ABSTRACT

Ambient Air quality monitoring commenced in Singapore 1972 and the responsibility was
handling by a body called the National Environment Agency (NEA) of Singapore. It was wholly
automated when the telemetric air quality monitoring and management system (TAQMMS) was
kick started in 1994. For the interest and benefit of the public, Pollutant Standards Index (PSI)
was employed and reading stations were located in strategic places in the city to inform and
advise the public of the general health effects associated with different levels of pollution on a
daily basis of the air pollutants in Singapore two decades ago. These standards were in
agreement with that of the United States Environment Protection Agency (USEPA) and World
health organization (WHO) guidelines. About sixteen monitoring network stations were located
in different sessions of the city; industrial, urban, suburban and roadside stations. However,
Singapore has been growing industrially, urbanized, vehicular congested and getting over
populated for some time now which by scientifically or theoretically calls for more monitoring
stations to be located in considered sessions like the industrial estates which currently have only
three stations when consider the heavy industrial activities going on there. Industrial estates of
Singapore capacity need more monitoring network stations than the present situation for
effective and efficient monitoring emission of the criteria pollutants from various activities that
can cause air pollution. Again, the roadside stations as well need improvement on the numbers of
monitoring stations to step up proper monitoring and checkmate excess emission in these key
areas. By setting up more of the monitoring stations in the above mentions sessions of the city,
ambient air quality monitoring network in Singapore would greatly improved than at present.

INTRODUCTION

Singapore- a country located between Indonesia and Malaysia has a total land area of about
682.3 sq km and a population of about 5 million with population growth of 3.1% (http:/ www.sg
accessed March 1, 2011) as one of the industrialize and sophisticated urban countries in
Southeast Asia. Also, the landscape is predominantly made up of lowland hills, the highest being
the Bukit Timah Hill at 166 m to the northwest of the city, and the lowest area being the
Singapore Straits (Library of Congress 2006). Singapore is a tropical country with an average
daily temperatures range from 23°C to 34°C and an average humidity of 84%. There is no clear
cut about weather differentiation, although maximum rainfall takes place in December and April
with drier months in February and July. By embarking on unrelentlessly industrialization and
urbanization process for social, political and economical survival since gained independent,
Singapore has as well considered given quality life with respect to air for her citizenry. Industrial
sector has towed the economy in a robust manner for some decades now from the primary
industries in order of their value: electronics, chemicals, oil drilling equipment, petroleum
refining, rubber processing and rubber products, processed food and beverages, ship repair, and
offshore platform construction (EDB 2005). Other sources of economic growth have been
identified just of recent which include industrial biotechnology, alternative energy, new material,

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metals and materials. All these in one way or the other contributed to sources of air pollution in
Singapore that need to be controlled as to save lives, environment and properties.

SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION

One of the major sources of air pollution in Singapore is emission from vehicles. Currently,
Singapore has about 560,000 motor vehicles and 130,000 motorcycles. In addition to this, an
average of 30,000 Malaysian registered motorcycles and 3,000 diesel-powered Malaysian-
registered goods vehicles ply Singapore roads each day (Gary et al 2002). On the other hand,
population is growing steadily and alongside with this comes greater urbanization-entailing air
pollution and among other things constructions. As one of the commercial and industrial hubs in
the world, heavy industrial activities are also sources of air pollution in this wonderful city of
Singapore. Other sources of air pollution in Singapore are from the burning of fossils fuels for
energy generation in the industries; open burning of waste materials and power stations (NEA
2006a). Singapore has had in more recent times to deal with the transboundary haze pollution
sources from neighboring country-Indonesia and this really hit Singapore in the past decade and
some fraction now precisely1994 and 1997.

AIR MONITORING NETWORK OF SINGAPORE

For the past two decades now Singapore has maintained an impressive environmental record
irrespective of an uncontrollable industrialization and urbanization activities. Regular monitoring
and assessment of the ambient air quality has been a milestone for successful maintaining a clean
and safe environment for the citizens. Ambient Air Quality Monitoring network was initiated in
Singapore 1972 and this has helped for review, policy making and development of air pollution
control measures. This singular aspect is per taking by the Strategic Planning and Research
Department (SPRD) through the Telemetric Air Quality Monitoring and management System
(TAQMMS) by the Singapore Ministry of the Environment (ENV). In Singapore, air pollution is
regulated under the Environmental Pollution Control Act (EPCA 1999) and its subsidiary
regulations. The Environmental Pollution Control (Air Impurities) Regulations 2000 stipulate
emission standards for air pollutants (Gary et al 2002).
At present, there are sixteen (figure 1) remote air monitoring stations in the network which are
categorized into two;
1. Ambient Stations
2. Roadside Stations
The Ambient Stations are thirteen in number and are further classified into three other sub-
categories; six urban stations, three industrial stations and four suburban stations. The remaining

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three are the roadside stations which measure air pollution level from vehicle emissions along
expressways and busy roads which help to assess the effectiveness of NEA’s vehicular emission
program. All the stations have automatic analysers and equipment (see figure 2) which measure
the concentrations of major pollutants like hydrocarbons (HC), O 3, SO2, NOX, CO, and
particulate matters (PM10) (Gary et al 2002). However, the distribution and location of the
available remote air monitoring stations in Singapore is considered as a major drawback that
would need modification as to keep straight already successfully spectacular air pollution
programmes and policies.

METHOD OF AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENT

The Air Quality monitoring methods used in Singapore are in line with the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) benchmark and reference methods. The six criteria
pollutants are given in table one (1) and the means or methods of measurement. Emitted
pollutants in Singapore have been compared with USEPA and WHO standards and guidelines
(see figures 3.0 – 3.5). In all the comparisons, levels of air pollutants measured in Singapore
were within the WHO long-term goals and the USEPA standards. Singapore should be score
highly with this achievement when compare to other famous and big cities in the world, but then
more monitoring stations would be among the best options to widen measurement tentacles for
quick and fast decision and policy making to avoid unforeseen circumstances.

Methods of Measuring Different Pollutants

Pollutant Method of Measurement
Sulfur Dioxide Pulsed Flourescence
Carbon monoxide Nondispersive infrared spectrometry
Ozone Ultraviolet photometry
Nitrogen Oxide Chemiluminescence
High-volume sampling followed by atomic
Lead absorption spectrometry
Particulate Matter 1) Continuous filter-based mass measurement
  2) Beta Attenuation

Table 1. (K. Yong 2002)

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Figure 1. (K. Yong 2002)

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 TELEMETRIC AIR QUALITY MONITORING AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Telemetric
Quality
& Management
System Air
Monitoring
SUB-URBAN
ROADSIDE
CENTRALMODEM
STATION
RemoteCONTROL
URBANStation
INDUSTRIAL
Environment
Central
Station
LEGEND Control
atBldg

Figure 2 ( National Environmental Agency 2001)

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Sulfur dioxide
Sulfur dioxide is a colourless, odourless, a reactive gas in low concentration and pungent in high
concentration. Exposure to high level of sulfur dioxide can impair respiratory function, aggravate
bronchitis and as well lung related problems and deficiencies. Industrial activities and power
plants are the key emitters of sulfur dioxide in Singapore. The table shows it emission for a
decade in Singapore and compared it with USEPA and WHO standards and guidelines
respectively.

Figure 3.0

Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas which is slightly lighter than air.
Higher quantity of carbon monoxide is toxic to human and animals. It emission has remains
below USEPA and WHO level standards for about a decade now in Singapore ( see figure 3.1)

Figure 3.1
Ozone
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 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from vehicular activities, refineries, chemical plants and all
other factories react with nitrogen oxides to form ozone. It forms smog with other components
and as well has other health related problems like lung and heart diseases. From figure 3.2 the
emission of ozone in Singapore has been monitored and confirmed to be still below the standards
and guidelines of both United States Environment Protection Agency ( USEPA) and WHO
respectively.

Figure 3.2

Nitrogen oxide
Nitrogen oxide as one of the criteria pollutants has been monitored like every other
pollutants in Singapore. It has been notice that its emission was highest in 1999 although
it never exceed USEPA and WHO standards and guidelines in that order.

Figure 3.3
Particulate matter (PM10)

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Particulate matter emission has been a great problem in Singapore. Statistically it is the
only criteria pollutants meeting the WHO guidelines has been a major task for some years
now. USEPA standards were not all that demanding although in 1997 during the
Indonesia forest fire the limit was exceeded. See figure 3.4

Figure 3.4

Lead (Pb)
Lead is also a common air pollutant in some cities but is no longer an issue in Singapore. This is
because the use of leaded petrol was completely phased out by 1998. Today, only a negligible
amount of lead is released by industries and power plants.

Figure 3.5

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AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS

Ambient Air quality evaluation in Singapore used the USEPA Air Quality Standards and
the WHO Long Term Goals as guidelines and benchmarks. The standards are
summarized in the table below.

Ambient Air Quality Standards Summary

Table 2 Koh Chin Yong (2002)

From the previous figures (figure 3.0-3.5) it has been shown that Singapore sources of emission
of the criteria pollutants is below the comparison standards that they have affiliation with as their
standards.

POLLUTANT STANDARDS INDEX

United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) developed the Pollution Standards
Index (PSI) which is used to report air pollutant concentrations on a daily basis has been also
adopted in Singapore since 1991 for the same purpose although for different climatic and
weather condition. Pollution Standards Index (PSI) is a public information device which renders
advice to the general public about the health effects coupled with different pollution levels and
the safety measures to take when the air pollution levels shoot up to the hazardous or unhealthy
range. The criteria pollutants: SO2, CO, O3, NOx, Pb and Particulate matter (PM10) are measured
and converted on a scale of 0-500 by PSI. Five major pollutants potential health effects are
related to the intervals on the PSI scale which measures their daily concentrations in the
atmosphere. When the pollution level is within the range of 0 to 50, the air quality is considered
to be good, within the range of 51-100, it is considered moderate, 101-200 is unhealthy, and 201-
300 is very unhealthy. Above 300 is hazardous to human, plants, animals and the environment.
Table 3 shows the Singapore pollutants Standards Index and air quality status.
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 Table 3

The figure 4 shows an example of Singapore Ambient Air Quality reading for five regions, the
overall in Singapore, five criteria pollutants and, their values, air quality descriptor and
responsible pollutant.This reading normally takes place at 4pm everyday.

Table 4 http://app2.nea.gov.sg/psi.aspx

IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION IN SINGAPORE

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Figure 5 shows the comparison of the good, moderate and unhealthy air quality in Singapore
from 1991 to 2001. The figure shows days percentage of good, moderate and unhealthy
condition of air quality in Singapore for a decade. Most spectacular are the unhealthy air quality
in Singapore especially in 1994 and 1997 and their comparisons with years before and after. In
both years, there was a transboundary smoke haze from land and forest fires in a neighbouring
country-Indonesia that makes the unhealthy level of pollutant to 5-3% respectively. This actually
affected the air quality for both years when compared with years before and after the duo
incidents with 12% increase in incidence of upper respiratory tract illness, 19% in asthma and
26% in rhinitis were associated with the increase in PM 10 from 50-150μg/m3.All this were easy to
ascertain due to the monitoring data available before and after the incidents and also help to
strategized means to curb the effects earlier.

Figure 4 (K. Yong 2002)

Also, figure 6 compare level of three of the criteria pollutants; Sulfur dioxide, Nitrogen oxide
and Particulate matters. It was observed that during the transboundary smoke haze from land and
forest fires from Indonesia the level of Particulate Matter out smart other pollutants which really
give a concern on how it can be cut short. This pollutant in particular is the far emitted in
Singapore among other pollutants and there is the need to check-mate their emission from
whatever sources as to keep USEPA standards and the WHO long term goals guidelines.

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ANNUAL AVERAGE LEVELS OF AMBIENT AIR QUALITY IN SINGAPORE, 1995-
2000

Figure 5

SINGAPORE AIR QUALITY MONITORING NETWORK CHALLENGES AND

RECOMMENDATION

There is no doubt Singapore Air Quality monitoring network is not among the best Southeast
Asia and the world at large, however, as an industrial, urbanized and an international business
hub there should be more monitoring stations in strategize places all round the country. Take for
instance, industrial activities in Singapore are very intensive and there are only three air quality
monitoring stations in the industrial estates with more than 3500 applications to locate industries
in the industrial estates every year for the past five years. Remember the emissions from all these
industrial activities are not dispersed uniformly and it would be of a great hallmark if more four
to six monitoring stations are built in area since the already structured ones cannot be all that
effective when considering the steadily growth and development of the industrial estates.

Again, the roadside stations are another area of interest that may as well call for urgent attention.
Singapore seems to be a country where some registered vehicles from neighbouring country like
Malaysia ply her roads including the local vehicles and there is emission from vehicles as we
know. Singapore was the first city to implement a cordon-based congestion pricing system in
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1975 but this would not measure or control air pollution rather reduced traffic. To reduce and
checkmate emission from vehicles in major and busy roads all over the city, more air quality
monitoring stations would be advice to be established. Singapore is not all that a big city so
adding two to three more stations to the existing ones would be enough to tackle the problem of
roadside emission monitoring.

CONCLUSION

Singapore air quality monitoring network system is a state-of-art network in terms of quality and
gives clue to the general public on how the criteria pollutants are measure in strategic places.
Monitoring stations were situated in four different areas: urban, industrial, suburban and roadside
station. These areas are crucial as to checkmate emissions from different and series of activities
that may cause air pollution. Although there are different environmental laws which were
promulgated by the National Environmental Agency of Singapore to guide emissions from
different activities but then monitoring of emission from each of the categorize stations was in
line with the initiation and obligations of the body. Using the USEPA standards, WHO
guidelines and the telemetric air quality monitoring network in a small but sophisticated city like
Singapore is a great milestone for air quality monitoring, however, the less in numbers of
monitoring stations is a major drawback and loop holes in the system. As Singapore grows from
strength to strength industrially, urbanized, population-wise and commercially, it would be a
good step forward by providing more monitoring stations especially in the industrial, urban and
roadside stations. Presently, the number of stations located in these areas would not be more
effective and efficient for monitoring network in Singapore.

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References

Code of Practice on Pollution Control, Third Edition, 2000 (see ENV’s website at
http://www.env.gov.sg
ECP (Ozone Depleting Substances) Regulations 2000
Environmental Pollution Control Act, 1999 (Ch. 94A)
EPC (Air Impurities) Regulations (S.595/00)
H.Gary., H. Wha-Jin., C.Kin and H. Vallack.,(2002) Benchmarking urban air quality
management and practice in major and mega cities in Asia
Koh Chin Yong (2002) Better Air Quality in Asian and Pacific Rim Cities (BAQ 2002)

Koh Kheng–Lian ( 2002 ) A Singapore Case Study: Cleaning Up Air Pollution in a Generation

Towards environmental sustainability state of the environment 2005 report chapter 1.

———. 2005b. Singapore Green Plan 2012 Action Programmes.
In MEWR Website. Available: www.mewr.gov.sg/sgp2012aps/
index.htm.
———. 2006. Key Environmental Statistics 2006. Available:
www.mewr.gov.sg/soe/kes2006.pdf.
National Environment Agency (NEA). 2004b. Code of Practice
on Pollution Control (with amendments 2001, 2002, and
2004). Available: www.nea.gov.sg/cms/pcd/coppc_2002.pdf
———. 2006b. Accessibility of PSI readings. In NEA website.
Available: www.nea.gov.sg/psi/.

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