QUANTIFYING THE MOVEMENT AND THE INFLUENCE
OF LOAD IN THE BACK SQUAT EXERCISE
MARK R. MCKEAN, PETER K. DUNN, AND BRENDAN J. BURKETT
Australian Institute of Fitness Research, University of Sunshine Coast, Queensland, Australia
ABSTRACT
McKean, MR, Dunn, PK, and Burkett, BJ. Quantifying the
movement and the influence of load in the back squat exercise.
J Strength Cond Res 24(6): 1671–1679, 2010—The squat is
used extensively in strength and conditioning, physical therapy,
rehabilitation, and fitness programs. However, the movement
pattern of the hip and knee is still relatively unknown, in
particular, the timing of when maximum angles is reached. The
purpose of this study was to quantify the hip and knee
movements of the squat and establish if load alters these
movements. Twenty-eight subjects (16 men and 12 women)
performed 2 sets of 8 squats. Load was applied in random
order as no additional weight (body weight [BW]) or an
additional load of 50% of the subject’s weight (BW+50%).
Joint angles and time for hip and knee, as well as forward knee,
displacement in the descent and ascent phases were measured
with significance at p , 0.05. Regardless of gender, phase, and
load, all subjects achieved their maximum hip and knee angles
within 2% of the deepest position. Load significantly increased
the flexion angle at the hip and knee joints in men. The knees
movement forward of the toes ranged from 63.8 to 64.7 mm in
men and 93.2 to 96.6 mm in women. A significant difference
in the timing of when the maximum forward knee movement
occurred was observed because of gender. The overriding
factor for the practical prescription of squat technique was
regardless of load, gender, or phase; the maximum angles of the
hip and knee are reached almost simultaneously at the bottom
of the squat. Furthermore, for all subjects, the knee moved
forward of the toes when squatting with men reaching their
maximum forward knee position around 84% of the descent
phase, whereas this occurred for women around 93%.
KEY WORDS technique, hip, knee, knee movement, pattern
Address correspondence to Mark R. McKean, mmckean@usc.edu.au.
No funding was received for this research project.
24(6)/1671–1679
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Ó 2010 National Strength and Conditioning Association
INTRODUCTION
T
he squat exercise is commonly used by strength
coaches, health professionals, physical therapists,
and fitness trainers in exercise programs. The squat
has been generally categorized into 3 groups:
partial squats, parallel squats, and full or deep squats (8,31,37).
Partial squats represented as a squat less than parallel, parallel
squats indicated by thighs being parallel to the floor, and full
squats indicated by a deeper squat than parallel thighs, all
of which have a broad range of applications across many
environments. The most common squat cited in the literature
to date is the parallel squat (19,25,34,37), but because of the
variety of squat depths cited in the literature, any comparison
of joint movements and timing from these studies is difficult.
Previous research on squat movements has predominantly
focused on the movements of the knees in isolation to the hip
for a rehabilitation focus, such as the forces at the knees
(4,27,35), knee stability (7,13), and muscle recruitment of the
thigh (6,22,33). No previous studies have provided a complete
picture of the hip-knee movements and timing in squatting
because they have not been examined as part of a coordinated
global movement. Knee angles have been shown to reach as
much as 40° flexion (9) and hip angles up to 34°(37), yet both
knee and hip angles have been reported as maximums only
with no mention as to the timing of when these maximum
angles occur during the descent or ascent phases of the squat.
Young athletes, people new to strength training, and those
recovering from injury are taught to squat as part of the
exercise regimen with the aim of increasing the loads used for
sport-specific gains (32,36) or developing better muscular
control to support the knee after injury (22,26). Coaches,
therapists, and trainers who work with these groups of
people need to have an understanding of the coordinated
pattern of squatting to develop a new pattern of movement or
retrain the desired pattern of movement, which may change
as a result of injury (21). The coordination of joints and the
timing of these movements in squatting need to be quantified
to provide a clearer understanding of the squat movement
pattern when coaching this exercise.
Multiple loading parameters have also been used in
previous squat research ranging from body weight (BW)
squats to 1 repetition maximum (1RM). In 2005, Scaglioni-
Solano et al. (31) studied movement patterns of squats using
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Influence of Load in the Back Squat Exercise
BW only, finding that deeper squatting shifted the effort from
the knee joint to the hip joint and after 65°knee bend, the hip
and knee movements became more similar in behavior.
Abelbeck (2) used BW squats to study the biomechanics of
linear motion squats reporting segment mass movements and
providing feedback on hip and knee positions. Finally,
Dionisio et al. (11) applied BWas the squat load to investigate
the kinematic, kinetic, and electromyographic pattern in
downward squatting. Submaximal loads have been used in
research to minimize fatigue (6) and use a repetition range
similar to those common in training (15), whereas 1RM loads
up to 2.5 times a subject’s BW (25) have been used to study
behavior at a subject’s strength limits. To determine if load
influences squat technique, loads that allow a number of
repetitions to be performed without fatigue and provide for
safe progressions need to be used, so the repetitions captured
can be analyzed for consistency and coordination.
Strength training exercises can be broken into the phases
of descent and ascent. To the author’s knowledge, the dif-
ferences, if any, in the movements of the hip and knee in each
phase is not mentioned in the literature, despite the fact that
the squat requires both up and down phases, which sub-
sequently requires different concentric and eccentric muscle
innervations. Specific knee angles or the parallel position of
the thighs have been used as the finish point for the descent
phase of the squat, yet this restriction may limit the user’s
natural movement pattern of the squat. A more appropriate
measure of determining squat depth would be the vertical
displacement of the pelvis to set the start and completion of
each phase. In exercise prescription, changing training tempo
for each phase is commonly used to create a training emphasis
(1,20), yet there has been little research to determine if there
are changes in joint coordination in the different phases,
which may ultimately alter the muscles involved and the
influence of adjusting eccentric and concentric speeds.
Because of the different contraction types during the decent
and ascent phases, each phase should be quantified sepa-
rately and the vertical displacement was used to set top and
bottom positions of the squat.
Forward horizontal movement of the knees over the toes
during the squat has been associated with increased forces at
the knee joint and suggests that the knees should be restricted
to a position behind the vertical line of the toes to protect
the knees (30). The study by Fry et al. (19) showed that the
technique of restricted forward knee movement adjusted the
squat movement and produced more anterior lean and an
increased hip angle when compared with the unrestricted
squat technique. Forward knee movement in the back squat
needs further examination to understand its impact on joint
coordination and the relative timing in squatting movements.
There is also a contradiction in previous studies regarding
differences in the patterns of movement between men and
women. Some studies show that there had been a significant
difference in these patterns (29,39), and others have shown
no significant differences between genders (3,10). To address
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1672 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
these issues, the specific aims of the current study were to
quantify the timing and movement relationships of the hip
and knee joints for the back squat exercise and changes to
these patterns because of (a) changes in load, (b) the ascent
and descent phases, and (c) gender.
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
A 3-dimensional analysis of the lower limbs and torso was
conducted as subjects completed 2 sets of 8 repetitions of the
back squat exercise. The independent variables were load,
phase, and gender. The dependent variables were hip angle,
knee angle, knee forward position, and timing. The 3-
dimensional analysis machine allows the timing and move-
ment of the hip and knee joints to be measured simulta-
neously during both the descent and ascent phases of
movement. Subjects performed 8 squats with 2 different loads
(BW with no external load, and BW + 50% of BW as an
external load); the order for each subject was randomized. For
each load, each subject did 8 squats (with 90- to 120-second
recovery between each set); data were only collected for 3 of
these squats, but the 3 selected for data recording were not
made known to the subjects.
In random order, the load for each set was either BW (BW,
no external load) or BW plus 50% BW load (BW+50%).
Subjects
Twenty-eight subjects with at least 1-year experience in using
the back squat as an exercise in their training routine
volunteered for the study (Table 1). Subjects were either in
their final year of study to become a personal trainer or
already working as an accredited personal trainer. Subjects
had been performing squats as an exercise in their strength
and conditioning training programs at least twice a week for
a minimum of 12 months. Subjects were informed of the
experimental risks, and written informed consent was
obtained under the guidelines approved by the university
human research and ethics committee before any experi-
mental testing. All subjects indicated that they had no
existing conditions or history of musculoskeletal injury.
Procedures
Total body mass was measured to the nearest 0.01 kg with
calibrated electronic scales (TI BWB-600P, Digital Personal
Scale; Wedderburn Pty Ltd, Willawong, Australia), and
standing height of individual subjects was measured to the
nearest 1 mm with a portable stadiometer (Telescopic Metal
Height Scale [PE063]; Mentone International, Moorabin,
Australia) The laboratory is a nationally accredited facility for
athletic testing. Real-time kinematic motion of the lower
limbs and torso was collected at 120 Hz by a 3-dimensional
magnetic tracking device (Motion Monitor, Version 6.50.0.1;
Innovative Sports Training, Chicago, IL, USA). Eight
magnetic sensors were placed on anatomical segments as
described in Table 2. Validation of the system was confirmed
against standardized reference measures, and the variation
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TABLE 1. Subject characteristics (mean and SD).

Subjects Age (yr) Weight (kg) Height (cm) ASIS width (cm)

Women (n = 12) 24.2 (6.5) 62.1 (7.9) 167.1 (4.9) 24.4 (2.2)
Men (n = 16) 24.3 (5.1) 83.2 (12.2) 179.5 (6.5) 25.5 (1.3)
Combined (n = 28) 24.2 (5.7) 74.1 (14.9) 174.2 (8.5) 25.0 (1.8)
ASIS = Anterior Superior Iliac Spine.

was less than 0.5° and within 0.0034 m. Three-dimensional
magnetic tracking has been shown to be more accurate than
2 dimensions and has been previously validated (28).
The pelvis was digitized using the Bell method, which uses the
anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) width to determine hip joint
center and pelvic girdle structure. The knee and ankle joint
centers were determined using the centroid method. The hip
joint angle is the angle between the alignment of the pelvis and
line between the hip and knee joint centers. The knee joint angle
being the angle between the lines connecting the joint centers of
the hip to knee and knee to ankle as defined in previous studies
(2,6,19,31). The most anterior aspect of the patella was digitized
with a 3-dimensional landmark referenced to the knee joint
center, allowing it to be tracked with regards to forward knee
movement in the sagittal plane (19).
The subjects warmed up as per their usual routine for
strength training, and then with the sensors attached, the
subjects performed a warm-up set of squats. The width of
stance was controlled with the inside distance between the
subject’s heels, the same as the pelvic width measured from
right ASIS to left ASIS (15), using skeletal goniometers (TTM
Bone Calliper, PE054; Mentone International). The feet were
aligned parallel to the sagittal plane, that is, toes pointed
straight ahead, and the knees were free to move in any position.
To determine if load influenced movement patterns in a safe
and repeatable manner, the loads of BW and a submaximal
load of BW + 50% (BW+50%) were chosen. These 2 loads
allowed multiple sets of 8 repetitions without fatigue (12),
a range of repetitions and loading parameters similar to the
training environment they would be exposed to, and the
capture of 3 blind repetitions for analysis.
To develop 50% load, an aluminum Olympic bar and associated
weights was placed into a standard position across the upper
trapezius and superior aspect of the spine of scapula, the hands
placed outside shoulder width in a palm forward grip. A standard-
sizedOlympicbar constructedfrom aluminum(AustralianBarbell
Company, Mordialloc, Victoria, Australia) was used because
normal ferrous metals in traditional bars cause interference with
the magnetic fields of the magnetic tracking device.
The subject assumed the setup position, and the width of feet
was established using a steel measuring ruler and marks placed
on the floor. Starting in an upright position, the subject
descended to the lowest point they felt in control and
comfortable, with no limit placed on the depth of the squat.

TABLE 2. Position of sensors for 3-dimensional

magnetic tracking device.

Sensor Anatomical segment

1 Stylus to digitize the subjects dimensions

2 Thorax (the C7-T12 junction)
3 Lumbar (dorsal surface of T12-L1 junction)
4 Sacrum (dorsal surface of L5-S1 junction)
5 Left Thigh (anteromedial aspect of upper
thigh)
6 Right Thigh (anteromedial aspect of upper
thigh)
7 Left Shank (anteromedial aspect of the
Tibia shaft)
8 Right Shank (anteromedial aspect of the
Tibia shaft)
Figure 1. A digital of a man squatting with a warm-up load.

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Influence of Load in the Back Squat Exercise

The squat was performed ac-

cording to the National Strength
and Conditioning Association
(NSCA) position guidelines on
squats and monitored by the
main researcher who is an NSCA
Certified Strength Conditioning
Specialist coach at the elite level.
A digital of a typical man squat-
ting with a BW+50% load is
shown in Figure 1.
One squat was complete when
the subject returned to the orig-
inal upright starting position. If
there was a safety concern, or the
subject wishedtoceasetheaction,
2 spotters were positioned to
support the subject. The subject
exhaled on the ascent and inhaled
on the descent, and each subject
was given 90- to 120-second
recovery between each set. The
middle 3 repetitions of each set
were collected for analysis with
the subject being blind to which Figure 2. Angle conventions used for analysis.
repetitions were collected for the
project. All angles are orthopedic
angles of the lines connecting the digitized joint centers of the hip, The time for each phase (decent and ascent) was normalized,
knee, and ankle. The hip angle was defined as the anterior angle with the starting point at the top of the squat (highest vertical
between the trunk and the thigh; the knee angle was defined as displacement of the sacrum) represented as 0%, whereas the
the posterior angle between the thigh and the lower shank deepest part of the squat (lowest vertical displacement of
(Figure 2). Forward knee movement (measured in the sagittal the sacrum) represented as 100%, regardless of the phase of
plane) was defined as the horizontal distance the anterior aspect the movement.
of the knee moved with respect to the front of the shoes.
If the knees remained behind the toes, this was reported Statistical Analyses
as a negative score. If the knee moved anterior to that of A total of 6 different responses were analyzed (maximum hip
the vertical line drawn from the front of the shoe, the score angle, the time at which the maximum hip angle occurred,
was positive. maximum knee angle, the time at which the maximum knee

TABLE 3. The maximum angle for the hip joint and normalized time for when this occurred (mean and SE) during the
descent and ascent phases of the back squat, for body weight load and body weight + 50% body weight.

Descent phase Ascent phase

Description Body weight Body weight + 50% Body weight Body weight + 50%

Men
Hip max angle (degrees) 77.5 (3.4)* 73.6 (3.5)* 77.4 (3.5)* 73.6 (3.5)*
Time max hip (%) 98.4 (0.4) 98.2 (0.4) 98.9 (0.1) 98.1 (0.4)
Women
Hip max angle (degrees) 77.2 (1.6) 76.3 (1.2) 77.3 (1.6) 76.3 (1.2)
Time max hip (%) 98.6 (0.2) 98.7 (0.2) 98.9 (0.1) 98.9 (0.1)
*Significant difference (p , 0.05) between the maximum hip angles achieved in both phases for men when comparing the 2 loads.

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TABLE 4. The maximum angle for the knee joint and normalized time for when this occurred (mean and standard error)
during the descent and ascent phases of the back squat, for body weight load and body weight + 50% body weight.

Descent phase Ascent phase

Description Body weight Body weight + 50% Body weight Body weight + 50%

Men
Knee max angle (degrees) 64.6 (2.2)*† 59.1 (2.0)*† 63.4 (2.3)*† 59.2 (2.0)*†
Time max knee (%) 99.2 (0.3) 99.0 (0.2) 98.9 (0.1) 99.0 (0.2)
Women
Knee max angle (degrees) 72.6 (3.3)† 72.4 (2.9)† 72.7 (3.3)† 72.5 (2.9)†
Time max knee (%) 99.3 (0.2) 98.9 (0.3) 98.7 (0.2) 98.7 (0.2)
*Significant difference (p , 0.05) between the maximum knee angles achieved in both phases for men when comparing the 2 loads.
†Significant difference (p , 0.05) between the maximum knee angles achieved in both phases when comparing genders.

angle occurred, the maximum knee forward position relative
to the toes, and the time at which the maximum knee forward
position relative to the toes occurred). Each of these 6
responses was analyzed separately for differences among
gender (men or women), phase (ascent or decent), and load
(BW or BW+50%). The results (Tables 3–5) are presented as
mean and SE analyzed for gender (men or women), load
(BW or BW+50%), and phase (ascent or decent). Intraclass
correlation coefficients (ICCs) were calculated to assess the
reliability of the repeated measures using the Bland and
Altman method (5). Intraclass correlation coefficient values
less than 0.4 represented poor reliability, 0.4–0.7 fair reli-
ability, 0.70–0.90 good reliability, and greater than 0.9
excellent reliability (16). Sixty-six percent of ICC values
were in the excellent category (above 0.9) and 25% in the
good category (above 0.7), giving a total of 91% of ICC values
above 0.7, showing good reliability of the data. Statistical
interpretation focused on the main effects, and the threshold
for statistical significance was set to p # 0.05. Linear mixed
models were used to model the data using subjects as random
effects. Models were fitted individually with one response
and one explanatory variable (gender, phase, or load) as a
fixed effect. Differences were then detected using the p values
from the analysis of variance F tests on the corresponding
fixed effect.
The ICC values for the dependent variables are included in
Table 6.
RESULTS
The maximum hip joint angle and normalized time for when
the maximum occurred during the descent and ascent phases
for both men and women are presented in Table 3.

TABLE 5. The maximum knee forward movement distance and normalized time for when this occurred (mean and standard
error) during the descent and ascent phases of the back squat, for body weight load and body weight +50% body
weight.

Descent phase Ascent phase

Description Body weight Body weight + 50% Body weight Body weight + 50%

Men
Knee toe distance (mm)* 67.4 (7.4) 72.1 (6.5) 63.8 (6.9) 74.9 (6.8)
Time knee toe (%)† 82.5 (3.5) 87.5 (2.8) 84.2 (2.1) 81.4 (2.5)
Women
Knee toe distance (mm)* 96.6 (9.0) 85.7 (12.6) 93.2 (8.9) 83.0 (12.4)
Time knee toe (%)† 92.1 (2.0) 94.1 (1.4) 93.7 (1.6) 94.9 (1.0)
*Significant difference (p , 0.05) between the maximum forward knee movement achieved in both phases when comparing
genders.
†Significant difference (p , 0.05) between the time of the maximum forward knee movement achieved in both phases when
comparing genders.

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Influence of Load in the Back Squat Exercise

TABLE 6. ICC values for dependent variables.*

Descent phase Ascent phase

BW BW+50% BW BW+50%

Men
Hip angle 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.99
Hip time 0.86 0.91 0.91 0.85
Knee angle 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.99
Knee time 0.90 0.85 0.90 0.90
Forward knee position 0.98 0.99 0.97 0.98
Forward knee time 0.94 0.85 0.90 0.83
Women
Hip angle 0.97 0.96 0.97 0.97
Hip time 0.53 0.49 0.57 0.41
Knee angle 0.92 0.98 0.99 0.98
Knee time 0.75 0.85 0.78 0.87
Forward knee position 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99
Forward knee time 0.88 0.88 0.80 0.91

*BW = body weight; BW+50% = body weight plus 50% body weight load.

Load was significantly associated with the squat technique in ascent knee angle was 4.2° deeper for BW+50% squats.
men with the BW+50% squat reducing the hip and the knee Further, for the descent and ascent phases, and for BW and
angles, when compared with the BW squat. There was no BW+50% load, men achieved significantly deeper angles of
significant change in the time for when the maximum angles knee flexion compared with women. Finally, when compar-
was reached because of different loads. There was no statis- ing the difference between the maximum angles at the hip
tically significant difference in the maximum angles achieved in and the maximum angles at the knee, women differed by
the BW squat at the hip joint for men and women, with a maximum of 4.6°, whereas men differed by a minimum
differences of 0.1° between phases and 0.3° between genders. of 12.9°.
However, with an increased load of BW+50%, men achieved The maximum knee forward movement and normalized
a maximum hip angle 3.9° deeper, and the ascent hip angle was time for when the maximum occurred during the descent
3.8° deeper than women.
The maximum knee joint
angle and normalized time for
when the maximum occurred
during the descent and ascent
phases for both men and women
are presented in Table 4.
Gender had a significant in-
fluence on knee angle achieved
with men reaching greater knee
flexion angles for both phases,
when compared with women.
However, the timing of when
maximum knee angles were
achieved was not significantly
associated with gender. Knee
movements also produced sig-
nificant results in regards to
changes brought about by the
increased load of BW+50%.
The descent knee maximum Figure 3. Sample male hip and knee movement in a body weight plus 50% body weight load squat.
angle was 5.5° deeper, and the
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1676 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research


and ascent phases for both men and women are presented
in Table 5.
Both men and women showed a forward horizontal move-
ment of the knee. This distance was significantly different for
gender in both phases. There was also a significant difference in
the time of when the maximum forward horizontal movement
of the knee was achieved because of gender, with men
achieving the maximum distance at less depth in the squat in
both phases. Men significantly increased the forward move-
ment of the knees during the BW+50% squats compared with
BW, whereas women significantly reduced the forward knee
movement during the BW+50% squats compared with BW.
When subjects squatted with no restriction on knee angles,
forward knee movement, or depth of the squat, all subjects
reached their maximum hip and knee angles within 2% of the
deepest part of the squat, in both descent and ascent phases,
regardless of load and gender. A screen shot of a typical hip
and knee movement comparison is shown in Figure 3.
DISCUSSION
The specific aims of this study was to first quantify the timing
and movement relationships of the hip and knee during the
back squat exercise, then to consider any changes to these
movements with respect to changes in load, the ascent and
descent phases, and gender.
Squatting depth has long been a contentious issue in the
practical training environments, and the safe depth of
squatting, commonly reported as being a parallel squat, is
usually indicated by the thigh being parallel to the floor (14).
Deep squats are cited less often as a recommended technique.
The freely selected squat depth within the current study
would categorize the squats performed in this study as deep,
and this greater range of movement provides the participant
with the greatest freedom to move naturally.
The significant differences of both the hip and the knee
angles achieved by men with respect to changes in load
suggest that men differ in the manner in which their lower
extremity absorbs and transfers load through their muscles
and joints when performing squats. These results show that as
the loads increase, men’s hip and knee angles increase to
accommodate the loads, thus altering the relative angles of
these 2 key joints yet maintaining the timing of when these
maximum angles occur. The low standard of error in the
timing of when the maximal angles were reached reinforces
the consistency of the timing and the patterns of movement
achieved across both loads and gender and suggests that this
is a dominant overriding component of the squatting pattern
of movement, which is somehow maintained at all times.
Women on the other hand produced almost identical hip
and knee angles for BW squats and BW+50% squats, and the
descent and ascent phases of the squat, suggesting a more
coordinated squatting movement. No similar studies were
found in the literature that compared these variables. Stature
may be considered as an influence on this changed behavior.
Men are taller, and this may account for the altered hip-knee
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movements when compared with women. Research has
shown that a subject’s height, tibial length, and femur length
account for 77.8% of the explained variances in a subject being
able to keep their heels flat when squatting (18). To keep the
heels flat, a subject would need to alter the hip-knee
movements to maintain balance. This alteration in move-
ments may be similar to the manner in which men in the
current study altered their hip-knee actions.
The similarities in angles achieved by women at the hip and
knee joints also suggest that women tend to be more
synchronized for the hip-knee interjoint–coordinated move-
ment of squatting. This is demonstrated as the hip and knee
joints differ by 4.6° or less in both loads and phases in women,
compared with men whose hip and knee joint angles differed
by as much as 14.5°. This finding is also supported by
Lindbeck and Kjellberg (24) who suggest that women have
better hip-knee joint coordination for lifting tasks, when
compared with men. Although women maintained similar
angles at the hip and knees, the pattern of squatting for men
shows that they increase the angles at the hip and knee
joints to perform the back squat when loads are increased to
BW+50%. These increased angles at the hip and knee sug-
gest that the heavier loads allow men to squat deeper, which
may reflect the increased strength levels of men or the fact
that the 50% load was a lower percentage of the men’s 1RM.
When squatting with BW, only there was no difference
in the timing of the hip and knee joints between men and
women. There was, however, a significant difference in the
knee flexion angle between genders, which highlights a
difference in movement patterns across genders and supports
other studies (17,23,24,38). As the load increased, only men
changed their degree of flexion at each joint, which further
reinforces this finding.
Knee position, relative to the toes, is also a contentious
topic when performing squats. Very little scientific data have
been recorded regarding the distance the knees move
forward, with respect to the feet during squats. The current
study found that subject’s knees did naturally move forward
of the front of the foot by a considerable margin. Only
1 reference was found measuring forward knee movement in
squatting (11), and forward knee movement was measured
from the start of the squat and not with respect to the
position of the front of the foot. Any comparison with the
current study is difficult because the previous study allowed
subjects to only half squat and restrictions were placed on the
position of the trunk relative to a wall in front of the subjects.
Any restriction placed on the knee movement in the squat
exercise will result in mechanical changes at the hip and knee
(19). The results from the current study could indicate a truer
relationship of the hip-knee simply because the subjects were
not restricted in knee movement or squat depth and per-
formed the squat in a way that was most comfortable for
them as individuals, resulting in a forward knee movement
appropriate to them as individuals. The timing of the maxi-
mum knee forward position was before that of the maximal
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Influence of Load in the Back Squat Exercise
angles of the hip and knee. This mechanism has not been
found in the literature and indicates that the knees may in fact
become more static once this maximum forward position
was reached. In all cases except men with BW+50%, the
maximum forward knee position was greater in the descent
than for the ascent. Under BW+50% load, men achieved
a greater maximum forward position in the descent than in
the ascent phase, which may reflect the increased angles of
flexion achieved at the hip and knee for the increased load.
The knees of both men and women moved forward
horizontally past the vertical line of the front of the foot;
however, women produced a greater forward movement than
men when squatting. It should also be noted that for all
subjects, the distance the knees moved forward during the
squat produced the greatest variation of all the data reported.
This shows that the forward knee movement in squatting
produces a range of very individual results and suggests that
this is a secondary function in squatting that occurs because
of some other movement. Added to these differences, the
current results also found that the time for when these
maximum forward positions were reached differed signifi-
cantly. In the BW+50% squats, men reached their maximum
forward knee position 6.6% sooner in the time of the descent
and 13.5% later in time of the ascent compared with women.
The current research has shown differences in lower limb
kinematics across gender, with men reaching their maximum
forward knee position much sooner than their hip and knee
angles reach their maximum angle of flexion. Conversely,
women on the other hand reach their maximum forward knee
position much closer to the time at which their hip and knee
angles also reach their maximum, confirming that women
tend to be more synchronized in the squatting movement.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
This research showed that there were 2 key aspects to
squatting: (a) the timing of the hip and knee maximum angles
and (b) the forward knee movement past the toes.
This research found that performing the squat with BWand
submaximal loads establishes a very definite timing of joint
maximum angles and coordination of the lower extremities,
that is, hip joint, knee joint, and forward knee movement. The
timing of when the hip and knee reach their maximum angles
with BW and +50% BW loads shows that experienced squat
performers with submaximal loads coordinate the hip and
knee joints to reach maximum angles of flexion within 2% of
the maximum descent position, which may be a controlling
factor in performing the squat. This study may provide
additional cues and timing knowledge for improving teaching
and monitoring of squat techniques as by establishing key
guidelines on movement coordination of the hip and knee
that could be used as a standard for squatting.
Care should be taken when prescribing exercises to men
and women because significant differences in the manner in
which men and women perform the squat and how they
adjust these squat movements with an additional load of
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1678 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
BW+50% were found. As the load increased, men squat
deeper achieving increased hip and knee angles. This result
suggests that under the heavier load of BW+50%, men still
controlled joint coordination timing but adjusted the rate at
which the movement occurred at each joint to do so. Women
on the other hand produced almost identical hip-knee
movements for BW squats and BW+50% squats, suggesting
a more controlled and coordinated squatting movements.
This joint coordination timing appears to be maintained
regardless of load and gender and suggests that it is a key
aspect to squat movement pattern.
In the practical setting, coaches and trainers should be
aware of the differences between men and women in
adjusting hip and knee movements to handle additional
loads. Allowing for the adjustments made by men, the timing
element of these maximal angles still appears to be
maintained, and this could be used to visually assess the
coordination of the squat movement. If the timing of when
maximum angles are reached appears to be significantly
different, this research suggests that they may have an altered
movement pattern and may need to have further coaching on
squat technique to ensure that maximum angles are reached
almost simultaneously near the bottom of the squat.
The current study also showed that subjects with at least
1-year squatting experience tended to squat deep when not
limited by instruction and allowed their knees to move
forward over the front of the feet during the performance of
the back squat. This research shows that to perform a deep
squatting action, subjects will not restrict the forward
movement of the knees over the toes, instead allowing them
to move forward as required as if the forward knee movement
is a secondary element of squatting, which relies on other
movements to control its action. In developing athletes,
those with little strength training experience, and people
performing squats as part of a rehabilitation process, this study
suggests that coaches and trainers should allow the knees
to move to a position in squatting where the hip and
knee coordination is maintained rather than restricting the
knee any specific alignment and causing a change to the
hip-knee coordination.
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