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Behavior Change and the Ecological Model

Susan S. Evans; William H. Evans

Online publication date: 16 July 2010

To cite this Article Evans, Susan S. and Evans, William H.(1987) 'Behavior Change and the Ecological Model', The Pointer,
31: 3, 9 — 12
To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/05544246.1987.9944744
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/05544246.1987.9944744

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 H istorically, many behavior prob-
lems were believed to be symp-
tomatic of an underlying problem that
resided within the student. As a result,
the student became the focus of inter-
ventions designed to change hidher
thoughts, feelings, or values. Little con-
sideration was given to the effect of the
environment, the behavior of others on
problem behavior, or the interaction
between behavior and environment.
Behavior Change and More recently, however, there has
been an increased recognition that be-

the Ecological Model havior problems must be considered in

an environmental or ecological con-
text. This means that assessment and
behavior change procedures must ad-
dress not only the behavior of the stu-
dent, but also the behavior of others
SUSAN S. EVANS and WILLIAM H. EVANS and the environmental variables associ-
ated with the behavior. Moreover, be-
haviors should be described without
judgments as to the cause or etiology
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of the behavior, and then precisely re-

corded.
The focus of an ecological analysis
of behavior problems is on the interac-
tion between environmental variables
and behavior. Of prime importance is
an examination of the degree to which
the behavior in question matches the
demands, expectations, or levels of tol-
erance of individuals in the environ-
ment. Therefore, although an analysis
of the quantity and quality of behavior
is important, it is just as critical to ex-
amine the environmental variables and
settings associated with the behavior.
This focus on the setting and the inter-
action between behavior and environ-
ment is illustrated in Figure 1.

Environmental Variables
At their most basic level, assessment
and behavior management plans focus
on behavior. Behavior, however, affects
and is affected by the environment. It
is this interaction that becomes the
focus for ecological interventions. To
examine this interaction, it is first
necessary to operationally define the
behavior and environmental variables
by precisely describing the setting and
behavior of interest. This description
Susan S. Evans is an assistant professor in the Department of Behavioral should clearly detail the effect of be-
Sciences at Pensacola Junior College in Pensacola, Florida. William H. havior and how the behavior differs
Evans is an associate professor in the Department of Special Education at from what is expected, tolerated, or
the University of West Florida in Pensacola. desired. Once this is accomplished, the
Vol. 31, No. 3 THEPOINTER 9
 tent relationships between a particular
student’s environment and the occur-
rence or nonoccurrence of certain be-
haviors. The setting should be exam-
ined to determine if an intervention
would be appropriate and if so, which
Biophysical Physical part of the environment it should be
Environment Environment
designed to affect. Any associated in-
terventions will center on changing
some element of the environment. This
will occur in a particular setting, and
the effect will be evaluated by changes
in the targeted behavior. Assessment
should not end at this point, however,
but rather should be used to guide and
direct the implementation and altera-
tion of interventions.
The next section of this article pre-
sents an array of variables that must be
assessed in the biophysical, physical,
and psychosocial environments. These
t variables will combine in ways that are
unique to each setting and behavior
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problem. Therefore, one of the main

goals of behavior change is to deter-
mine the particular form of each vari-
able and its relationship to behavior.
Environment

Variables in the
Biophysical En vironmen t

The biophysical environment is com-

FIGURE 1. The interaction between behavior and environment in behavior
prised of those biophysical variables
settings. that affect behavior. Variables in this
environment may include: (a) health
factors such as illness, allergy, fatigue,
diet, and amount of exercise, (b) physi-
cal impairments such as a sensory loss
or orthopedic or neurological impair-
effect of environmental events can be It is important to remember that a ment, and (c) drugs or medication such
carefully assessed. particular behavior may not be influ- as prescribed medication, alcohol, or
Behavior is preceded and followed enced or affected by all of the environ- illicit drugs (Evans, Evans, & Schmid,
by environmental events and condi- mental events and conditions that pre- in press). These variables may affect
tions. When an environmental event/ cede and follow a behavior. Rather, a the student’s ability to complete assign-
condition precedes a behavior, it is behavior may be directly affected by ments, develop normal peer relation-
called an antecedent event. When an only a few specific events. The effect ships, and/or fully participate in school
event follows and directly affects a may be highly specific to a particular life.
behavior, it is termed a consequent individual. For example, one student The specific relationship between
event. For example, a student’s writing may be adversely affected by class- biophysical variables and specific
behavior may be preceded by the teach- room noise while another student may behavior problems is unclear (Werry,
er’s direction to begin working and fol- not be bothered at all. 1979). Therefore, any behavior change
lowed by the teacher’s praise of the stu- One of the first steps in a behavior program in this area should be con-
dent. The directions given by the teacher management plan is to determine which ducted very carefully by and is primar-
are an antecedent event. Teacher praise particular elements of the environment ily the responsibility of qualified health
could be said to be a consequent event directly affect the behavior of interest. professionals. However, parents and
if observations indicated that praise in- A systematic and carefully conducted teachers who frequently observe the
creased or reduced the occurrence of individualized assessment should be student can assist by providing infor-
the student’s writing behavior. designed to identify trends and consis- mation about the effect that factors
10 THE POINTER Spring 1987
 such as health and physical impair-
ments have on student behavior.
Variables in the
Physical Environment
The physical environment is made
up of those things and objects that are
used or present in daily living. Many of
these physical factors have a significant
impact on behavior. Without a book or
magazine, for example, reading would
not be possible. Likewise, a classroom
that is too small or inadequately heated
may adversely affect student behavior.
An examination of the physical envi-
ronment must attempt to clearly define
the specific physical factors in the
home, community, school, and class-
room that directly influence behavior.
Variables in the physical environ-
ment may include the following (Ev-
ans, Evans, & Schmid, in press): (a)
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Resources or conditions in the home
and community such as adequacy of
housing, basic needs (e.g., clothing),
parental supervision, home routine
(amount of T.V. viewing), methods of
discipline, significant events (e.g., di-
vorce), and community resources (e.g.,
recreation). These variables may be
difficult for the teacher to examine and
change. It may be useful to use as re-
sources those agencies and individuals
such as parents and social agency staff
who are more directly involved in those
settings. (b) School factors such as ef-
fectiveness of administrators, teach-
ers, and staff, well-designed curricula,
school routine, adequacy of physical
facility and classroom materials, and
community involvement. Goodman
(1985) states that effective schools have
high expectations for student achieve-
ment, are orderly, have clearly stated
rules of conduct, and are committed to
fostering student achievement. Orn-
stein (1983) points out that effective in-
structional programs are designed to
meet the individual needs of students
as well as to provide numerous curricu-
lum alternatives. These programs ac-
tively involve parents, teachers, stu-
dents, and members of the community
in decision making. (c) Classroom ar-
rangements such as physical properties
of the classroom (e.g., noise, lighting,
color, and temperature) and classroom
density. Evans, Evans, and Mercer
Vol. 31, No. 3
(1986) state that physical properties of
the classroom may have a significant
effect on student performance. Pupil
classroom density may also affect stu-
dent behavior (Zentall, 1983; Paine,
Radicchi, Rosellini, Deutchman, &
Darch, 1983). Crowded classrooms
reduce the student’s access to the
teacher and instructional materials as
well as opportunities to respond to
tasks. Teachers may not have a great
deal of control over these elements of
the school environment. However, once
It may be appropriate to change the behavior of a
child, but it may also be necessary to change the
behavior of others who are interacting with the
child ..
,
these areas are identified, it may be
possible to convince others of the need
for change. (d) Classroom and instruc-
tional factors such as classroom learn-
ing climate (e.g., structure and rules),
appropriateness of curriculum and in-
structional materials, and effective
program delivery. Instructional vari-
ables are perhaps the most important
of all physical factors that may directly
affect student behavior. The curricu-
lum to which the student is exposed
should be age-appropriate, meet his or
her instructional needs, be appropri-
ately sequenced, and incorporate im-
mediate feedback as to the accuracy of
answers (Smith, Neisworth, and Greer,
1978).
Although the curriculum must be
organized, it must also be taught in an
effective manner. Instruction, if it is to
be effective, should be tailored to the
unique needs of each learner. Research
has also indicated that the amount of
time on task is directly related to stu-
dent achievement (Greenwood, Del-
quardi, & Hall, 1983). Appropriate
behavior and performance increases
with the amount of time spent engaged
in appropriate instructional activities.
Many elements of the physical envi-
ronment such as the classroom setting
and instructional program directly af-
fect student behavior and are under the
immediate control of the classroom
teacher. It is in these settings that real-
istic classroom-based and teacher-con-
trolled interventions can be developed.
Thus, a primary thrust of teachers
must be to comprehensively examine
the variables within the classroom.
Variables in the
Psychosocial Environment
The psychosocial environment is
comprised of factors such as: (a) emo-
tional and learning impairments (e.g.,
mental retardation, learning disabili-
ties, or communication disorders), (b)
intrapersonal factors such as interests,
values, motivation, and expectations,
and (c) interpersonal factors such as
the effect of the behavior on teachers,
parents, and peers.
Emotional and learning impairments
necessitate an evaluation and treatment
plan that comprehensively examines all
of the environments and settings of the
student. These types of impairments
may cause the student to become an
unproductive school and classroom
member, but may be reduced signifi-
cantly with appropriate interventions.
Intrapersonal factors, though diffi-
cult to quantify, play a significant role
in how students, teachers, and parents
behave, evaluate, and respond to situa-
tions. Students, for example, who
come to school with a pattern of values
about learning, classroom behavior,
and conflict resolution that stand in
contrast to those of the teacher and
school administration will be likely to
have difficulties.
It also is necessary that the expecta-
tions, or predicted outcome of future
events, of parents, teachers, and stu-
dents be thoroughly examined. Expec-
tations determine how behavior will be
evaluated by others (Algozzine, Schmid,
& Mercer, 1981). Behaviors that match
THE POINTER 11
 expectations are viewed as being appro-
priate while those that do not match are
said to be inappropriate.
Interpersonal factors must also be
closely analyzed. The behavior of par-
ents, teachers, and peers often dictates
the behavior of a student. Researchers
such as Good and Brophy (1987) have
demonstrated the relationship between
teacher behavior and subsequent stu-
dent behavior. They found that effec-
tive teachers were aware of what was
going on in the classroom, were simul-
taneously engaged in more than one in-
structional activity, properly paced
lessons, held students accountable for
learning, gave realistic praise, were
flexible in planning, were task ori-
ented, and gave students many oppor-
tunities to respond.
Interaction with peers can also serve
to precipitate or reinforce student
behavior. Standards of behavior im-
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by others in the student’s environment
and may allow the student t o obtain a
desired consequence. For example, a
student who performs well in school
may receive peer and teacher approval.
A student who is often off-task may
receive frequent reprimands or have
privileges removed. Therefore, if
descriptions of behavior are to be
helpful, they must address the unique
qualities of the specific behavior as
well as the effect the behavior has on
the environment.
Targeting Behaviors
and EnvironmentalVariables
A report of inappropriate student
behavior may be an indication that a
problem exists in the setting. This does
not necessarily mean that the problem
is the child’s behavior. It does mean,
however, that the behavior stands at
variance with what is expected. Algoz-
-those being that behavior must be
examined as to the degree to which it
fits surrounding environmental vari-
ables and that the interaction between
behavior and environment is of prime
concern. In practice, however, these
factors are all too often forgotten. As a
result, interventions frequently become
one-dimensional and are centered al-
most wholly on changing the child’s
behavior to fit the demands of a
teacher or parent. It may be appropri-
ate to change 1 he behavior of a child,
but it may also be necessary to change
the behavior of others who are inter-
acting with the child or some element
of the environment that is affecting the
problem behavior.
This type of analysis changes the fo-
cus from the child to the setting. Inter-
ventions that are developed by using
this approach are designed to bring a
closer fit between behavior and envi-

posed by a peer group and the desire to
receive the attention of peers are pow-
erful forces that can greatly affect
behavior.
Behavior
A great deal of care should be taken
in specifically defining the behavior of
interest. Vague terms such as “hyper-
active” or “unhappy” may refer to a
wide range of behaviors. As a result,
these imprecise terms do not clearly
communicate to others the specific be-
havior of interest. Precise descriptions
necessitate that behaviors be directly
observable, measurable, and operation-
ally defined by providing concrete ex-
amples of the behavior (e.g., Johnny hit
Mike five times during math period).
Behaviors differ according to several
dimensional qualities including: (a)
rate-the number of occurrences in a
specific period of time, (b) duration-
the length of time of the occurrence of
the behavior, (c) latency-the time be-
tween being asked to perform a re-
sponse and responding, (d) topography
-the physical form or shape of the be-
havior, and (e) magnitude-the force
of the behavior. Behavior may be
measured and changed according to
these dimensions.
Behaviors also differ in the effect
they have on the environment. A par-
ticular behavior may be well received assumptions of the ecological approach
ronmental variables in particular set-
zine, Schmid and Mercer (1981) and
tings. This type of analysis increases the
Evans, Evans, and Mercer (1986) state
likelihood that any interventions will be
that the inappropriateness of behavior
appropriate and effective, and will fully
is a function not only of the behavior,
meet the needs of all involved.
but also of who performs the behavior,
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12 THE POINTER Spring 1987