Public Health: History of Medicine

INDEX

Introduction Page
 What is Medicine? 1
 History of Medicine 2

Background: Medicines in the Past

 Herbalism, Magic & Instinct Medicine 3
 Astrological Medicine 3-4
 Ancient Chinese Medicine 5
 Ancient Egyptian Medicine 6
 Ancient Greek Medicine 7-8
 Ancient Indian Medicine
 Ancient Islamic Medicine 9-10
 Ancient Romanian Medicine 10-11
 European Renaissance Medicine 11
 Modern Medicine 11
 Father of Dentistry 12
 The Great Medical Inventions: Penicillin, MRI Scanner 12-13
& Light Microscope

Discussion 14-16

Conclusion 17-18

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References 19
HISTORY OF MEDICINE

Introduction
Medicine has been around for centuries especially after the emergence of the
Great Revolution Era. Medicine is defined as the art, scientific study and method of
preventing and treating illnesses regardless of its severity; mild or chronic disease*. The
history of medicine is a crucial topic to be learned as it gives us an insight of the roots of
the great medicines ever existed until today. The subject ‘Anatomy’ in particular has led
to the development of other medical branches such as microbiology, histology,
pharmacology, physiology and pathology. The emergence of medicines and the
acknowledgement of its importance are mainly due to the diseases encountered by our
ancestors. Through great interest and curiosity, thorough experimentation and research
was done which had lead to the medicine at present. In this report, detailed background
of medicine and the period, the countries as well as the inventors or founders of great
findings are discussed. As a whole, medicine field have helped and contributed a lot in
maintaining a healthy human well-being.

What Is Medicine?
Medicine more often had been referred to as the medication taken to calm or
maintain a person’s health. The word medicine originated from the Latin word
‘medicina’ which means the ‘art of heeling’4. The proper definition of medicine is the art
and science to maintain and restore human health by studying, diagnosing and treating
patients’ diseases regardless of its severity; mild or chronic4. At present it is referred as
areas of clinical medicine, research and surgery which include the challenges of diseases
and injury. Medicine consists of many branches of specialization such as cardiology
(study of the heart), rhinology (study of the nose and its diseases), neurology (study of
the nervous system and its diseases) as well as others such as sports medicine, research
and public health4.

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The History of Medicine

Different parts of the world had developed different health care system ever since
history is being recorded. The Ancient Chinese, Egyptian, Greek, Indian, Islamic,
Romanian and Western medicine all had developed differently and at their own pace.
Medicine today, is a derivative of those that was developed around the 1450s by the
Western world during the early Renaissance. Only in the 19th and 20th Century that
medicine as being practiced now had developed enormously. The new and science-
evidence based medicine had gradually taken over the practices of traditional medicines
such as Herbalism and the Greek’s ‘four humours’. However, many still do practice the
traditional and ancient medicine such as the Chinese medicine, Indian Ayurvedic
medicine and Herbal medicine.
The basis leading to the rising of clinical medicine and thinking was the ‘Black
Death’ incident in the 1400s which had taken many lives. Another reason was due to the
improvement and queries on the theories of the great initiators such as Hippocrates and
Ibnu Sina. Increase in health awareness and human knowledge also lead to the
progression in medicine world. Furthermore, the downfall of the power of the church (i.e.
Roman Catholic Church) had lead to the great shift towards modern medicine. Modern
medicine integrates the practice of old medicine as well as scientifically proven medicine
via means of experimentation, diagnosis, analysis and evidence of a hypothesis.
In this report, the development and advancements of medicine in each era will be
discussed further (in Background section) as what was presented during the presentation.

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Background:Medicines in the Past

Herbalism, Magic & Instinct Medicine

The use of plants and animal body parts was one of the earliest medicine ever
existed in most cultures of the world. This type of practice usually come hand-in-hand
with the use of ‘magic’. Magic is defined as the secret power that some people believe
can make strange or impossible things happen if you say special words or do special
things10. There are many kinds of magic such as: (i) Animism- the belief of non-living
objects having spirits; (ii) Spiritualism- appeal to God(s) or communicate with spirits of
ancestors; (iii) Shamanism- the vesting of an individual with supernatural powers and (iv)
Divination- obtaining truth by using magic5.
Herbalism led to the development of one branch of medicine known as
Pharmacology. At present, many drugs are still being produced and derived from plants.
One such example is the drug Atropine; derived from the plant Atropa belladonna is used
as a competitive antagonist at the muscarinic receptor13.
Instinct medicine however is a type of practice by using human instinct which is
not based on any scientific learning, study or even evidence. It is even up until today is
being practiced by some people. For example, a person who accidentally burnt their
fingers might instantaneously put their fingers in cool running water and some even put
toothpaste on the burnt area. This type of practice may or may not have its benefits and
could lead to a more severe condition.

Astrological Medicine

Astrological medicine emerged from many ancient origins such as China, Egypt,
India and even in the Europe during the early modern periods and in the late medieval. At
that moment, astrology played an important role as it dictated most of the system of
knowledge and much of the things that took place during those times were referred to
Astrology. Astrologers had assigned zodiac signs to take control of some parts of the

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body, planets to control the organs and systems along with planets to rule the diseases
and drugs7. The entire organisation is based on observation and interpretation as stated by
a Rulership. The Black Death outbreak was also predicted by astrologers. They quoted
that ‘It is carried by 'disease seeds' [semina morbum], which is transmitted by contact or
contagion, but is due ultimately to malign or poisonous astrological influences - the same
combination of Mars and Saturn which had earlier brought the Black Death’ (taken from
Medical Astrology and Astrological Medicine by Peter Morell)7.
To make such predictions, the astrologers would need to obtain a chart for the
patients’ birth as well as for his illness and the time it arises. From this, astrologers are
able to make a diagnosis of the root of the disease and the energies involved.
Furthermore, from astrological point of view, cures can also be found. Diseases were
normally treated by means of using drugs made of natural origin (i.e. plants), as well as
employing the different medical methods such as Acupuncture, Ayurveda and Chinese
remedies.

The Astrological Chart

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Ancient Chinese Medicine

The Chinese people had practiced medicine quite differently compared to the
other empires as there was limited contact with the outside world. Thus, Chinese
medicine had grown differently without having any major influence from the European
teaching and ideas. Their beliefs, cultures and empirical observations and investigations
on diseases (by Taoist physicians) were the major contributors to the development of
medicine and the Chinese often relate energy as an important aspect their medicine5.
Instinct and empiric medicine are often applied to their practice of medicine.
Empiric medicine is a method of trial and error in the attempt to treat a disease. Each
dynasty ruled by different emperor had contributed a great deal towards the growth of
medicine. For example, during Han dynasty, Chang Chung-Ching composed a thesis
entitled ‘Treatise on Typhoid Fever’. Acupuncture (placing needle at the right places:
pressure points) and moxibustion became popular during the Jin dynasty5.
The Yin and Yang is one example of the ancient Chinese medicine theory. The
concept of Yin Yang is that there is a balance of good and bad things in this life. Yin and
Yang are two opposing things as Yin is described a cold, night, passive, inward and
restful meanwhile Yang is hot, day, outward and energetic 8. However, there needs to be a
balance between the two to maintain a good health. For instance, if a person was to have
too much of Yang (daylight, energy) but lack of sleep, in the end they will become
exhausted and end up being ill. Another example is when a person is angry and full of
rage or Yang, however once he has calm down and in serene state, and then Yin takes
over9.

The Ying & Yang Symbol

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The practice of Chinese medicine is to firstly establish the cause and root of the
illness or imbalance and try to use herbal remedies, acupuncture, implement exercise,
healthier diet and lifestyle to maintain the body’s balance.

Ancient Egyptian Medicine

The Egyptian medicine arises around 3000 B.C. Much of the advancements in
their medical field are largely contributed to their religious beliefs, high knowledge on
the human anatomy and public health. Moreover, modern medicine has developed largely
from the Ancient Egyptians. A famous physician, Imhotep (2980 B.C.) has been given
many titles and to name a few- ‘God of Medicine’, ‘Prince of Peace’5. Some also
considered him as the actual ‘Father of Medicine’ however; Hippocrates which came
2000 years after him became famous as the ‘Father of Medicine’. Imhotep had diagnosed
and treated over 200 diseases which include diseases of the abdomen, bladder, rectum,
eyes, skin, hair, nails and tongue5. Although he treated many diseases, however he
practiced medicine based much on religion and beliefs.

Imhotep

At that time, medical practice and techniques were written on the papyrus. The
two famous papyruses were the Edwin Smith Papyrus which contained information on
the procedure to treat dislocated bones meanwhile the Ebers Papyrus has information on
the methods to remove cists and tumours14. One of the first known surgeries had been
performed by the Egyptians dated back in 2750 B.C. Until now the evidence of the
medical practice had shown that the Egyptians were capable of identifying and

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developing cures for variety of illnesses as it had been recorded that about 800
procedures had been noted14.

Ancient Greek Medicine

The Ancient Greek medicine was based on religious beliefs as the Egyptians did.
Ancient Greek in comparison with Modern Greek is very dissimilar to each other as the
Ancient Greek put healthy lifestyle as one of the main aspects in their lives. The Greeks
were very successful in expanding the knowledge on medicine and science during the
ancient time.
Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.), a Greek Philosopher, better known as the ‘Father of
Medicine’ had done much study on the origin and cause of diseases and written books
based on scientific truth. In his books, he described in detail on illnesses such as arthritis,
mumps, malaria pneumonia and tetanus to name a few4. His theories eliminated the
concept that diseases might be caused or cured by the use of Magic or spirits but instead
believed that diseases should run naturally however with doctors paying close attention
and giving treatments to relieve pain. At that time, anaesthetic was not available thus
surgery was not popular as often it was not successful11.

Hippocrates came up with the ‘Four Humours’ theory (originated from

Aristotle’s work) which was used to establish medical reasoning at that period. Aristotle
was the first man to use the word ‘anatome’ which meant cutting up taking parts of the
body. The Greeks believed that the body is made up of four basic components called the
Four Humours which consists of liquids with in the body which include blood, phlegm,

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yellow bile and black bile. To have or remain in a healthy state, these four components
must be balanced11. The four humours are connected to the four seasons in a year: yellow
bile with summer, black bile with autumn, phlegm with winter and blood with spring.
Thus, this theory was used by doctors as a diagnostic apparatus for them to look for
symptoms of disease. As a result of the enormous contribution by Hippocrates, the rules
of conduct for doctors, the Hippocratic Oath was named after him5.

Hippocrates

Another person who had major role in the emergence of medicine during the
4th Century was Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C) 11. He had introduced new approaches
towards anatomy as well as finding cures and methods to heal those injured in battle. He
also had built and established a city that was unique at that time named City of
Alexandria11. The city became famous especially amongst physicians and scientists as
there was a massive library called Alexandria which was filled with manuscripts and
books concerning medicine as well as the works of many great philosophers including
Plato and Aristotle. Alexander’s’ successor, Ptolemy, was the man behind the
establishment and the success of the library11.
Moreover, at that time there was a couple, Asclepius and Higeia, whom had led
to the existent of two professions: Curative Health Care and Preventive Health Care6.
Asclepius believes in treating illnesses and performing surgery (Surgical procedure) only
after the disease has occurred. However, Higeia works by solving illnesses before it
occurs which is by means of prevention and practicing a healthy lifestyle6.

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Ancient Indian Medicine

During the periods of ‘Harappan’ (3300 B.C.), there was vast knowledge on
medicine and dentistry. One of the oldest practices of Indian medicine was the
‘Ayurveda’. Ayurveda – which means the science of life existed over 200 years ago and it
described that the approach to the body is idealistic and holistic. Two of its famous texts
ever written originated from the schools of Caraka and Suśruta which described
experimentation, diagnosis, predictions and cures for many diseases5.
The Caraka touched more on the health and illness as not something that is
predetermined and that life can be prolonged by healthy human lifestyle meanwhile the
Sustruta describes that medicines are used to cure diseases, protects the healthy and that
life can be prolonged by human effort. In the text, especially the Sustrae, medical
subjects mentioned included diseases of the eyes, injuries and illnesses related to ageing
and mental illness. It also had described medical instruments that were used which are
similar to what is being used at present.
There are eight branches of classic Ayurveda medicine which includes:(i)
Kayacikitsa (study on internal medicine); (ii) Salyacikitsa (anatomical surgery); (iii)
Salakyacikitsa (eye, ear, nose, and throat diseases); (iv) Kaumarabhitya (pediatrics); (v)
Bhutavidya (spiritual medicine); (vi) Agada tantra (study of toxicology); (vii) Rasayana
(science of rejuvenation); and (viii) Vajikarana (aphrodisiacs, mainly for men) 5.
Ayurveda also incorporates the use of natural substances as part of their healing methods
and treatments (i.e. the use of leeches).

. Ancient Islamic Medicine

Medicine was an important feature of the ancient Islamic world. This was made
evident as early as 931 AD; the doctors were made compulsory to pass medical
examinations to be able to practice legally. During the earlier days, the people had

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thought that diseases were caused by evil spirits. However, only by profound search and
thorough reading of the findings of philosophers such as Hippocrates and Imhotep, that
they realised that was not the case. Theories such as the ‘Four Humours’ was often
adopted and referred to by the Islamic scientists. One well-known Islamic scientist,
Rhazes (Al-Razi) was the first to observe and made detail recordings of small pox and
measles as well as their differences. He also wrote some books such as ‘The
Comprehensive Book of Medicine (Large Comprehensive) and Kitab fi Al-Jadari Wa-al-
Hasbah’. Ibnu Sina or Avicenna was famous in the Western world due to his book
entitled ‘The Canon of Medicine’ which is still being used as reference book as well as
‘The Book of Healing’. El-Zahrawi was one of the greatest surgeons of all time during the
ancient time.

The Canon of Medicine

Ancient Romanian Medicine

The Romans back then were rather religious (priestly) and believed strongly in
urban legends. Even though much of their medical knowledge had been taken and learned
from the Greeks (Hippocrates), their application of medicine and scientific based
medicine were lacking. However, the Romans maintained a good health regardless of
believing in the mythological methods.
Science based medicine was combined with religious and mythical beliefs and
traditions which consists of praying, submission and sacrificing to their God(s) for better
health and success in the future12. The Romans believed that their Gods were capable of
curing and healing a person and in particular was Aesculapius, which was the god of

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healing5. Earlier on, the medicine practiced was empirical medicine (trial and error) but
only later that medical school was built for a better understanding of medicine. The
Romans ensure that the people practices good hygiene and sanitation12. For example,
water was ensured to be cleaned and free of any contaminations of bacteria and such.
During this era, Galen, a well known physician had expanded the medical knowledge
further with reference to the findings of Hippocrates. He did several experimentations,
dissections to study the human anatomy in much more detail.

European Renaissance Medicine

European medicine existed due to experimental, empirical investigation and

examination of bodies. People such as Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey are those
that had contributed some of their works during this time by trying to prove wrong of the
myths via using scientific evidence. During this time, drugs, treatments and investigations
on certain diseases was established such as opium and other medical discovery. Andreas
Vesalius had come up with medical theory as well as written a comprehensive book of
the human body entitled ‘The Fabric of Human Body’11. The book included detailed
drawings of the human anatomy.

Modern Medicine
Modern clinical medicine developed more largely around the 19th Century
especially in the UK and USA meanwhile in the 20th Century scientific method,
improvement in surgery and pharmacology begin to emerge. During this moment, there
was a vast advancement in chemistry, techniques and new ideas had been established. For
example, in 1895 Wilhelm Roentgen created X-ray, a new imaging technique which
makes it possible to see the inside of the human body so that they can be examined and
photographs could be made4.

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Father of Dentistry A Stethoscope

The title of Father of Modern Dentistry was awarded to Pierre Fauchard, a French
physician in the 17th Century. He developed the ways of using dental prosthesis,
introduced dental fillings as a treatment for dental caries and also had stated that sugar
and its derivatives (such as tartaric acid) was responsible for dental decay17. Only later on
that people started to invent apparatus and tools in relation to dental world which is
renowned up until this day.

Pierre Fauchard

The Great Medical Inventions: Penicillin, MRI Scanner & Light Microscope

One of the greatest and valuable findings of all time up until today is the
discovery of the Penicillin antibiotic. Penicillin comes from the penicillin mold released
by bacteria and fungi16. It was originally discovered by a French student, Ernst Duchesne
in 1896. However, it was only then that another person, Sir Alexander Fleming (1881-
1955) who had a great interest in it. He observed that the penicillin had healing potentials
as colonies of bacterium Stahphylococcus aureus were destroyed by the Penicillium

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notatum16. Thus leading to the discovery of anti bacterial agent and the principle that
medicine could kill certain types of bacteria which can cause diseases.
In the 1940s, two scientists, Howard Florey and Ernst Chain isolated the active
ingredients from the mold and developed a powdery form. In 1948, Andrew J. Moyer
was granted the patent to mass produce penicillin17. Penicillin has been a great use during
the World War II in saving many lives as it helped treat infections.

Sir Alexander Fleming

(1881-1955)

The MRI (Multi Resonance Imaging) Scanner is also another great invention at
present time. It was created by Raymond Damadian17. It is used to sample a tissue by
means of nuclear magnetic resonance. It enables the detection of known normal and
malignant tissue as well as giving an indication of the degree of malignancy of the
cancerous tissue.

MRI Scanner Light Microscope

Another invention was the Light Microscope. The apparatus has been very handy
towards many medical fields especially those dealing with researches such as

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Microbiology and Histology. The light microscope enlarges images, allowing us to see
small objects or objects unseen by the human naked eye by means of a lens or
combinations of lenses16.

Discussion
Medicine in the past and present has different methods of treating and dealing
with diseases. Currently, medicine usually uses scientific based methods in order to treat
diseases for instance plants or parts of animals that is evident in its benefits of treating
illnesses such as aspirin. However, there are still people that still do believe in ‘magic’ or
‘instinct’ medicine nowadays. There are five basic type of medicine being practiced in
the olden days such as instinct, magic, priestly (religious), empiric and scientific
medicine. Instinct medicine is normally practiced by the Chinese and Indians while the
priestly medicine is often practiced by the Romans and Egyptians.
Currently, medicine has developed substantially and has improved massively due
to the past findings and old practice of medicine being implemented to the present usage.
For instance, Herbalism has greatly diverged with massive improvements into what is
now called Pharmacology which now deals with drugs and its effect on the body
(Pharmacokinetics and pharmacokinetics). The drugs are mainly derived from plants such
as aspirin, atropine, digoxin and warfarin.
Many drugs developed are now being used to reduce pain, treat cancer and long-
term problems such as high cholesterol levels and diabetes as well as degenerative
diseases such as Alzheimer’s. The development of variety medicine by pharmaceutical
companies led to an increase in the supply of medicine thus making drugs much cheaper
and affordable for the consumers.
At present, methods to reduce symptoms and signs of diseases such as cancer had
been established and have helped prolong human life (i.e. chemotherapy, surgery and
drugs). Also, the advancements in medicine have lead to many valuable consequences for
example; many diseases are now preventable, treatable and curable. In addition, many
other illness and diseases were discovered along the way by means of experimentation,
research and observations along with methods to cure and treat the diseases.

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Branches of medicine were also established thus increasing the number of

scientists, researchers, doctors, nurses, therapists we have today and this all contributes in
increasing the human’s standard of living as well as providing people a source of income.
The discovery of anaesthetic made surgery-multiple surgery such as transplants possible
and surgical methods also have improved and have had advancements (i.e. using fibre
optics in surgeries) making work much easier for doctors. All these have large impact on
the society today as people became more aware of the importance of medicine, having
good hygiene and healthy lifestyle.
In the future, much talked about methods such as cloning and genetic engineering
which is the manipulation of stem cells is hoped to be successful on a larger scale which
could aid in curing degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s. Also, it is hoped that cures
for untreatable and life-threatening diseases such as HIV/AIDS and the Bird flu virus will
be discovered as well as the methods of detecting diseases such as cancer at an earlier
stage (when it cell has not metastasised).
This topic was formally presented in front of the class. Following the
presentation, a period of time was given for the class to interact and be involved in asking
questions to the presenting group. A number of people took part in the Question &
Answer session. Below are the questions as well as the name of the person(s) whom had
raised their queries.
Questions:
i. Who invented the dental chair? (Nadia)
ii. How does the light microscope and MRI work? (Liyana)
iii. Can you please explain more about “Astrology”? (Wei Xi)
iv. Is there another name for El-Zahrawi in the western world and where do we get a
body for experimental purposes from? (Adiba)
v. What is Atropine? (Updeshen)
Answers:
i. Dental chair was invented by Waldo Hanchett in 1948.
ii. The light microscope works by magnifying small objects or objects unseen by
the naked eye via means of a lens or combinations of lenses. The MRI scanner
is a machine where a tissue sample is placed in a nuclear induction device

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where selected nuclei gets energized to higher energy states via nuclear
magnetic resonance. This allows us to measure the values of normal and
malignant tissue as well as gives indication of the degree of malignancy of the
cancerous tissue (if any).
iii. Astrology is the study of the positions and movements of the stars and planets
and the way that some people believe they affect people and events. In ancient
medicine, astrology was applied in terms of assigning the zodiac signs to rule
some parts of the human body, the planets to rule the organs and systems
meanwhile the planets to rule over diseases and drugs.
iv. Another name for El-Zahrawi can not be found from the internet. The
deceased body used for experimental and study purposes is obtained from
sources such as body of those involved in accidents and even those that had
volunteered and given consent for their body to be used for study purposes
when they die. Also, there is in some cases where people do sell their bodies
(like in India) to obtain money for their family as they are too poor.
v. Atropine is a type of drug derived from the plant Atropa belladonna. It is a
drug used as a competitive antagonist for the muscarinic receptor (i.e. receptor
controlling gastric).

From this topic, we know that ancient medicine been the anchor or the starting point
of the medicine we know today. The ancient people have contributed a lot in terms of
science as they had provided us with the luxury of knowledge on anatomy, medicine and
types of diseases in terms of findings and writings. Although there are similarities and
differences to the approach being used, however all of these have the same motive, which
is to find cures and reasoning behind each diseases.

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Conclusion

Medicine is a very important field as most of our lives are dependent on medicine.
There are many types of medicine including the ancient medicine which are still being
practiced this generation and is still improving .Ancient medicine are composed of many
different system that comes from different periods and origins such as the Islamic, Greek-
Romanian, Chinese, Egyptian, Indian and the European medicine.
These countries have different ways of making and applying medicine for
treatment purposes. Ancient medicines are predominantly based on natural resources
such as plants that were used as the main ingredient for the ancient curative medicine.
However, some of the practices are of no scientific evidence and are illogical such as the
Magic and Instinct medicine. Medicine now as we know was established many centuries
ago not only due to the outbreak of diseases or illnesses such as the Black Death but also
because of the realisation of the importance of maintaining a healthy physique and
mentality.
The ‘intellectuals’ such as Hippocrates and Avicenna whom had high curiosity
and the desire for more knowledge did some empirical examination and observations on
the symptoms of the diseases, how to overcome and treat the disease that was suffered by
their people and in fact, killing quite a number of people. Thus, all these had lead to the
establishment and advancements of many aspects of science and medicine which all
contributes to what the modern medicine is today.
Following the ancient medicine, modern medicine comes in at the top ranking as
the main treatment method nowadays. Modern medicine has shown a lot of improvement
as days goes by and have saved many lives. The modern day equipments like the
stethoscope, MRI scanner, X-ray machines have assisted medical officers in treating and
aiding the recovery of their patients.

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Research and treatment based on modern medicine have come a long way
in finding the elixirs for the diseases that were untreatable by ancient medicine. Among
the illnesses that can be relieved or cured are malaria, diabetes and high blood pressure.
Overall, each epoch has different approaches in treating and dealing with diseases.
Although there are some obvious differences, however all these have significant
contribution towards the modern medicine that we know today. Without the early
discoveries and findings we would not have reached the advance level of modern
medicine that we have today. Also, many diseases would still be unknown and
undiscovered, cures and treatments are scarce as well as there will also be lack in
anatomy knowledge. Thus it is important for us to have certain realisation and
understanding of the importance of the history of medicine and its valuable contribution
to the world.

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References:
1
http://www.durbinhypnosis.com/images/hippocrates.jpg (Hippocrates picture)
2
http://www.iqb.es/historiamedicina/personas/bpics/imhotep.jpg (Imhotep picture)
3
http://www.550m.com/usuarios/universodontologico/home_files/fauchard.jpg (Fauchard
picture)
4
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine
5
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine
6
Materi-Bab 1: Pendahuluan
7
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology
8
http://www.chinesefortunecalendar.com/YinYang.htm
9
http://www.Yin and Yang in Traditional Chinese Medicine.htm
10
Oxford Student’s Dictionary of English (2007); Oxford FAJAR
11
http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/a-b/ancientsurgery1.html
12
http://www.roman-medicine.php.htm
13
Colour Atlas of Pharmacology (Handbook)
14
http://www.alexander1.htm
15
http://www.schoolshistory.org.uk/ancientegypt.htm
16
http://inventors.about.com/od/pstartinventions/a/Penicillin.htm
17
http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bldental.htm

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