c



c
c
 c

c
  !"# $ %$$)

m



  

 

 
 
Ethiopia possesses a big range of woody species amongst its luxuriant flora. To select the best
wood for a particular purposes calls for an accurate knowledge of the qualities required and
reliable information as to the woods possessing those qualities. The important technical features
usually concerned in this selection are: (1) anatomical structure, (2) shape & size of the trees,
(3) specific gravity, (4) strength, (5) hardness, (6) flexibility, (7) elasticity, (8) toughness, (9)
adaptability or otherwise to seasoning, (10) natural durability and adaptability to preservative
treatment, (11) color, grain, figure and similar characteristics,(12) freedom from defects,
(13)adaptability to working with tools and on machines. In the choice of wood for a particular
purpose, laboratory tests are necessary for ascertaining the desired properties and
characteristics, but its suitability is finally decided only after actual trial.

The basic physical and mechanical properties are not possessed in an equal degree by all
woods; in fact, there is a very considerable variation among timbers both in appearance and
their properties, particularly as regards weight, hardness, strength, degree of shrinkage, easy of
working, ability to hold nails and screws, and reaction to pulping agents. Equally notable are the
chemical and anatomical differences. The choice of species for any particular use is decided by
combined presence of desired properties and characteristics. It should be realized that an
appreciable equalization of the properties of wood can be achieved by proper design and
treatment.

V|



 



V
V
V
Timber is required for the following four purposes:

a. For general constructional work and main members.

b. For the high quality plywood used for covering purposes.
c. For propeller manufacture.
d. For linings and for sandwich construction between two plywood skins.

  
V
V
V

V
Î The timber has to be sound, free from knots, straight-grained and light in weight, should
possess high strength/weight ratio.

1
 c

 c
c
 c

c
  !"# $ %$$)

Î The growth should be uniform, only pieces with 3 to 6 growth rings/cm being accepted.
Î For linings and sandwich construction, lightness in weight coupled with minimum
required strength, resilience and sound-proofing properties are chief consideration.
Î In the international market, a weight of up to 224kg/cu m is considered to be satisfactory.

j
V
V
V
V  V
a) For main members- Fir (|
 p
) and spruce (P
a 


aa) alone come up to
international standard.
) Aircraft quality plywood- Indian birch and maple are suitable.
) For propeller-Timber suitable for propeller are padauk, aini (| apu

ua),chickrassy(Cuka
a a ula
), champ(
l
a a
pa a). More advanced
types of propeller are made wholly or purely of compregnated wood (resin-impegnated
laminated and compressed wood).
) Materials for linings and for sandwich construction between two plywood skins- Balsa
(O 
a pya

al
) is the world¶s best timber for this purpose. Pieces with a density
of 128-224kg/cu m are accepted commercially. Suitable substitute of balsa are
Cyp

a jap
a (density about 256 kg/cu m),Ey
a u a( density 240 kg/cu
m) and S ul
a v
lla(density about 272kg/cu m)
Finally, it should not be forgotten that aeroplanes are being constructed very largely of
metal nowadays and that, though the demand for wood will continue for certain parts,
the use of wood in aircraft construction is not as much as it once was.

V

 


In Ethiopia, as elsewhere, packing is one of the important end uses of wood. Wooden
packaging has always been preferred for fresh fruits, machinery, aircraft parts, precision
instruments etc.
Manufacturers of shoes, matches, soaps, chemicals and toilet preparations, pencils,
articles of stationery, paints and varnishes etc require large quantities of packing cases.
Paper mills and coffee-packing industry also require large quantities of wood for this
purpose.

 









Î Packaging serves three principal purposes, viz., protection, ease of handling and
advertisement.
Î The primary requirements of a wood for use in packing cases are lightness in weight
combined with required strength for purpose, and good nail and screw holding power.
Timbers weighing about 350-420 kg/cu m in air-dry condition are suitable for packing
cases.
Î Timber for packing cases should preferably be of light color so that it may carry stencil
marks well, this having an advertising value in trade: the trade would prefer a good-
looking, white good.
Î The timber for ammunition boxes should have good retention of shape and size
combined with required strength, particularly for small arms and ammunition.

2
 c

 c
c
 c

c
  !"# $ %$$)

Î Timber for packing cases should be straight grain and free from insect attack, decay,
objectionable knots, splits and warping.
Î Timber for cheap type of packing cases should be seasoned to moisture content not
exceeding 18%.
Î Timber for better quality of packing cases should be thoroughly seasoned to moisture
content of 12-18%, depending on the locality of use and manufacturer.

Ê 
 V
VV
V
V
Î Timbers are classified as follows from the point of view of their suitability for packing
cases intended for varying loads:

        





Êlass I 640 kg/cu m and above

Êlass II 481-639 kg/cu m

Êlass III 400-480 kg/cu m

Êlass IV less than 400 kg/cu m

Î The suitability of different classes of timbers according to the loads to be handled is

roughly as follows.

j
       






Very easy load or up to 320 kg cu m III

Easy load or 321-640 kg/cu m III & II

Average load or 641-1280 kg/cu m II

Difficult load or more than 1281 kg/cu m II & I

!


"#

 

$
|
VÊlassify Ethiopian timber based on their density.

%V#& 
 
Î The match box industry is one of the most important timber-using industries in world.
The annual production and consumption run to many trillions of matches requiring
several millions cu m of wood.

3
 c

 c
c
 c

c
  !"# $ %$$)

Î A match is a piece of inflammable material generally made of wood, but sometimes also
of cardboard or other material and provided with a tip consisting of a mixture of
chemicals and other substances that may be ignite by friction.
Î It is the most widely used agency yet invented for obtaining fire. In Ethiopia, matches
are primarily made of wood only.
Î Match boxes are also of different types: all wood, all cardboard, or a mixture of both.
Match boxes are of µfull size¶, µthree quarter size¶, or µhalf size¶. Full size¶, and µhalf size¶
are common, and measure, respectively, 7.30 cmx3.73 cmx1.83 cm, and
4.60 cm x 3.29cm x 1.55cm, including boxes and splints.

 
 #

Î The essential qualities required in match wood are: straightness of grain, good strength
and toughness combined with lightness, good white color, freedom from knots and
cracks, and capacity to absorb paraffin readily and hold the head firmly.
Î The log should be round and easily peelable on the veneering lathe, and the wood
should be easily available.

c

 #
 
Î *
ax 
a, Dyxyl
ala a
u
, Ep
u

la , Sal
al
a



,Sp
a p
aa.
Î Efforts have been made from time to time to manufacture splints and boxes from
bamboos, reeds and grasses, but the results have seldom been satisfactory.

'V
Î Wood is an important raw material for the production of pulp, and is at present the one
most widely used in the world for paper pulp.
Î While woods of coniferous species are more widely used than those of broadleaved
species, the demand for paper and pulp products is so great that the woods of
broadleaved trees are being employed in ever-increasing amounts.
Î Woods of various coniferous and broadleaved species are suitable for pulping. Some
suitable species are listed below:

Î Fir (|
 p
) ,Green wattle (| a
a  u), Siris (|l

a 

) , Salai
(*ll
a aa) , Suji (Cyp

a jap
a), Blue gum (Eu alypu l ulu ),
Spruce (P
a 


aa), Êhir (P
u x u

) ,Poplar (Ppulu
l
aa)

4
 c

 c
c
 c

c
  !"# $ %$$)

m



 
 
 

  



Î The various parts of a cart or carriage are subjected to different kinds of stresses and
strains, and require different qualities of wood for real efficiency.
Î The main parts of a cart or carriage are: i) the framework ii) the axle, iii) the wheals and
iv) the shafts or poles.

›

Î A strong wood which is not too heavy is preferable for this purpose (´
l
a a a) is
an excellent timber for light carts. Sissoo (Dl 
a 
) is one of the best woods in
the market for the framework of carriages

|

Î A very hard and tough wood is essential for this purpose. Such timbers as babul (| a
a

l
a, axel wood (|
u la
l
a)

5
 c

 c
c
 c

c
  !"# $ %$$)

#

 
Î Wheels are composed of three main parts: the nave or hub, the spokes, and the felloes.
Each of these parts requires certain distinct quality in the wood used.

Î Ë ± the wood for this purpose must be straight grained, strong and elastic. It should
also be free from defect and not liable to warp or sharing, the later fault resulting in the
spokes becoming lose in the mortise of the hub and felloes. The best woods for the
purpose are rose wood (Dl 
a la
l
a) sissoo, dhaman(´
a 
l
al
a), and
bijasal.
Î ›

°These are subjected too much crushing and alternation all of wetting and drying,
and must be hard, strong, elastic and durable. To make a really strong wheel, naturally
curved or bent timber is the best, so that the grain of the wood follows the line of the
circumference of the wheel as nearly as possible.
Î The best woods for the felloes are babul, rosewood, dhaman and bijasal.

c# 

Î Woods for this purpose should be straight grained, tough, elastic and very strong. The
best woods are ´
a pp, |
u pp., and similar very strong wood.
Î P apu al 
, and Sa  ua are of the type likely to be most suiable.
Î Bamboos are very commonly used for buggy shafts, being light and strong.

!


  
Î The manufacture of railway carriages and wagons is an important timber utilizing
industry in the world. Although frames of carriages and wagons are now a days
invariably made of steel, wooden bodes are also in use.
Î The proportion of wood used is gradually decrees as the railway are bringing in to use
carriages with steel shell in which the use of wood is restrict to interior fitting.

 






#

Î Wood used for railway carriage building should generally be strong but not very heavy.
As explained below, other properties have also to be taken in to account with reference
to the specific parts of the carriage for which the wood is to be used.
Î The timbers required for carriage and wagon building fall in to the following for distinct
class:

a) Fore main members of passenger coaches, such as bottom sides, pillars, can¶t rears
and cross bars: a generally strong and very steady wood is required for this component.
For along time, only Burma teak (j a a
) was being used, but now Indian teak
and padauk (P apu al 

) have been accepted as equally good substitute.
b) For interior fittings such as boarding, paneling, ceiling , partitions seats, etc« most
furniture class woods can be used for this components, the main requirements being
moderate strength, reasonably good retention of shape and size in service, and good
figure,grain and color.
c) For foot -boards± hard and strong timbers are needed for this use

6
 c

 c
c
 c

c
  !"# $ %$$)

d) For floor boards : hard and strong timbers are needed to with stand the continual
wearing out and indentation stresses to which floor boards are subjected

%!
 


 
Î The chief functions of sleepers are to support the rails, distribute the load from the rail to
the ballast, and maintain a gauge. Wooden sleeper fulfils all this requirements very
satisfactorily.
Î The average annual requirement of sleepers of all categories is assessed to be at about
10 million.
Î As supply of wooden sleepers is limited, the railways are trying to effect a gradual
reduction in the use of wood for sleepers and are going for sleepers of cast iron, steel
and pre-stressed concrete.

 






#

Î The wood for sleepers should have strength, including transverse strength to resist
breakage by centre, binding and compressive strength to resist the pressure.
Î It should be hard to resist rail abrasion^
Î It should have spike holding power to resist undue spike loosening and good seasoning
property without excessive splitting, cracking, warping etc.
Î For all treated sleepers, the timber must be amenable to treatment with coal tar creosote
or other preservative at reasonable cost.

c



 
Î = V

V


VSa  ua, Cu aa, Xyl
a xyl apa, La

a
puv
la, P apu
aup
u
.
Î  Vj

V


VSa  ua, Cu aa, |
 p
, ,|l

a l  k,
, |
u la
l
a, P
u x u

, P
u all

aa, la
a la laa.

'!(
 
Î The use of wood for paving streets is said to have originated in Russia. It was later
introduced into England, America and elsewhere.
Î The method consists in embedding small blocks of wood in bituminous compounds.
Even in the modern days of reinforced concrete and other compositions, wood has
certain qualifications as a street-surfacing material which none of the other materials so
far discovered for the purpose possesses.
Î In the first place, wooden paving-blocks compare favorably in cost with other surfacing
materials and offer better resistance to the skidding of motor cars than concrete or
composition surfaces.
Î They also compare very favorable in durability and wear and tear with other road-
surfacing materials.
Î Above all, they are silent under heavy traffic, which in street fronted with offices, shops,
hospitals etc is an important consideration.

#







Î The chief requisites of good wooden paving-block are durability, resistance to wear and
tear, resilience, and non- liability to absorb water excessively.
Î The texture should also be even, as otherwise the blocks wear unevenly.

7
 c

 c
c
 c

c
  !"# $ %$$)

Î The general rule is that the paving- blokes should be laid with the cross-section surfaces
at top and bottom and not on the sides. This is necessary to ensure even wear and tear,
as the end-surface of wood wears far more evenly than the tangential or radial surfaces.




 


Î Irul (xylia xylocarpa), Tectona grandis, Acaia catechu, Hopea parviflora.

)c#
 


Î In former times, before the advent of iron and steel, the demand for ship building timbers
was one of the heaviest on the timber industry. The demand is even now very large, but
the purposes for which the timber is required have changed.
Î Nowadays wood is confined chiefly to deck planking and interior fitments. This, of
course, is only natural when it is remembered that iron ships are stronger and more able
to resist the buffetings, of heavy seas, are more durable and easier to repair, and can be
built to sizes far beyond the possibilities of wood.
Î The shipping of today is many times what it was years ago, and the demand for deck
planking, cabin fitments and interior decorative woods is greater than ever.

!









Î Timber for ship building should be strong, elastic and durable and free from defects to
stand the enormous strains.
Î Teak(ja a a
) is the best wood ship building timber in the world not only
because of durability, strength,

8
 c

 c
c
 c

c
  !"# $ %$$)

m
%


  
 
Î Sports goods include a large number of articles, such as hockey sticks, cricket bats,
tennis and badminton rackets, golf clubs, billiard cues, skies, cricket stumps and bails,
fishing rods, etc. The requirements of wood for sports goods are very exacting. Timbers
with a combination of certain specific properties are needed and the choice of species is
limited.

!









Î The requirements of wood are very exacting. It must be light with high strength/wt. ratio,
pliable, tough, shock resistance, easy to work, capable of taking a good polish and
preferably light in colour.
Î In Europe and America, ash (›ax
u pp.) is commonly used for the purpose, and in
India mulberry became the standard sports goods timber as a substitute for imported
ash. Different qualities are however, required for different articles of sport.

The different categories of sports goods and the woods used or found suitable are
discussed below.

%

 

Î Timber for this purpose has to be right weight and must have a straight grain. It should
be white in colour or nearly so, free from knots and other defects.
Î Recommended Species: Ebony (D
py
laxyl), Plya
a aa,
Saaa ll
p
a, have been tried and found suitable.

9
 c

 c
c
 c

c
  !"# $ %$$)

%   
Î Yew (jaxu a aa) is an excellent bow wood. It is very strong, tough and an elastic
wood. Other woods used for this purpose are ´
a 
l
l
a, P apu
aup
u
,
| a
a a u.
Î For arrows good strong wood which will not warp is required. Êoniferous are sometimes
used but are too light for the purpose. Delbergia sisoo, Pterocarpus marsupium are
suitable. Reeds and bamboos are also commonly used for arrows.

%%

     
 
Î The timber for cricket bats should be light in colour and light in weight but reasonably
strong. It should be able to take the shock of repeated striking of the ball with great
force.
Î The best and the only wood used for bats is willow (Salix spp.). The best cricket bats are
made of the English cricket bat willow( Sal
x al a va Caula) of the U.K..
Î Êheap quality bats can be made from l
a aaaa , ppulu Spp. Mulberry( u
al a) is most commonly used for stumps and bails but other woods like Cl
 aual
,
Plyal
a au are also suitable.

%'›
#
 
Î For cheap rods, bamboos are chiefly used, |u
a
a al a being amongst the most
popular.
Î Wood most commonly used for superior quality fishing rod is green heart (O a


), a South American species. Some other species like j

al
a
a

and
Saaa ll
p
a have also been found suitable.

%)* 
Î Wooden golf clubs are usually made of South American hickory (Êarya spp). Ash is also
used for golf club shafts.
Î Golf club heads are made of persimmon (D
py v


aa). j

al
a
a

, | a
a

l
a, Clxyl 

a, ja
aau

a, ua a have been used with
success for heads of wooden clubs.

%+,
 
 
Î The timber for this purpose should be reasonably light but strong, particularly in its shock
resistance.
Î It should be amenable to steam bending in thick sections. Ash is commonly used in
western countries.
Î Mulberry ( u al a) has been found suitable for hockey sticks. Amongest other
substitutes Cl
 aual
 also makes a satisfactory hockey sticks.

%-j


    #
 
Î All tennis, badminton and squash rackets of built-up construction obtained by bending
and gluing together thin veneers of wood.

10
 c

 c
c
 c

c
  !"# $ %$$)

Î Straight grained, long fibered wood with good shock resistance is essential for rackets.
Ash (Fraxinus pp), maple (Acer spp.), are commonly used in the western countries.
Î Mulberry is also found excellent for the purpose. Other suitable woods are la

a
yplu a and la

a la laa.

%.c


Î Toughness, flexibility, even texture, and straight grain are the essential qualities of a
good ski wood. Ash and hickory are used in Western countries.
Î Delbergia sisoo, Morus alba and Axel wood (Anogeissus latifolia ) have been found
suitable for the purpose.

V V

m
'






  &



'›

  
Î In many parts of Ethiopia, a short pole cut from a young or small tree is used
as a fence post, usually in its natural round shape and often with the bark
on.
Î Such a post contains a large percentage of sapwood, and as the sapwood of
all species, including that of sal rSa  ua), teak rj a a
), deodar
rCu aa) and other trees with durable heartwood, is very liable to
attack by fungus and insects, and as the bark on a dead stem is sure to
attract wood-boring insects, a post of this type is not really serviceable.
Î If the bark and sapwood are chipped off before use, the result will be more
satisfactory, and such posts will give good service, at any rate for temporary

11
 c

 c
c
 c

c
  !"# $ %$$)

purposes, if the species used has reasonably durable heartwood.

Î In most localities in Ethiopia, owing to the prevalence of termites, fungi and
borers, the heartwood of a fairly durable species should be used for fence
posts, or the posts should be treated with a good preservative.
Î It is usually sufficient to' treat only the lower portion of the post, as the
portion above ground is often not subject to adverse influences, but the
treatment should extend up to a quarter of a meter or so above the ground-
level part of the post.
Î A simple butt treatment in an open tank or barrel is usually adequate; but,
should the post be required to give service for '1 number of years, a
thorough treatment in a pressure cylinder is necessary. A very useful and
moderately durable post can be obtained by charring its surface over a fire
before planting it in the ground.

 






#


Î Reasonable strength and durability are the only qualities required.

 


Î The following timbers are likely to give good service: babul, khair r| a
a
a u), deodar, hopea r pa pav
la), p apu spp, Sal, teak and irul
rXyl
a xyl apa).

'›
# 



Î As marine borers are confined to brackish or saline water, constructional
work in freshwater is not subject to attack by these pests, and the selection
of timbers for this type of work is thereby greatly simplified.
Î The type of structure for which the timber is required, however, plays an
important part in selecting the best wood for the purpose.
Î If the structure is to be completely Immersed in freshwater at all times,
selection is easy, as submerged wood is protected from attack by insects
and ordinary fungi, and several woods which are considered as most
perishable when exposed to the air give good service indefinitely if kept
under water.
Î Good examples of this are salai r*ll
a aa), Ey
a u a, mango
r a
a

a), semul r*
ax 
a) and bahera rj

al
a ll

a). All
these woods are perishable timbers in ordinary circumstances, but if kept
completely submerged under freshwater, they remain almost indefinitely in
good condition.
Î If, on the other hand, the structure is to be exposed to alternate wetting and
drying, the situation is entirely changed, as conditions most favorable for the
rapid development of wood destroying fungi are at once set up.
Î Unfortunately, in such constructions as piers, jetties, bridge piles, well

12
 c

 c
c
 c

c
  !"# $ %$$)

curbs, sluice gates, and river-bank protection against erosion. Alternate

wetting and drying is unavoidable, and unless preservative treatment is
adopted, it is necessary to use only those timbers that are durable under
these conditions.
Î The choice is, therefore, restricted to such wood as babul, | apu spp.,
deodar rCu aa), hopea r pa spp.), Laa

a spp and teak
rj a a
).
Î Of these, uriam and pyinma rLa

a yplu a) have been reported on as
being exceptionally durable if kept wet.

'% 


Î Piles comprise the main upright members in bridge building, etc. They usually
have the lower portion of their length sunk in the ground. This portion, and more
especially that near the ground level on dry land, is very liable to at tack by
termites and fungi. The portion of the pile below water level is not subject to
attack from termites or fungi.

 




#

Î The essential qualities required in a good pile wood are great durability (the most
important) and great strength and resistance to shearing, splitting and end-
crushing, it must be capable of standing up to the continuous blows of the
pile driver during the process of being driven into the ground.

 

V
Î Amongst the best of the woods for the purpose are: babul r| a
a 
l
a ssp


a), khair r| a
a a u), aini r| apu 
ua), deodar rCu
aa),hopea r pa pa
j
a), sal rSa  ua), teak rj a a
) and irul
rXyl
a xyI apa).
V

''j

#

#
&




j#
 



Î There is an increasing demand for cheap types of supports for' overhead
power and telecommunication lines.
Î Owing to the prohibitive cost of tubular poles, various other types of supports
such as concrete posts, used rails, and wood poles have been tried for this,
purposes.
Î Wood pole lines are considered to be the cheapest as regards initial cost as
compared with all other types of supports.
Î On account of their very elastic nature, wood poles are used both for short-
span low-voltage systems, and also to a limited extent for high- voltage
transmission lines.

13
 c

 c
c
 c

c
  !"# $ %$$)

"

 








Î It should be obtainable in good straight length.
Î It should not split or crack excessively, and should have the required length.
Î It should be free from sap rot, hollows, cross breaks and large holes all of which
are categorized as a totally prohibited defects.

')j

 j

 

j


Î
Î Tent poles are usually of bamboo, but it is not uncommon to see large tent
poles made of wood; such poles can be either round or squared. A good
strong wood is desirable, Êommon timbers in use are dhaman r´
a

l
al
a), sal and Teak rj a a
).

j

 
Î
Î Tent pegs may vary in size from the small 15 cm pegs, used with very light
tents, to the very large pegs '1 m long and 10 cm in diameter used with big
marquees.
Î These must be made of a hard, durable wood, which should also be tough
enough to resist hammering. There is a big demand in the country for
suitable woods for tent pegs of all descriptions. Many woods are suitable for
this purpose. Among the best of these are babul r| a
a 
l
a spp

a),
sundri r 

a

), sandan rOu

a j

), kusum , sal ja
a
u


a) . Other good tent-peg woods are sissoo rDal 
a 
), dhaman
r´
a spp.) and irul rXyl
a xyl apa).
Î The most common type of tent peg is a round peg cut from a branch or
sapling, This type of peg is liable to crack, the wood being, more often than
not, quite green.
Î A more satisfactory peg can be sawn from a plank of seasoned wood to the
size and shape required.V
V

'+|



 
Î "Agricultural implements" is a comprehensive term with a wide application, but
in common use it usually refers to such appliances as ploughs, harrows,
rollers, and clod-crushers.
Î In Ethiopia, these implements are, more often than not made entirely on
wood, and the amount of timber used for their construction is quite
considerable.
Î Only the strongest, toughest and hardest woods are of any use for such
world and the local wood which complies best with these essentials is the
one usually employed.
Î The following some woods are all used for agricultural implements of different
kinds: Acacia nilotica, Acacia catechu, Axel wood, sissoo, oaks, sal, irul etc.

14
 c

 c
c
 c

c
  !"# $ %$$)

V VV V
V
V

VV
V V
 
V
V
 V 5.1 BobbinsV
 V 5.2 Shuttles
 V 5.3 Picker arms
V 5.4 Loom components
c

ll ^
VV=
=Ú IÚ l';


 I
. ' ; Y
V(;{)mmqnh" 
V V V VV V ^V V
 

VVVr ^V Vr
 
^V 
VVr




VV
r

V


VV

V V
VV V V! " 
V 
V
V
 VV

 V
VV
#V
V V 
V

^VV

c  V V
V V V 
V 
VVVV

V
r== 
= 

V
 

^VV
$V
 



V V
V V#
VV 
 
VV
#VV 
V


VV V V
V V
 V V
#V V V 
V 
V V %&  V  ^V ' 
(
^V   V V)  V
V V  V
  VV  
V
 VV  
#V V

V
V
V V 
(
V 
 #
V 
  V


^VV
c 
^ '# VrV(
V Vr

 
V V   V
V 
V V

VV
V V   V
^V* V 
V
V
V
^V
V
&VV
+  Vr   
, VV
! Vr


 
+V Vr
 
-.Vr
/(V VV
0"1V
  =


Kw han ([1) 
r 



# VV
+ .Vr

 , Vr^VV
$V llU\ &VV
! V+  V/(
V V# VV
0VV
c  

 å/"^ ,V
r
 r
 V   $ V r 
c
 
    2^#   &  V V
 3  V
VV Ii) m
  IIa'{'X);rlI~, 242
Vc 

a 

,;O.':.l'. ^V ^
V r

V 5
V

#VV VV

VV

^V^V6V^"V V V 
V   VV 
VV
^V""V V1
V

^"V ^V Yå  V V
V V V V  V  (
V 
V (
V 

 V 

V  
V V (
V


V
 VV  V
 
V VV
c  V  V V
VV# V"V 
V   VV 
V
(
VV

V 15
 c

 c
c
 c

c
  !"# $ %$$)

4
V V V
  V  V 
V  
V 7

 V 
V 8
V 8V  V V 
V V V
r  

V (  V 
 
V  ^V %
V 
V 
^V 
V 
 V  V r


  V r 



 V V  
 
  V 
V #    
V 9"V  V 
#V

VV
V
V V
  ^VV
    
  
 "V
V 
V 
V V 
V #  #"V V 
V
(
 
^^^
^V V
 VV
VV V
V  V V ^VV VV VV
V
V
#V
V

^VV V
V

  V #VV V (
V 

V


VV

V V#^VV V (
V# V
#V
 V V  V V 
V   V V  #$V  V #V 
V   
V :
V V ^V !
V 
V  V


 V
V V
# V V;)5V1#åVV$V ^VV V
 V
V V V
#
^VV
c   
^  
V  
V 
 V V V 
 V r ^V V V 


^V 7 
 V
r

 
V 
V #   V  
V  V V
  V r 
 
 

V #
 V 
V  V

#V
V V 
V

^V+ 

V V V
V V Vr c
  
 V
V 
VV

V V V
V V
V (
V

V 
V
 V VV
V

^V< V
V
V V V 
V
 
V

(
V
V$V
Vå V 
)
V ^VV
c ,--'I
V # & ^- V 
V  V $V V III c 

^=V"V V V
V V


V VVV" V2" V#
V 
V  V 
V 
V V  
VV
(
V
V 
V V
V    V  V 
V  
V 7

 V 
V 8
V 8^V !
V V 
V


 V r 

 
 V  V r  

  V  V 
V (
 V  V #V V 
V V 
V  V V


 V  

^V %
V 
V   V V #V  V 
V  
V 
V  
 V #
^V 
 
^V"
V ^Vc


  Y
Vå V VIn 

VV V VY# V 
^VV
V
V
V

16