Superlattices and Microstructures 40 (2006) 279–288

www.elsevier.com/locate/superlattices

Characterization of wide-band-gap semiconductors

(GaN, SiC) by defect-selective etching and
complementary methods
J.L. Weyher ∗
Radboud University Nijmegen, Applied Materials Science, Toernooiveld 1, 6525 ED Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Institute of High Pressure Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Sokolowska 29/37, 01-142 Warsaw, Poland

Received 9 May 2006; accepted 19 June 2006

Available online 8 August 2006

Abstract
Two defect-selective etching approaches used for revealing and analysis of defects in wide-band-gap
semiconductors (GaN, SiC) are described in detail: (i) orthodox etching in molten salts (KOH, NaOH) and
hot acids (H2 SO4 , H3 PO4 ) and (ii) electroless photo-etching (photoelectrochemical or PEC) in aqueous
solutions of KOH. Characteristic features of these two techniques, their reliability and limitation in revealing
different types of defects (dislocations, stacking faults, micro-defects and electrically active chemical non-
homogeneities) will be discussed. Examples of the use of both etching approaches to reveal defects in bulk
and epitaxial layers of different crystallographic orientation are given. Numerous references to previous
work on calibration of the etch features by means of TEM, X-ray diffraction, Raman and PL methods are
cited.
c 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Etching; Defects; Characterization; Semiconducting III–V materials

1. Introduction

Defect-selective etching (DSE) plays an important role in structural characterization of

semiconductors. This method has several advantages over more sophisticated techniques such
as Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron
Microscopy-Cathodoluminescence (SEM-CL) or Electron Beam Induced Current (SEM-EBIC)

∗ Corresponding address: Radboud University Nijmegen, Applied Materials Science, Toernooiveld 1, 6525 ED
Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Tel.: +31 24 3652586; fax: +31 24 3652620.
E-mail address: J.Weyher@science.ru.nl.

c 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

0749-6036/$ - see front matter
doi:10.1016/j.spmi.2006.06.011
280 J.L. Weyher / Superlattices and Microstructures 40 (2006) 279–288

in that it requires a short time for data acquisition; simple and inexpensive equipment is usually
needed and a broad range of defects can be revealed and analyzed on samples without any size
limits. However, DSE results in formation of etch features on defects, but the defects themselves
are not visible. This imposes the necessity of calibration of new etches by direct structural
techniques, which is the main drawback of DSE. For the post-etching evaluation of the resultant
features different tools are used, (optical microscopy, SEM, Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM));
in fact they set the resolution limit for the etching method.
Classical DSE, known in the literature as orthodox etching (OE), is routinely used in defining
the density and distribution of dislocations in elemental and compound semiconductors. The
principles of formation of etch pits on dislocations have been well known for a long time [1–3]
and numerous etching systems have been developed for compound semiconductors [e.g. [4–
7]]. For revealing and analysis of complex defects (electrically active atmospheres associated
with dislocations, extended chemical non-homogeneities), which are inherent in compound
semiconductors, a more advanced etching method was developed; due to the involvement of
charge carriers in the mechanism of surface reactions this is called electroless etching (EE).
The principles were extensively studied on classical III–Vs, such as GaAs and InP using
electrochemical approach [8] and the applications were broadly reviewed [9–11].
Wide-gap semiconductors (SiC and GaN) show a very high resistance to the majority of
the etching systems known for other compound semiconductors. This, together with the high
price of SiC single crystals and the lack of commercial GaN single crystal substrates, resulted
in delay in the development of reliable DSE methods. It has been known, however, for more
then 30 years, that molten salts are effective in revealing defects in SiC (see summary in [12])
while main developments in this field for GaN have been achieved only in the last decade.
Two calibrated orthodox etching systems for GaN are used: (i) molten KOH and KOH–NaOH
eutectic [13–15] and (ii) hot H2 SO4 –H3 PO4 [14,16–18]. The electroless photo-etching in diluted
aqueous KOH solution, introduced by Youtsey and co-workers in 1998 [19,20] (originally
named photoelectrochemical-PEC method), has been recently extensively used for revealing
different types of defects both in GaN and in SiC [21–26] but still requires further investigation
for full understanding of the nature of some extended defects in these semiconductors. There
are also some other approaches, but of less practical importance because of more demanding
experimental conditions (e.g. high temperature vapour-phase etching of GaN and SiC [27,28]).
The aim of this contribution is two-fold: (i) to describe principles and experimental etching
conditions used during orthodox and electroless DSE of wide-gap semiconductors with the
emphasis on advantages and limits of both methods (experimental section) and (ii) to show the
large variety of defects which exist in substrates, epitaxial layers and device structures which can
be revealed and analyzed by both etching methods (results section).

2. Experimental

Orthodox etches. Molten salts (KOH and NaOH) are the most effective and reliable in
revealing dislocations in SiC and GaN. Pure KOH has been used for characterization of SiC
substrates [12,29–32] and more recently for epitaxial layers and device structures [33–35].
The same etch was first used for Ga-polar GaN hetero-epitaxial layers [13], but for GaN
single crystals with two (0001)Ga- and (0001)N-polar surfaces exposed at the same time to the
molten etch and for N-polar epitaxial layers a much lower etching temperature was necessary
which resulted in the development of modified etching systems. In order to diminish markedly
the etching temperature eutectic mixture (E) of KOH–NaOH was first used [14], allowing us
 J.L. Weyher / Superlattices and Microstructures 40 (2006) 279–288 281

Table 1
Etching parameters in molten salts (E and E + M etches) used for different GaN samples

Type of GaN sample E E+M

T1 (◦ C) τ (min) T2 (◦ C) τ (min)
N-polar 200–220 1–5 – –

380–400 1–4 400–420 1–5

400–480 1–10 420–460 1–5

T1 —temperature measured inside molten E; T2 —temperature measured inside a heated Al plate on which the etched
samples are placed.

reproducible etching in the range of temperatures 180–250 ◦ C (the melting temperature of the
KOH–NaOH eutectic is 170 ◦ C). This etching system was subsequently used for revealing
dislocations on the N-polar surface of GaN single crystals [36–38] and is also presently used
for routine control of the density of dislocations on Ga-polar hetero-epitaxial GaN layers. The
experimental conditions used for different type of samples are summarized in Table 1. The
temperature is measured directly in the molten E by a thermocouple protected by a Ni pipe.
For obtaining reproducible etching parameters it is important, however, to “anneal” molten E at
the etching temperature for about 10 min in order to get rid of water from the KOH–NaOH
(these salts are strongly hydrophilic and take moisture from the air during preparation and
melting: the presence of water in E results in more aggressive etching of GaN just after
melting, with a decreasing etching effectiveness in time and as a consequence leads to the
lack of reproducibility). An alternative procedure has been recently proposed to overcome this
experimental inconvenience for etching SiC in KOH melt [39].
For etching GaN single crystals and homo-epitaxial device structures a modified E+M
system (KOH–NaOH eutectic with 10%wt. of MgO) was introduced [40]. The advantage of this
approach is that a small piece of pre-prepared solid E + M etch is placed on the top of the sample
and etching can be performed on a hot plate on one side of GaN bearing a molten droplet of
the etching medium. Etching is rapid and can be done on very small samples (e.g. laser diodes)
and, though the temperature is measured inside the Al plate, the results are reproducible. The
parameters of this procedure are also summarized in Table 1.
Though orthodox etching is mainly used for counting the density of dislocations (EPD
parameter), the method offers the possibility of distinguishing different types of dislocations
in GaN. From Cabrera’s theory it follows that the critical value of the potential difference (1µ)
for the formation of a stable nucleus of a pit at the outcrop of a dislocation depends inversely on
the elastic energy of the dislocation (E el ):

1µ = 2π 2 Ω γ 2 /E el (1)
E el = Gb α 2
(2)
where: γ —edge free energy, Ω —molecular volume, G—shear modulus, b—Burgers vector, α—
geometrical factor.
In GaN epitaxial layers with wurtzite lattice all three types of threading dislocations are
usually observed by TEM, i.e. edge, mixed and screw (as well as nano-pipes, which have screw-
type distortion of lattice) with the corresponding Burgers vectors:
be = 1/3h112̄0i, (be = a, be2 = a 2 ),
282 J.L. Weyher / Superlattices and Microstructures 40 (2006) 279–288

Fig. 1. SEM image of etch pits formed during etching in molten E on HVPE-grown hetero-epitxial GaN layer. Pits
formed on: S—screw, M—mixed and E—edge type dislocations.
√
bm = 1/3h112̄3i, (bm = c2 + a 2 , bm
2
= 3.66a 2 ),
bs = [0001], (bs = c, bs2 = 2.66a 2 ),
bnano = n × bs where n = 1, 2, . . . .
Large differences in the magnitude of Burgers vectors, especially between edge type and
screw/mixed type dislocations, imply that the shape and/or size of pits should be different
depending on the type of dislocation. First attempts to attribute the size of pits to the type of
dislocations indeed confirmed that the largest pits are formed on nano-pipes [14], but recent
detailed calibration E etching-TEM allowed us to establish that in the HVPE-grown GaN
epitaxial layers characterized by relatively low dislocation density (see Fig. 1) the largest pits are
formed on screw, smaller on mixed and the smallest on the edge type dislocations [41]. A similar
relationship has been reported for etching of GaN in HCl at 600 ◦ C [27], while after etching in
molten KOH Shiojima [42] found larger pits on mixed and smaller ones on edge dislocations.
Detailed measurements of the geometrical parameters of pits showed that the large pits formed
on screw and mixed dislocations have an inclination angle of the side walls about twice that of
pits formed on the edge dislocations (see Fig. 2). This indicates that the rate of nucleation of
pits is larger for dislocations with screw component of the Burgers vector. In addition it was
possible to find etching conditions in which only one type of dislocation was revealed, as shown
in Fig. 3. Based on this experimental result it might be anticipated that the activation energy
for the formation of pits on edge dislocations is larger than that for dislocations with screw
component (detailed work on this subject is in progress).
Etching in pure or mixed sulphuric and phosphoric acids (HH etches) are very effective in
revealing inversion domains and doping-related micro-defects on N-polar surfaces of epitaxial
layers and single crystals of GaN [14,21,23,43]. On the Ga-polar hetero-epitaxial layers the
etching parameters have to be carefully adjusted in order to avoid overetching, which results
in overlapping of pits and underestimation of the EPD [18].
Electroless etching. In contrast to the orthodox method EE results in formation of protruding
etch features on the outcrops of dislocations. The theory and the practical applications of this
method were developed for GaAs [8–11] and constitute now the basis for interpretation of EE
of wide gap semiconductors [45,46]. The principle of the method is based on the involvement
 J.L. Weyher / Superlattices and Microstructures 40 (2006) 279–288 283

Fig. 2. AFM image (a) and the corresponding surface profile (b) across small and large pits. The inclination angles of
the side wall of pits are about 25◦ and 50◦ , respectively (AFM image: courtesy of G. Nowak).

Fig. 3. DIC images of HVPE-grown GaN after etching in molten E at: (a) 240 ◦ C for 60 min and (b) 380 ◦ C for 2 min.

of electrons and holes in the dissolution process. Consequently external source of current
(electro-chemical etching) or the use of light with the wavelength appropriate for generation
of the electron–hole pairs in the given semiconductor (electroless photo-etching) increases the
efficiency of the etching process and selectivity on defect sites. The physical principle of this
method is based on the fact that the dislocations constitute effective sites for recombination of
electrons and holes. This process results in formation of a cylindrical zone around the linear
defect which is depleted of charges and protruding, whisker-like etch features are formed during
etching. The diameter of the etch features represents the zone in which the average number of
th ) required for the dissolution process to occur, see
holes is smaller then the threshold number (h +
Fig. 4(a). It was shown that in the aqueous KOH solutions used for electroless photo-etching
of GaN [19,20] three holes are necessary for dissolution of one GaN molecule [45,47] and
eight holes for one SiC molecule [45]. The recombination process of photo-generated carriers
at the dislocations is very effective as can be concluded from Fig. 4(b): even extended etching
does not change the diameter of the dislocation-related whiskers. The KOH-based electroless
photo-etching system has been explored recently and it was shown that, apart from dislocations,
inversion domains (IDs), nano-pipes and chemical non-homogeneities can also be revealed and
analyzed in GaN and SiC [21–26]. Some examples of these extended defects will be shown in
284 J.L. Weyher / Superlattices and Microstructures 40 (2006) 279–288

Fig. 4. (a) Model of the formation of a whisker on a single dislocation during electroless photo-etching of n-type GaN
(Reproduced with permission from [45]). (b) SEM image of whiskers formed on dislocations during electroless photo-
etching of 3 µm thick n-type GaN epitaxial layer.

Fig. 5. SEM images of epitaxial GaN layer after: (a) shallow electroless photo-etching and (b) subsequent etching in 1M
KOH solution at 80 ◦ C.

the next section. For photo-etching Xe or Hg UV lamps are used with the samples mounted in
simple equipment [48]. Ti contacts are evaporated on the surface for collecting electrons. The
main drawback of this technique is that only conductive samples can be etched. Resistive, p-type
and heavily n-type materials require application of the external potential and the electrochemical
cell, yielding as reward valuable information on the mechanism of etching [49,50].
Recently it was shown that the native oxide (Ga2 O3 ) existing on the as-grown Ga-polar
surface of GaN is replaced during electroless photo-etching by the hydroxide (Ga(OH)3 ), which
is chemically less resistant [51]. As a result even a short photo-etching process opens the
possibility to attack the GaN surface with KOH water solutions at slightly elevated temperature
(60–80 ◦ C), as demonstrated by Fig. 5. The whisker-like features formed during the first stage
of etching are dissolved first and etching proceeds further preferentially at dislocations sites
resulting in formation of pits.
 J.L. Weyher / Superlattices and Microstructures 40 (2006) 279–288 285

Fig. 6. SEM images of defects revealed in GaN (a–e) and SiC (f) by orthodox (a, c) and electroless photo-etching (b, d–f)
methods. (a) Different types of dislocations and nano-pipe (largest pit) in Ga-polar MOCVD-grown layer. (b) Defect-
related whiskers in the same GaN layer as in (a). (c) Faulted dislocation loops revealed on the (101̄0) surface of GaN
single crystal (etching: courtesy G. Kamler). (d) Growth striations on the (101̄0) surface o thick HVPE-grown layer
(GaN layer: courtesy B. Lucznik). (e) Dislocations parallel to the (101̄0) surface of thick HVPE-grown layer (GaN layer:
courtesy B. Lucznik). (f) Dislocations parallel to the (0001)Si surface of SiC substrate.

3. Results of etching: Defects in GaN and SiC

In this section some representative defects of GaN and SiC single crystals, epitaxial layers and
device structures revealed by different etching techniques either will be shown or appropriate
references, already published, will be given. Orthodox etching is particularly suitable for
revealing dislocations and distinguishing their types (but also micro-defects, faulted dislocation
loops and IDs in single crystals can be visualized). Fig. 6(a), (b) show typical dislocation pattern
(cell structure) in MOCVD-grown hetero-epitaxial GaN layer revealed by E+M etch and, for
comparison, by electroless photo-etching, respectively. From the image after orthodox etching
(Fig. 6(a)) and from the previous TEM examination of the same material [52] it is possible to
attribute the single large pit to a nano-pipe, the intermediate size pits to screw (S) and mixed (M)
dislocations and the small pits to the edge (E) dislocations. Such differentiation of dislocations is
not possible after electroless etching, though it was confirmed by TEM calibration that both nano-
pipes and all types of dislocations are revealed in the form of whiskers by photo-etching [21,24].
The shape of the etch pits is different on the opposite Ga- and N-polar (0001) surfaces of
GaN (hexagonal and round pits are formed, respectively) [14,36,37,54]. As a result it is possible
to distinguish adjacent areas of different polarity and to determine the density of dislocations
after orthodox etching [53]. This etching method is also effective in revealing inclusions, micro-
defects and inversion domains in undoped and doped GaN single crystals [23,54,55]. Very
286 J.L. Weyher / Superlattices and Microstructures 40 (2006) 279–288

instructive is simultaneous etching of the (0001)Ga polar and the (101̄0) cleavage planes of
thick homo-epitaxial layers grown by HVPE method. The resultant optical examination of both
etched surfaces allows one to establish the presence of mosaic structure, which was confirmed
by the X-ray rocking curve method [55] and the presence of clusters of dislocations as the
result of relaxation of strain [56]. Etching of the (101̄0) planes results in formation of elongated
rectangular pits, while basal plane faulted dislocation loops assume a more complex morphology
depending on the actual position of the loop vs. the etched surface. An example of the etch
features formed at the intersection of the dislocation loops with the (101̄0) cleavage plane
of the high pressure grown GaN single crystal is shown in Fig. 6(c), while the details on
the interpretations these etch features are given in Ref. [57]. Orthodox etching also offers an
attractive possibility of quick evaluation of the density of dislocations in the device structures,
e.g. high power lasers [55]. In addition, by performing deep etching and AFM section profiling it
is possible to define precisely at which interface during the growth of multilayer device structure
the dislocations are introduced [57,58].
In SiC orthodox etching also reveals dislocations, stacking faults and micro-pipes. Well
controlled etching and sequential etching allow detailed study of dislocations in single crystal
substrates and in epitaxial layers [25,45,59–61].
The main advantage of electroless etching is the ability to reveal electrically active chemical
non-homogeneities. Local differences in carrier concentration impose different etch rates and this
relationship can be quantified, as was shown for growth striations in n-type GaAs [62]. A similar
relationship has been obtained recently on the (101̄0) cross-section of thick homo-epitaxial
HVPE-grown GaN layers using micro-Raman measurements as a calibration tool after photo-
etching and surface profiling [26]. An illustrative example of the nano-scale growth striations
revealed by EE of the same section of GaN layer is shown in Fig. 6(d). In order to obtain a
quantitative relationship of etch rate versus carrier concentration further experiments are being
performed both on GaN and SiC single crystals.
The results of revealing threading dislocations in GaN hetero-epitaxial layers were reported
in numerous publications [18–21,24,44,45,51,54,63,64] and are shown in Figs. 4(b), 5(a) and
6(b). In this way the total dislocation density can be estimated (though the orthodox method is
more favourable for this purpose, as was discussed above) and the dislocations can be “extracted”
from the matrix. The latter method opened the possibility of examination of optical properties
of dislocations using photoluminescence from an as-grown and fully etched epitaxial layer [63].
The possibility of revealing dislocations parallel to the surface, which are either poorly or not
seen at all by orthodox etching, seems very attractive. As an example Fig. 6(e) shows a wall
of such dislocations in GaN and Fig. 6(f) shows a bunch of dislocations pinned between two
micro-pipes in SiC, both revealed by electroless photo-etching in KOH solutions.

4. Conclusions

Two markedly different wet etching methods are available for revealing and studying
defects in GaN and SiC: orthodox and electroless. The principles of both methods have been
summarized. The orthodox method is especially suitable for EPD counting for a broad range
of materials independent of the electrical characteristics and for materials containing different
type of defects of crystallographic character (micro-defects, nano-pipes and dislocations). The
electroless method is attractive when defects should be preserved in the material for subsequent
examination (e.g. TEM, PL). The method is very sensitive to local differences in electrical
 J.L. Weyher / Superlattices and Microstructures 40 (2006) 279–288 287

properties, which is not the case for orthodox etching. The method is only applicable to the
conductive samples, which is the main drawback.
Selection of the optimal etching method and conditions for revealing and analysis of defects
depends on the type of semiconductor, expected density and type of defects and crystallographic
orientation of the samples to be examined.
From numerous studies it follows that defect-selective etching constitutes a cost- and time-
effective tool which can be routinely used for control of the quality of compound semiconductor
substrates and device structures at different stages of their fabrication.

Acknowledgments

The author is grateful to Professor J.J. Kelly for critical reading of the manuscript. This work
was financially supported by the Netherlands Foundation for Technical Research (STW).

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