bridge.ids.ac.uk http://www.world.water-forum3.com
Bridge produces brief gender and development bulletins, This site contains the documentation for the Third World
involving state of the art updates, to raise awareness Water Forum held in Kyoto in March 2003, including
among policy makers. links to policy statements and the discussions of particu-
lar sessions.
http://www.oecd.org/dac
The Development Assistance Committee (OECD) has a Guidance for gender mainstreaming in the
web site on gender equality that lists publications and water sector
reports on the work of Gendernet—a network on gender ADB checklist http://www.adb.org/Documents/Manuals/
equality in which gender experts from development Gender_Checklists/Water
cooperation agencies meet to define common
approaches. AUSAID checklist http://www.ausaid.gov.au/publications/
pdf/gender_guidelines_water.pdf
http://www.genderandwateralliance.org
The Gender and Water Alliance is a network of individ Chancellor, F., N. Hasnip and D. O’Neill,
uals from around the world that aims to share informa Gender Sensitive Irrigation Design: Guidance for
tion, and undertake advocacy and capacity-building initia- Smallholder Irrigation Development (United Kingdom,
tives in gender and water. HR Wallingford, 1999), Report 143. Available from:
http://www.dfid-kar-water.net/w5outputs/gender.html
http://www.siyanda.org
Siyanda is a database of gender and development Cummings, Sarah, Henk van Dam and Minke Valk, Natural
materials, some of which relate to the social analysis Resources Management and Gender: A Global Sourcebook
of water development. (Oxford, United Kingdom, Oxfam, 2003).
21
women 2000 and beyond February 2005
Fong, Monica S., Wendy Wakeman and Anjana Bhushan, Guidance for gender analysis/participatory
Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation: Gender methodologies
Toolkit Series No. 2 (Washington, D.C., UNDP/World March, Candida, Ines Smyth and Maitrayee
Bank, 1996). Mukhopadhyay, A Guide to Gender Analysis
Frameworks (Oxford, United Kingdom, Oxfam, 1999).
Hannan, Carolyn, and Ingvar Andersson, A Gender
Perspective on Water Resources Management Gender Equality Moving Towards Sustainable, People-
(Stockholm, Sida, 1995). Centred Development (Paris, Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development, Development Assistance
The Gender and Water Development Report 2003: Committee, 1995).
Gender Perspectives on Policies in the Water Sector
(Loughborough, United Kingdom, Water, Engineering and Slocum, Rachel, Lori Wichhart, Dianne Rocheleau and
Development Centre, Gender and Water Alliance, 2003). Barbara Thomas-Slayter, Power, Process and
Available online from: http://www.genderandwateralliance. Participation—Tools for Change (London, Intermediate
org/reports/GWA%20Annual%20Report.pdf Technology Publications, 1995).
22
February 2005 women 2000 and beyond
23
women 2000 and beyond February 2005
22Mary L. Elmendorf and Raymond B. Isley, “Public 32Frances Cleaver, “Incentives and informal institutions:
and private roles of women in water and supply and Gender and the management of water”, Agriculture and
sanitation programmes”, Human Organisation, vol. 42, Human Values, vol. 15, No. 4 (1998), pp. 347-360.
No. 3 (1983), pp. 195-204. 33 Judith Carney, “Women’s land rights in Gambian
23 Margreet Zwarteveen, “Linking women to the main irrigated rice schemes: Constraints and opportunities”,
canal: Gender and irrigation management”, Gatekeeper Agriculture and Human Values, vol. 15, No. 4 (1998),
Series, No. 54 (London, International Institute for pp. 325-336.
Environment and Development, 1995). Available online 34 Dean Peacock, “Men as partners: Promoting men’s
from: http://www.iied.org/docs/gatekeep/GK54.pdf. involvement in care and support activities for people
Kathleen Cloud, Irrigation Water Management, Gender living with HIV/AIDS”, an expert paper prepared for
and Water Resources Management, a report from a Sida the Expert Group meeting of the United Nations,
seminar (Stockholm, Sida, 1-3 December 1993). Division for the Advancement of Women on the role
24 Margreet Zwarteveen and Nita Neupane, “Free of men and boys in achieving gender equality,
21-24 October 2003, Brasilia, Brazil. Available from:
riders or victims: Women’s nonparticipation in irrigation http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/men-boys
management in Nepal’s Chhattis Mauja irrigation 2003/EP5-Peacock.pdf
scheme”, Research Report No. 7 (Colombo, Sri Lanka, 35 The Gender and Water Development Report 2003:
International Irrigation Management Institute, 1996).
Gender Perspectives on Policies in the Water Sector
Available online from: http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/pubs/ (Loughborough, United Kingdom, Water, Engineering and
pub007/REPORT07.PDF. Els Upperman, “Gender Development Centre, Gender and Water Alliance, 2003).
relations in a traditional irrigation scheme in northern Available online from: http://www.genderandwater
Tanzania”, in Colin Creighton and C. K. Omari, eds., alliance.org/reports/GWA%20Annual%20Report.pdf
Gender, Family and Work in Tanzania (Burlington, 36 Africa Women’s Initiative (2003), Health Care Issues.
Vermont, Ashgate Publishing Company, 2000), Available online from: http://www.redcross.org/services/
pp. 357-379. intl/awi/healthcare.asp
25 The Gender and Water Development Report 2003: 37 Ben Page, “Taking the strain—the ergonomics of water
Gender Perspectives on Policies in the Water Sector carrying”, Waterlines, vol. 14, No. 3 (1996), pp. 29-31.
(Loughborough, United Kingdom, Water, Engineering and 38 Assefa Mehretu and Christ Mutambirwa, “Gender
Development Centre, Gender and Water Alliance, 2003).
Available online from: http://www.genderandwater differences in time and energy costs of distance
alliance.org/reports/GWA%20Annual%20Report.pdf for regular domestic chores in rural Zimbabwe:
A case study of the Chiduku communal area”, World
26 Vandana Shiva, “Women’s water rights”, Waterlines, Development, vol. 20, No. 11 (1992), pp. 1675-1683.
vol. 17, No. 1 (1998), pp. 9-12. 39Ethan Michelson, “Adam’s rib awry? Women and
27 The Gender and Water Development Report 2003: schistosomiasis”, Social Science and Medicine, vol. 37,
Gender Perspectives on Policies in the Water Sector No. 4 (1992), pp. 493-501. Brinda Rao, “Women and
(Loughborough, United Kingdom, Water, Engineering and water in rural Mahararastra”, Environment and
Development Centre, Gender and Water Alliance, 2003). Urbanisation, vol. 3, No. 2 (1991), pp. 57-65.
Available online from: http://www.genderandwater 40 The Gender and Water Development Report 2003:
24
February 2005 women 2000 and beyond
47 Christine van Wijk, 1998, cited in The Gender and 60 The Gender and Water Development Report 2003:
Water Development Report 2003: Gender Perspectives Gender Perspectives on Policies in the Water Sector
on Policies in the Water Sector (Loughborough, United (Loughborough, United Kingdom, Water, Engineering and
Kingdom, Water, Engineering and Development Centre, Development Centre, Gender and Water Alliance, 2003).
Gender and Water Alliance, 2003). Available online from: Available online from: http://www.genderandwater
http://www.genderandwateralliance.org/reports/GWA%20 alliance.org/reports/GWA%20Annual%20Report.pdf
Annual%20Report.pdf 61General Assembly resolution 34/180 of 18 December
48 See The Gender and Water Development Report 1979.
2003: Gender Perspectives on Policies in the Water 62United Nations Development Programme,
Sector, Review of 71 water policies, acts and regulations
Mainstreaming Gender in Water Management: A
(Loughborough, United Kingdom, Water, Engineering and
Practical Journey to Sustainability: A Resource Guide
Development Centre, Gender and Water Alliance, 2003),
(New York, United Nations Development Programme,
pp. 29-32. Available online from: http://www.
2003).
genderandwateralliance.org/reports/GWA%20Annual%20
Report.pdf 63 John Thompson, “Participatory approaches in
49 government bureaucracies: Facilitating the process
Christine Van Wijk-Sibesma, “Gender in water
of institutional change”, World Development, vol. 3,
resources management, water supply and sanitation:
No. 9 (1995). Frances Cleaver and Tom Franks,
Roles and realities revisited”, Technical Paper No. 33-E
“The challenges ahead—water resource management
(The Hague, The International Red Cross, 1998.
for the next millennium”, editorial in special edition of
50 Mercy S. Dikito-Wachtmeister, “Women’s participation Waterlines, vol. 16, No. 4 (1998).
in decision-making processes in rural water projects: 64Helen Thomas, Johanna Schalkwyk and Beth
Makoni District, Zimbabwe (Ph.D. thesis, University of
Woronuik, “A gender perspective in the water resources
Bradford, 2000).
management sector: Handbook for mainstreaming”,
51 Deepa Joshi, Mary Lloyd and Ben Fawcett, “Voices Publications on Water Resources, No. 6 (Stockholm,
from the village: An alternative paper for the alternative Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency,
water forum”, paper prepared for the Alternative Water 1996).
Forum, University of Bradford, 1-2 May 2003. Available 65United Nations Development Programme,
from: http://www.bradford.ac.uk/acad/dppc/GTP/
Mainstreaming Gender in Water Management: A
Joshietal.pdf
Practical Journey to Sustainability: A Resource Guide
52 Mercy S. Dikito-Wachtmeister, “Women’s participation (New York, United Nations Development Programme,
in decision-making processes in rural water projects: 2003).
Makoni District, Zimbabwe” (Ph.D. thesis, University of 66 Caroline Sweetman, ed., “Men’s involvement in
Bradford, 2000).
gender and development policy and practice; beyond
53 Frances Cleaver, “Moral ecological rationality: rhetoric”, Oxfam Working Papers (Oxford, Oxfam, 2001).
institutions and the management of common property 67 Carmen D. Deere and Magdalena Leon, “Gender, land
resources”, Development and Change, vol. 31, No. 2
and water. From reform to counter-reform in Latin
(2000), pp. 361-383.
America”, Agriculture and Human Values, vol. 15, No. 4
54Sustainable Management of Usangu Wetland and its (1998), pp. 375-386.
Catchment Project (SMUWC), 2001.
55Frances Cleaver, “Incentives and informal institutions:
gender and the management of water”, Agriculture and
Human Values, vol. 15, No. 4 (1998), pp. 347-360.
56 Sarah House, “Easier to say, harder to do—gender,
equity and water”, a paper submitted to the Alternative
Water Forum, 1-2 May 2003, Bradford Centre for
International Development, University of Bradford.
Available from: http://www.bradford.ac.uk/acad/
dppc/GTP/House.pdf
57 Mercy S. Dikito-Wachtmeister, “Women’s participation
in decision-making processes in rural water projects:
Makoni District, Zimbabwe” (Ph.D. thesis, University of
Bradford, 2000).
58 Deepa Joshi, Mary Lloyd and Ben Fawcett, “Voices
from the village: An alternative paper for the alternative
water forum”, paper prepared for the Alternative Water
Forum, University of Bradford, 1-2 May 2003. Available
from: http://www.bradford.ac.uk/acad/dppc/GTP/
Joshietal.pdf
59 Ibid.
25
women 2000 and beyond February 2005
Publications
A flagship publication of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, 2004 World
Survey on the Role of Women in Development addresses key issues related to women and international migration. The
migration of women has always been an important component of international migration. A gender perspective is essen-
tial to understanding both the causes and consequences of international migration despite the fact that a dearth of data
on women and migration makes it difficult to assess the full implications of international migration for women. Migrant
women contribute to the economic development of their country of destination and to the country of origin through finan-
cial contributions from remittances, the improvement of their own skills or their contributions to the improvement of the
education and skills of the next generation. Women often migrate officially as dependent family members of other migrants
or to marry someone in another country. Various international instruments specifically or generally enumerate the rights
of migrants. Many national laws on emigration and immigration of voluntary migrants include discriminatory provisions
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situation of migrant, refugee and trafficked women.
This Handbook, produced by the Division for the Advancement of Women, Department of Economic and Social Affairs of
the United Nations Secretariat, in collaboration with the Inter-Parliamentary Union, offers a comprehensive and educational
presentation of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and its Optional Protocol.
The Handbook presents the background to and content of the Convention and the Optional Protocol and describes the role
of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, which secures implementation at the national level.
It provides examples of good practices and gives an overview of what parliamentarians can do to ensure effective imple-
mentation of the Convention and encourage use of the Optional Protocol. It also proposes model instruments and reference
materials as aids designed to facilitate the work of legislators. The Handbook is available in Arabic, Chinese, English, French,
Russian and Spanish.
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February 2005 women 2000 and beyond
All orders from North America, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Asia and the Pacific should be sent to:
United Nations Publications
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Tel.: (212) 963-8032;
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