@)

-03P
j2j2
@ 03Pj

P,-
CD Z1
cell coeff f Z,
j2o3P1
-
L -
1 P,- cell coeff of Z,
j2o3P2.
Z2 (6)
Standard variable Unknown
known impedance impedance

Fig. 6.9 Magic Tee for measurement of impedances.

Magic Tee junction from arms (i) an~ as shown in Fig. 6.9. The
resultant wave into arm (i) i.e., the null detector can be calculated as
follows: .

The net wave reaching the mill detector (Refer Fig. 6.9)
1 1 1 1 ~ 1
= ~ (12(!3P~-
~ (:J2a3P2) ="2 a3(PI- P2) ...(6.55)
For pe!fect balancing of the bridge (null detection) Eq. 6.55 is
equated
.----
to zero. .

1 .
£.e., "2 a3 (pI - P2) =0
or PI - P2 = 0 or PI = P2

or ZI - Zz - Z2 - Zz
Zl + Zz - Z2 + Zz
.. Zl = Z2
£.e., RI+jXI = R2+jX2
or RI = R2 and Xl = X2.
Thus the unknown impedance can be measured by adjusting the
standard variable impedance till the bridge is balanced and both
impedances become equal.
(b) Magic Tee as a Duplexer : The transmitter and receiver are
connected in ports fVand (i)respectively, antenna in the E-arm or port
~ and port@ofMagicTeeisterminatedin a matched load as shown in
Fig. 6.10. During transmission half the power reaches the antenna from
where it is radiated into space. Other half reaches the matched load
where it is absorbed without reflections. No transmitter power reaches
the receiver since port ~ and @are isolated ports iil a Magic Tee. During
reception, half of the received power goes to the receiver and the other
half to the transmitter are isolated during reception as well as during
transmission.

\006
~e6
~o\.(J (j)

Fig. 6.10Magic Teeas a Duplexer.

(c) Magic Tee as a Mixer: A Magic Tee can also be used in microwave
receivers as a mixer where the signal and local oscillator are fed into
the E and H arms as shown in Fig. 6.11

Matched load
~ I

I
t

Fig. 6.11 Magic Tee as a mixer.

Half ofthe local oscillator power and half ofthe received power from
antenna goes to the mixer where they are mixed to generate the IF
frequency.
IF = {;n- fo
'-
 Magic Tee has -many other applications such as a microwave
discriminator, microwave bridge etc.
6.3.5 Rat race junction
This is a four port junction, the
fourth port being added to a 3A9/4
normal three port Tee. - A typical

a
rat race junction is shown in Fig.
6.12. ~po~ port ,
The four arms/ports
connected in the form of an
are -~ ( \ ~
angular ring at proper intervals by
means of series (or parallel) A9;:a», m_- \<Q) F.-o~
A9/4
/~
junctions. These ports are
separated by proper electrical
lengths to sustain standing waves.
"'-
-
p
~
ort @ \
A9/4
.

~
Fig. 6.12 Rat-race ring.
For proper operation, it is
necessary that the mean
circumference ofthe total race be 1.5 Agand that each ofthe four ports
be separated from its neighbour by a distance of Ag/4.
When power is fed into port (i)it splits equally ( in clockwise and
anti clockwise directions) into ports @ and (i)and nothing enters port
CD.At ports @ and (i) the powers combine in phase but at port CD
cancellation occurs due to Ag/2 path difference. For similar reasons any
input applied at port G>is equally divided betweel) ports @ and (i)but
the output ai .Jort (j) will be zero. The rat !"acecan also. be used for
combining twu signals or dividing a single signal into two equal halves.
If two unequal signals are applied at port (i),an 'output proportional to
their sum will emerge from ports @ aIid (i)while- a differential output
will appear at port ED.
The scattering matrix of a rat race junction (also caUed hybrid
junction) can be written as shown below in ideal conditions (i.e.,
neglecting leakage coupling values).
0 812 0 814
r.'>'L = 821 0 823 0 ...(6.56)
~'. 0 832 0 834

[ 841 0 843 0
]
6.4 DmECTIONAL COUPLERS
Directional couplers are flanged, built in waveguide assemblies which
can sample a small amount of microwave power for measurement
purposes. They can be designed to measure incident and/or reflected
powers, SWR (Standing Wave Ratio) values, provide a signal path to
a receiver or perform other desirable operations. They can be
undirectional (measuring only incident power) or bi-directional
 IVU,,-"'-'VVft Vr. ft'l""U ~UAK J:\NLoINJ:\~K1Nt.;

(measuring both incident and reflected) powers. In its most cotnmon

form, the directional coupler is a four port waveguide junction consisting
of a primary main waveguide and a secondary auxiliary waveguide as'
shown in Fig. 6.13a.

Primary waveguide
----------------
Port 1 Port 2

Port 3 Port 4

Secondary waveguide
(a)
Received
power Main W.G 2 Pr
~ --A,f\./\,-- Received
power
Pi ".~/
Pb 3 --- ...'"...". 4 Pf
---A.N'v- ---'" --/\.I\/\r-- Coupled
power
Back power Aux.W.G .

(b)
Fig. 6.13 (a) A schematic of a directional coupler (b) Directional coupler in-
dicating powers.

With matched terminations at all its ports, the properties of an ideal

directional coupler can be summarized as follows.
1. A portion of power travelling from port (i) to port @is coupled
to port @but not to port @.
2. A portion of power travelling from port @to port @is coupled
to port @but notto port @(bidirectional case).
3.A portion of power incident on port @ is coupled to port @ but
not to port @ and a portion of the power incident on port @ is
coupled to port @ but not to port @. Also ports @ and @ are
decoupted as are ports @ and @.
A small portion of input power at port @is coupled to port @so that
measurement of this small power is possible. Ideally no power should
come out of port @.Fig. 6.13b indicates the various input/output powers.
Pi =incident power at port @.
Pr = received power at port @.
Pr = forward coupled power at port @.
Pb =back power at port @.
 The performance of a directional coupler is usually defined in terms
of two parameters which are defined as follows.
Coupling Factor C : The coupling factor of a directional coupler (D.C.)
is defined as the ratio of the incident power 'P/ to the forward power
'PI measured in dB.
Pi
~.e., C = 10 loglOrr dB ...(6.57)
Directivity D : The directivity of aD. C. is defined as the ratio offorward
power 'PI to the back power' Pb' expressed in dB.
P
i.e., ...(6.58)
D = 1010glO"K dB
For a typical D.C., C = 20 dB, D = 60 dB
Pi
~.e., C = 20 = 101og-
Pr
.. Pi = 102= 100
Pr
Pi
or
Pr = 100
P
Also, D = 60 = 10 log---L
Pb

.. Pr = 106
Pb
p, Pi . Pi ~
or Pb = ..::::..L-
= - sInce Pr=-
106 108 ( 100 )

Since Pb is very small, (1~8 )Pi, the power coming out of port tDcan
be neglected.
The Coupling factor is a measure of how much of the incident power
is being sampled while directivity is a measure of how well the
directional coupler distinguishes between the forward and reverse
traveling powers.
Isolation: Another parameter called Isolation is sometimes defined to
describe the directive properties of a directional coupler. It is defined
as the ratio ofthe incident power Pi to the back power Pbexpressedin dB.
Pi
I = 10 10glO Pb dB ...(6.59)
It may be noted that isolation in dB equals coupling factor plus
directivity. .

In addition to the above parameters the SWR, frequency range and

transmission loss are also specified for a directional coupler. Low SWR
ensures minimum mismatch errors, wide frequency range eliminates
the need for several octave band couplers to cover the broad band range
and minimum transmissiqn loss for significant power availability for
measurement set up.
There are several types of directional couplers that have been
developed like Two hole crossed guide couplers with common broad
wall-sections (Fig. 6.14), branching guide couplers with a common wall
instead of coupling holes (Fig. 6.15), short slot couplers (Fig. 6.16),
bifurcated couplers (Fig. 6.17), loop directional coupler (Fig. 6.18),
couplers made from parallel ground plane, metallic strips running
internally within the waveguidestructure. .

Fig. 6.14 Two hole crossguide coupler.

Major
hormonics

Fundamentel
frequency
output

Fig. 6.15 Two hole branching guide coupler.

Fig. 6.16 Short-slot coupler. Fig. 6.17 Bifurcated coupler.

 ~
I
I
~lur[
I
-- Primary
coaxial
} line
I
w////////////////w///;////////////////////////~

Fig. 6.18 Loopdirectionalcoupler.

It may be noted that in most of the directional couplers only three
of the four ports are used, the unwanted port is normally terminated in
a matched load built into it. The two waveguides (primary and
secondary) share a common wa~1. This common wall has got hole or
holes for coupling the energy flowing into the main waveguide to the
side waveguide ~d hence called a side hole coupler. A two hole
directional coupler is most commonly used.
6.4.1 Two-hole Directional Coupler
The principle of operation of a two-hole directional coupler is shown in
Fig. 6.19. It consists of two guides the main and the auxiliary with two
tiny holes common between them as shoWn. The two holes are at a
distance of A.g/4 where A.gis the guide wavelength.

Port 1 Main W.G Port 2

-../\IV'-- -¥\/\t'--
Pi Pr

Port 3 Port 4

Fig. 6.19 Twoholedirectionalcoupler.

The two leakages out of holes ~ and ~ both in phase at the position
of 2nd hole and hence they add up contributing to Pr. But the two
leakages are out of phase by 180. at the position of the 1st hole and
therefore they cancel each other making Pb =0 (ideQ.lly). The
 MJLl<UW A VE AND RADAR ENGINEERING

magnitude of the power coming out of 2 holes depends upon the

dimension of the two holes. Since the distance between holes is
'Ag/4, Pb is made '0' (since the incident power will have to travel a
distance of ('Ag/4 + Ag/4) when it comes back from hole @ resulting in
180. phase shift. compared to incident power leakage through hole (i)
entering port @).
The number of holes can be one (as in Bethe crossguide coupler) or
more than two (as in a Multihole coupler). The degree of coupling
is determined by size and location of the holes in the waveguide walls.
Although a high degree of directivity can be achieved at a fixed
frequency, it is quite difficult over a band of frequencias. In this
connection, it should be realized that the frequency determines the
separation of the two holes as a fraction of the wavelength.

6.4.2 Bethe or Single-hole Coupler

A single-hole directional coupler is shown in Fig. 6.20. Here the
directivity is improved as the Bethe coupler relies on a single hole for
coupling process rather than the separation between two holes. The
power entering port (i) is coupled to the co-axial probe output and the
power entering port @ in absorbed by the matched load. The auxiliary
guide is placed at such an angle that the magnitude of the magnetically
excited wave is made equal to that of the electrically excited wave for
improved directivity. In this coupler, the waves in the auxiliary guide
are generated through a single hole which includes both electric and
magnetic fields. Because of the phase relationships involved in the
coupling process, the signals generated by the two types of coupling
cancel in the forward direction and reinforce in the reverse direction.

Coupling hole Matched,

load"
Coaxial probe.
output

Fig. 6.20 Bethe or single-hole coupler.

6.4.3 Scattering Matrix of a Directional Coupler

We us~ the properties of the directional coupler to arrive at the [8]

matrix.
1. Directional coupler is a four port network. Hence [8] is a
4 x 4 matrix
 ~u~.. ~ ~l~V I""'V"'1' Cl"Ull"r.r.l'\lf'llL.

From Eqs. 6.69 and 6.72,

*
P 823 + 823 P = 0
.. P *
[823+ 823]
-- 0
*"
Since, P'# 0, 823 + 823 = 0
823 = jy
823 = -jy
i.e., 823 must be imaginary.
Let 823 = jq = 814 ...(6.73)
Therefore,
812 = 834 = P (transmission parameter)
and 823 = 814 = jq. Also, p2 + q2 = 1
Substituting these values in Eq. 6.65, [8] matrix of a directional
coupler is reduced to
0 P 0 jq
[8] = P jq
0
0?
Jq 0
\P ...(6.74)

[jq 0 P 0]
6.5 WAVEGUIDE JOINTS
It is not possible to build a waveguide system in one piece and may
require several sections connected by joints. These are the waveguide
joints and must be constructed in such a way that a good connection
is made between any two sections of a waveguide without any
irregularities and without affecting the E and H-field patterns.
Irregularities in a joint cause reflection effects, create standing waves
and increase the attenuation. A rotating joint could be required as in a
radar system where the transmitter/receiver is stationary and the
antenna system is revolving.
There are several types of waveguide joints. Some of them are shown
in Fig. 6.21. The semipermanent butt joints, a bolted flange (Fig. 6.20a)
consists of two sections bolted together with a gasket to exclude
moisture. For perfect mechanical alignment, it should be ensured that
there are no bends or discontinuities and the ends of the waveguides
and flanges must have mirror smooth finish to avoid reflection effects.
Figure 6.21b shows a quarter wave length flange joint which uses
no mechanical connection and an open circuit at point B creates a short
circuit at point A due to the standing wave distribution between these
points. The field patterns are not disturbed and no discontinuity exists
but there is a possible leakage of energy through the open flange.
 b Bolted
fiance

Gasket
-
I.-
en A;,
~g-9 ,-,pace
(a) Bolted flange. (b) A./4 Flange joint.

Flanges
Short /-g
circuit
lH "2
;:z
I

~g~ ~
(c)Chokejoint.
Fig. 6.21
The chokejoint (Fig. 6.21c) is superior to butt joint and is very widely
used. It consists of flanges that are connected to the waveguide at its
center. The right side flange is flat and the. left side one is slotted,
/...g/4 deep from the inner surface of the waveguide. This is positioned
at a distance of /...g/4 from the point where the flanges are joined. Due
to the A.g/2 length taken together, a short circuit is created at the place
where the walls are joined together resulting in an electrical short.
Mechanically they are separated by as much as one tenth of a
wavelength and the areatcan be sealed with a rubber gasket for avoiding
moisture. I

6.6 WAVEGUIDE BENDS, CORNERS, TRANSITIONS

AND TWISTS
Waveguide bend, corner and twist are shown in Fig. 6.22. These \

. components are useful for changing the direction of the guide by a

desired angle.
The bends can be H bend qr E bend (Fig. 6.22a). Ifthe bend is in the
direction of the wide dimensidn the H lines are affected (H bend) and if
the bend is in the direction of narrow dimension, the E lines are affected
(E bend). The bending rfldius must be atleast 2 Agto avoid SWR's greater
than 1.05 and mean length as long as possible. (Rmin = 1.5 b for an E
 Radius must be
at least 2Ag

(a)

L=A4~d AgL~
L=4TLJJ
H corner E corner

(b)

r\l:1E,O
TE11~ QYE11
TE\Q
Circular-Rect Rect-Circular
(c)

i (d)
Fig. 6.22 (a) H bend and E bend, (b) H-plane corner and E-plane corner, (c)
Circular to rectangular and rectangular to circular transitions (Tapers) (d)
90' twist and 45' twists.