Introduction and Perspectives of Sociology

Submitted by: Roll number

Bakhtawar Aamir 10050616-033

Submitted to:

Anila Iram

Course:

Introduction to Sociology

Department:

Mass Communication and Media Centre

University of gujrat
Introduction:

Sociology is a branch of the social sciences that uses systematic methods of empirical
investigation and critical analysis to develop and refine a body of knowledge about human social
structure and activity, sometimes with the goal of applying such knowledge to the pursuit of
government policies designed to benefit the general social welfare. Its subject matter ranges
from the micro level to the macro level. Micro sociology involves the study of people in face-to-
face interactions. Macro sociology involves the study of widespread social processes.
Sociology is a broad discipline in terms of both methodology and subject matter. Its traditional
focuses have included social relations, social stratification, social interaction, culture and
deviance, and its approaches have included both qualitative and quantitative research
techniques. As much of what humans do fits under the category of social structure or social
activity, sociology has gradually expanded its focus to such far-flung subjects as the study of
economic activity, health disparities, and even the role of social activity in the creation of
scientific knowledge. The range of social scientific methods has also been broadly expanded.
The "cultural turn" of the 1970s and 1980s brought more humanistic interpretive approaches to
the study of culture in sociology. Conversely, the same decades saw the rise of new
mathematically rigorous approaches, such as social network analysis.The social world is
changing.
Sociology is a branch of the social sciences that uses systematic methods of empirical
investigation and critical analysis to develop and refine a body of knowledge about human social
structure and activity, sometimes with the goal of applying such knowledge to the pursuit of
government policies designed to benefit the general social welfare. Its subject matter ranges
from the micro level to the macro level. Microsociology involves the study of people in face-to-
face interactions. Macrosociology involves the study of widespread social processes.Sociology
is a broad discipline in terms of both methodology and subject matter. Its traditional focuses
have included social relations, social stratification, social interaction, culture and deviance, and
its approaches have included both qualitative and quantitative research techniques. As much of
what humans do fits under the category of social structure or social activity, sociology has
gradually expanded its focus to such far-flung subjects as the study of economic activity, health
disparities, and even the role of social activity in the creation of scientific knowledge.[1] The
range of social scientific methods has also been broadly expanded. The "cultural turn" of the
1970s and 1980s brought more humanistic interpretive approaches to the study of culture in
sociology. Conversely, the same decades saw the rise of new mathematically rigorous
approaches, such as social network analysis. Some early sociological theorists (e.g., Marx,
Weber, and Durkheim) were disturbed by the social processes they believed to be driving the
change, such as the quest for solidarity, the attainment of social goals, and the rise and fall of
classes, to name a few examples. While details of the theories that these individuals developed
are discussed later in this book, it is important to note at this point that the founders of sociology
were some of the earliest individuals to employ what C. Wright Mills (1959) labeled the
sociological imagination: the ability to situate personal troubles within an informed framework of
social issues. Sociology is a relatively new academic discipline. It emerged in the early 19th
century in response to the challenges of modernity. Increasing mobility and technological
advances
resulted in the increasing exposure of people to cultures and societies different from their own.
The impact of this exposure was varied, but for some people included the breakdown of
traditional norms and customs and warranted a revised understanding of how the world works.
Sociologists responded to these changes by trying to understand what holds social groups
together and also explore possible solutions to the breakdown of social solidarity. The term
sociology was coined by Auguste Comte (1798-1857) in 1838 from the Latin term socius
(companion, associate) and the Greek term logia (study of, speech). Comte hoped to unify all
the sciences under sociology; he believed sociology held the potential to improve society and
direct human activity, including the other sciencesThe social sciences comprise the application
of scientific methods to the study of the human aspects of the world. In the past, sociological
research focused on the organization of complex, industrial societies and their influence on
individuals. Today, sociologists study a broad range of topics. For instance, some sociologists
research macro-structures that organize society, such as race or ethnicity, social class, gender
roles, and institutions such as the family. Other sociologists study social processes that
represent the breakdown of macro-structures, including deviance, crime, and divorce.
Additionally, some sociologists study micro-processes such as interpersonal interactions and
the socialization of individuals. It should also be noted that recent sociologists,taking cues from
anthropologists, have realized the Western emphasis of the discipline. In response, many
sociology departments around the world are now encouraging multi-cultural
research.Sociology does not claim to be a potentially all-inclusive and all-sufficing science of
society which might absorb the more specialized social sciences. The late origin of sociology
does not mean that its standing as compared with other social sciences is very weak. Its scope
has been clearly demarcated right from the early days. Its concepts, terms, typologies and
generalizations leading to theories, emerged from the very beginning. Moreover, there are
striking similarities between sociology and other social sciences: man as a principal ingredient
of their subject matters, applications of some methodological tools like observation, comparative
method, casual explanations, testing and modification of hypothesis etc. When so much is
common to sociology on the one hand and the other social sciences it is understandable that
there is some amount of commonness in the studies as well as mutual borrowings in the form of
data, methods, approaches, concepts and even vocabulary. In brief, sociology is a distinct
social science, but it is not an isolated social science as the current trends indicate that every
social science is depending more and more on inter-disciplinary approach, that is, historians
and sociologists, for example, might even work together in curricular and search projects which
would have been scarcely conceivable prior to about 1945, when each social science tendered
to follow the course that emerged in the 19th century; to be confined to a single, distinguishable,
though artificial, area of social reality. It is through sociology that scientific study of the great
social institutions and the relation of the individual to each is being made. The home and
family ,the school and education ,the church and religion, the state and government ,industry
and work ,the community and association, these are institutions through which society functions.
Sociology studies these institutions and their role in the development of the individual and
suggests suitable measures for re strengthening them with a view to enable them to serve the
individual better. Society is a complex phenomenon with a multitude of intricacies. It is
impossible to understand and solve its numerous problems without support of sociology. It is
rightly said that we cannot understand and mend society without any knowledge of its
mechanism and construction. Without the investigation carried out by sociology no real effective
social planning would be possible. It helps us to determine the most efficient means for reaching
the goals agreed upon. A certain amount of knowledge about society is necessary before any
social policies can be carried out. Prior to the emergence of sociology the study of society was
carried on in an unscientific manner and society had never been the central concern of any
science. It is through the study of sociology that the truly scientific study of the society has been
possible. Sociology because of its bearing upon many of the problems of the present world has
assumed such a great importance that it is considered to be the best approach to all the social
sciences.

Perspectives of Sociology:

Symbolic Perspective:The symbolic interactionism perspective, also known as symbolic

interactionism, directs sociologists to consider the symbols and details of everyday life, what
these symbols mean, and how people interact with each other. Although symbolic interactionism
traces its origins to Max Weber's assertion that individuals act according to their interpretation of
the meaning of their world, the American philosopher George H. Mead (1863–1931) introduced
this perspective to American sociology in the 1920.According to the symbolic integrationist
perspective, people attach meanings to symbols, and then they act according to their subjective
interpretation of these symbols. Verbal conversations, in which spoken words serve as the
predominant symbols, make this subjective interpretation especially evident. The words have a
certain meaning for the “sender,” and, during effective communication, they hopefully have the
same meaning for the “receiver.” In other terms, words are not static “things”; they require
intention and interpretation. Conversation is an interaction of symbols between individuals who
constantly interpret the world around them. Of course, anything can serve as a symbol as long
as it refers to something beyond itself. Written music serves as an example. The black dots and
lines become more than mere marks on the page; they refer to notes organized in such a way
as to make musical sense. Thus, symbolic integrationists give serious thought to how people
act, and then seek to determine what meanings individuals assign to their own actions and
symbols, as well as to those of others

Functionalism perspective:
According to the functionalist perspective, also called functionalism, each aspect of society is
interdependent and contributes to society's functioning as a whole. The government, or state,
provides education for the children of the family, which in turn pays taxes on which the state
depends to keep itself running. That is, the family is dependent upon the school to help children
grow up to have good jobs so that they can raise and support their own families. In the process,
the children become law-abiding, taxpaying citizens, who in turn support the state. If all goes
well, the parts of society produce order, stability, and productivity. If all does not go well, the
parts of society then must adapt to recapture a new order, stability, and productivity. For
example, during a financial recession with its high rates of unemployment and inflation, social
programs are trimmed or cut. Schools offer fewer programs. Families tighten their budgets. And
a new social order, stability, and productivity occur.
Functionalists believe that society is held together by social consensus, or cohesion, in which
members of the society agree upon, and work together to achieve, what is best for society as a
whole. Emile Durkheim suggested that social consensus takes one of two forms:
Mechanical solidarity is a form of social cohesion that arises when people in a society maintain
similar values and beliefs and engage in similar types of work. Mechanical solidarity most
commonly occurs in traditional, simple societies such as those in which everyone herds cattle or
farms. Amish society exemplifies mechanical solidarity.
In contrast, organic solidarity is a form of social cohesion that arises when the people in a
society are interdependent, but hold to varying values and beliefs and engage in varying types
of work. Organic solidarity most commonly occurs in industrialized, complex societies such
those in large American cities like New York in the 2000s.
The functionalist perspective achieved its greatest popularity among American sociologists in
the 1940s and 1950s. While European functionalists originally focused on explaining the inner
workings of social order, American functionalists focused on discovering the functions of human
behavior. Among these American functionalist sociologists is Robert Merton (b. 1910), who
divides human functions into two types: manifest functions are intentional and obvious, while
latent functions are unintentional and not obvious. The manifest function of attending a church
or synagogue, for instance, is to worship as part of a religious community, but its latent function
may be to help members learn to discern personal from institutional values. With common
sense, manifest functions become easily apparent. Yet this is not necessarily the case for latent
functions, which often demand a sociological approach to be revealed. A sociological approach
in functionalism is the consideration of the relationship between the functions of smaller parts
and the functions of the whole.
Functionalism has received criticism for neglecting the negative functions of an event such as
divorce. Critics also claim that the perspective justifies the status quo and complacency on the
part of society's members. Functionalism does not encourage people to take an active role in
changing their social environment, even when such change may benefit them. Instead,
functionalism sees active social change as undesirable because the various parts of society will
compensate naturally for any problems that may arise.

Conflict perspective:
The conflict perspective, which originated primarily out of Karl Marx's writings on class
struggles, presents society in a different light than do the functionalist and symbolic
interactionist perspectives. While these latter perspectives focus on the positive aspects of
society that contribute to its stability, the conflict perspective focuses on the negative, conflicted,
and ever-changing nature of society. Unlike functionalists who defend the status quo, avoid
social change, and believe people cooperate to effect social order, conflict theorists challenge
the status quo, encourage social change (even when this means social revolution), and believe
rich and powerful people force social order on the poor and the weak. Conflict theorists, for
example, may interpret an “elite” board of regents raising tuition to pay for esoteric new
programs that raise the prestige of a local college as self-serving rather than as beneficial for
students.
Whereas American sociologists in the 1940s and 1950s generally ignored the conflict
perspective in favor of the functionalist, the tumultuous 1960s saw American sociologists gain
considerable interest in conflict theory. They also expanded Marx's idea that the key conflict in
society was strictly economic. Today, conflict theorists find social conflict between any groups in
which the potential for inequality exists: racial, gender, religious, political, economic, and so on.
Conflict theorists note that unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agendas, causing
them to compete against one another. This constant competition between groups forms the
basis for the ever-changing nature of society.
Critics of the conflict perspective point to its overly negative view of society. The theory
ultimately attributes humanitarian efforts, altruism, democracy, civil rights, and other positive
aspects of society to capitalistic designs to control the masses, not to inherent interests in
preserving society and social order.

Reference:

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