Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Dennis J. Vaughan
Handbook of Composites. Edited by S.T. Peters. Published * Significant portions of this article appeared in Handbook
in 1998 by Chapman & Hall, London. ISBN 0 412 54020 7 of Composites, 1982, (G. Lubin ed.) Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York.
132 Fiberglass reinforcement
,COAL, F,LMRSPAR ,
LIMESTONE SILICA SAND BORIC ACID
FORYUUTION
U I
I I I
W
DECORATIVE AND
INDUSTRIAL YARN
-1
INSPECTION
AND
r
WEIGHING
TWISTING
J
STRAND W
CHOPPING
7-77-
Fig. 7.2 Molten glass flows from tiny orifices in Fig. 7.3 Molten glass flows from tiny orifices in
platinum bushings (Courtesy of PPG industries). platinum bushings (Courtesy of Owens-Corning
Fiberglas Industries).
Each individual fiber is drawn from the
bushing opening and must be controlled so that Table 7.1 Fiberglass filament designations
reproducible filaments, strand dimensions and
properties are obtained. This control is Filament Filament diameter
achieved by the regulation of the melt viscosity, designation
i n ~ l O - ~ Pm
temperature and drawing speed. It is possible,
B 1.5 3.8
therefore, to obtain a large number of filament C 1.8 4.5
diameters by varying the number of openings D 2.1 5
in the bushing and the drawing conditions. DE 2.5 6
As demand has dictated over the years, the E 2.9 7
fiberglass industry has established a number G 3.6 9
of standard filament diameters (Table 7.1). H 4.2 10
K 5.1 13
a viscosity in the molten glass that will allow improve dielectric loss properties in electri-
easy drawing. cal applications (similar in performance to
A number of glass compositions are avail- D-glass).
able depending on the properties desired from 0 Hollow fiber: A special glass whose fibers
the resulting fibers (Table 7.2). are tube-like or hollow; the material has
specific applications in reinforced aircraft
A-glass: A high alkali or soda glass is made
parts where weight could be significant.
into fibers for use in applications where
0 Te glass: A Japanese manufactured S-glass,
good chemical resistance is needed.
for higher strength structural application.
E-glass: A low alkali glass, based on alu-
minum borosilicate. This glass possesses
7.4 FIBERGLASS PROPERTIES
excellent electrical insulation properties
and is the premium fiber used in the major- The composition of the original glass melt
ity of textile fiberglass production. probably plays the biggest role in determining
C-glass: A material based on soda borosili- the properties of the fiberglass. The continuing
cate that produces a fiber that offers widespread use of fiberglass in numerous and
excellent chemical resistance. diverse applications can be directly related to
S-2 glass: This glass is made up of magne- its inherent unique properties (Table 7.3). The
sium, aluminum silicate and offers higher suppliers of these materials in the USA are
physical
-~ strength.
- Fibers produced from shown in Table 7.4.
this glass have an approximate per- 0 High tensile strength: Fiberglass has an
cent strength improvement Over exceptionally high tensile strength corn-
those of E-glass composition. pared with other textile fibers. Its strength
D-glass: This fiber made from a low dielec- to weight ratio exceeds steel wire in
tric composition has dielectric loss applications.
properties 'Onstant Of 3.8 at
0 Heat and fire resistance: Because fiberglass
mc s-l) superior to that of E-glass (6.O at is inorganic it does not burn or support
1mc s-l). combustion.
R-glass: A 'Pecial glass that 0 Chemical resistance: Fiberglass has excel-
produces fiber that is alkali resistant and is lent resistance to most chemicals and is
used in reinforcing concrete. impervious to fungal, bacterial or insect
Low K: An experimental fiber produced to
attack.
Table 7.2 Fiberglass compositions (wt.%)
Grade of glass
-
A C E 5
-
Physical properties
Specific gravity 2.50 2.49 2.54 2.48
Mohs hardness - 6.5 6.5 6.5
Mechanical properties
Tensile strength, psi x lo3 (MPa)
At 72°F (22°C) 440 (3033) 440 (3033) 500 (3448) 665 (4585)
At 700°F (371°C) - - 380 (2620) 545 (3758)
At 1000°F (538°C) - - 250 (1724) 350 (2413)
Tensile modulus of elasticity at
72°F (22"C),psi X lo6 (GPa) - 10.0 (69.0) 10.5 (72.4) 12.4 (85.5)
Yield elongation, % - 4.8 4.8 5.7
Elastic recovery, % - 100 100 100
Thermal properties
Coefficient of thermal linear
expansion, OF-' x lo4
("C-1) 4.8 (8.6) 4.0 (7.2) 2.8 (5.0) 3.1 (5.6)
Coefficient of thermal
conductivity, Btu in h-' f f 2 OF-'
(Wm-' K-I 1 - - 72 (10.4) -
Specific heat at 72°F (22°C) - 0.212 0.197 0.176
Softening point, "F ("C) 1340 (727) 1380 (749) 1545 (841) -
Electrical properties
Dielectric strength, V/mil - - 498 -
Dielectric constant at 72°F (22°C)
At 69 Hz - - 5.9-6.4 5.0-5.4
At lo6 Hz 6.9 7.0 6.3 5.1
Dissipation (power) factor at 72°F (22°C)
At 60 Hz - - 0.005 0.003
At lo6 Hz - - 0.002 0.003
Volume resistivity at 72°F (22°C)
and 500 V DC, ohm-cm - - 1015 10'6
Surface resistivity at 72°F (22°C)
and 500 V DC, ohm-cm - - 1013 1014
Optical properties
Index of refraction - - 1.547 1.523
Acoustical properties
Velocity of sound, ft/s (m/s) - - 17 500 (5330) 19 200 (5850)
0 Moisture resistance: Because fiberglass does 0 Thermal properties: Due to its low coeffi-
not absorb water, it neither swells, stretches cient of thermal linear expansion and high
nor disintegrates. Fiberglass does not readily coefficient of thermal conductivity, fiber-
rot and continues to maintain its mechanical glass exhibits excellent performance in
strength in humid environments. thermal environments.
136 Fiberglass reinforcement
oz/yd2) and thicknesses of from 0.7-1.5 mm wet layup techniques or by impregnating and
(0.02-0.04 in) (see Table 7.5). applying low pressure (RTM) (see Table 7.5).
The fiberglass rovings can be used in con-
junction with polyester
~. resins in hand lay-up 7.5.3 FIBERGLASS MAT
techniques that
typically be used in the The three basic forms of fiberglass mat, are
manufacture of boats. Woven roving reinforced
chopped strand, continuous and surfacing or
laminates can be made by using conventional
veil.
Table 7.5 Woven roving and polyester laminate data
Chopped strand mat is a non-woven mater- the spirals conform in shape to the central
ial which the fiberglass strands are chopped position of the letter ’S’. Alternatively, a yarn
into 2-5 cm (1-2 in) lengths and evenly distrib- is said to have a ’Z’ twist if the spiral con-
uted at random onto a horizontal plane, bound forms in shape to the central position of the
together with some type of chemical size. The letter ‘Z’.
mats so produced weigh from 2.6-12g/m2 Strands that have a simple twist (greater
(0.7-3.0 oz/ft2)and are available in a variety of than one turn per inch) will kink, corkscrew
widths, 60-230 cm (24-90 in) with 9.6 cm (38 and unravel, because their twist is in only one
in) width being the most typical. direction. The plying operation will normally
Continuous strand mat is made of eliminate this problem by countering the twist
unchopped continuous strands of fiberglass in a twisted ’singles’ yarn with an opposite
deposited and interlocked in spiral fashion. twist in the plied yarn. For instance, a ’singles’
This mat is open and flexible, but due to its yarns which have a ’Z’ twist are plied with an
mechanical interlocking does not require ’S’ twist that will result in a balanced yarn. The
much application of size to achieve adequate twisting and plying operations allow the
handling strength. yarn‘s strength, diameter and flexibility to be
Surface mat, or veil as it is sometimes varied, which in turn allows scope in produc-
called, is a very thin mat of single continuous ing a wide range of suitable woven fabrics.
filaments used frequently as a decorative sur-
face reinforcing layer in hand lay-up or press
7.5.5 TEXTURED YARN
molding processes in order to minimize sur-
face defects and to prevent ’weep’ in ’Singles’ or plied yarn can be textured by using
pressurized wound tanks. a jet of air directed onto the yarn’s surface
which results in random but controlled break-
age of surface filaments, producing a general
7.5.4 TEXTILE FIBERGLASS YARN increased loft to the fiber surface. The term
A yarn can be described as an assembly of used to describe such a process is texturizing
fibers or strands which can be woven into or bulking and the degree to which it occurs
some form of textile material. can be controlled by regulating the air pres-
The continuous individual strand as it sure and yarn feed rate. The texturing process
emerges from the bushing opening represents opens the fiber bundles resulting in some
the simplest form of textile fiberglass yarn and mechanical damage to the surface filaments.
is designated ’singles’ yarn. However, to The increased surface area allows higher resin
ensure the correct and efficient utilization of absorption during impregnation and produces
this yarn in a weaving operation, additional low glass-to-resin ratios, resulting in more eco-
strand integrity has to be added by twisting nomical laminates.
the yarn slightly (less than one turn per inch).
A number of woven fabrics, however, require
7.5.6 YARN NOMENCLATURE
heavier yarns than can be drawn from the
bushing. These heavier yarns can be achieved Because of the wide variety of fiberglass yarns
by combining single strands using a twisting produced, it is necessary to have a precise sys-
and plying operation. This simply involves tem for yarn identification. The standard
twisting one or more single strands together or fiberglass yarn nomenclature is based on both
subsequently plying together two or more of alphabetical and numerical designations.
the twisted strands. The first alphabetical letter identifies the
A yarn can be defined as having an ‘S’ glass composition (E-glass), the second letter
twist if when it is held in a vertical position, indicates filament type (C = continuous) and
Fiberglass types 139
the third and fourth letters identify filament ECG 150 4/2 3.8s
diameter (E 7 micron) [for details see Table 7.11. E = E-glass; C = Continuous filament; G =
The first series of numbers in the numerical Filament diameter
designation represents 1/1OOth of the basic 150 4/2 = Four basic strands of 150 1/0 are
strand yield, the second number series speci- twisted together to form 150 4/04
fies the number of single strands twisted 150 4/2 3.8s = Plying two strands of EGG
together and the number of twisted yarns 150 4/04 (using 'S' twist to create balance)
plied together. The total number of basic
The above yarn contains 8 (4 x 2) basic 150
strands in a plied yarn is found by multiplying
strands with a glass yield of 1875 (15 000 + 8)
these two figures. The yield of the yarns is
yards/pound.
obtained by dividing the basic strand yield by
The nomenclature and typical properties of
the total number of strands in the yarn. A third
commercially available weaving yarns can be
number combined with either the letter 'S' or
seen in Table 7.6.
'Z' (designating the type of twist) will some-
times also be included. For example:
Table 7.7 Glass-fabricconstruction and properties: physical properties for loomstate fabrics (without finish)
Style Count, Warp yarn, Filling yarn, Weave Weight, Thickness, Bveaking
/cm Tex system Tex system g/m2 mm stvengtlz,
/in US system US system ozf yd? in N/5 cm
lb/in
104 23.6 x 20.5 5 5.5 1x 0 5 2.75 1 x 0 Plain 19.7 0.030 350 x 130
60 x 52 D 900 1/0 D 1800 1/0 0.58 0.0012 40x15
106 22.0 x 22.0 D 5.5 1x 0 5 5.5 1x 0 Plain 24.7 0.038 394 x 350
56 x 56 D 900 1 / 0 D 900 1 / 0 0.73 n.nni
- _ -,5- 4.5
. x 40
.-
Style Count, Warp yarn, Filling yarn, Weave Weight, Thickness, Breaking
/cm Tex system Tex system g/m2 mm strength,
/in US system US system oz/yd2 in N/5 em
lb/in
-
-. _. - . _ - -
1560 1 9 . 3 ~16.5 7511x0 7511x0 Plain 167.8 0.132 2285 x 515
49x42 E 110 l / O E 110 1/0 4.95 0.0052 261x253
1501 18.2 x 12.7 751 1/0 751 1 x 0 Rain 166.1 0.127 2145 x 2102
46x45 E 110 1/0 E 110 1/0 4.90 o m 245x240
1504 23.6x19.7 6331x0 6331x0 Plain 147.8 0.127 2 6 8 8 ~2233
60x50 DE 150 1/0 DE 150 1/0 4.36 0.01)50 307x255
1522 9.1x 8.7 9331x2 9331 x 2 Plain 125 0.140 1400 x 1180
24 x 22 G 150 1 / 2 CG 150 1/2 3.70 0.0055 160 x 135
1523 11.0 x 7.9 9333x2 9333x2 Plain 403 0.356 4595 x 3500
28 x 20
-_ - G 150
...3.,/ 2
~
G 150 3 / 2 11.9 0.014 525 x 400
1526 13.4 x 12.6 9331x2 9331x2 Plain 185 0.165 1970 x 1705
34 x 32 G 150 1/2 G 150 1/2 5.45 0.0065 225x195
1527 6.7 x 6.7 9333x3 9333x3 Plain 437 0.381 4375 x 4245
17 x 17 G 150 3/ 3 G 150 3/ 3 12.9 0.015 500 x 485
1528 17.3 x 12.6 9331x2 9331x2 Plain 203 0.178 2185 x 1750
44 x 32 G 150 1/2 G 150 1/2 6.00 0.007 250 x 200
1543 19.3 x 11.8 9662x2 7221x2 Crowfoot 298 0.229 5250 x 525
49 x 30 G 75 2/2 D 225 1/2 8.34 0.009 600x60
1557 22.4 x 11.8 9331x2 7221x0 Crowfoot 184 0.140 3240 x 525
57 x 30 G 150 1 / 2 E 225 1/0 5.42 0.0055 370 x 60
1564 9241x2 9241x2 9334x2 Plain 431 0.406 4375 x 3940
G 37 1/2 G 37 1/2 G 150 4/2 12.7 0.016 500 x 450
1581 22.4 x 21.3 9331x2 9331x2 Satin 302 0.216 2975 x 2885
57 x 54 G 150 1/2 G 150 1 / 2 8.92 0.0085 340 x 330
1582 23.6 x 22.0 9331x3 9331x3 Satin 454 0.356 4595 x 4375
60 x 56 G 150 1/3 G 150 1/3 13.4 0.014 525 x 500
1583 21.3 x 18.9 9332x2 9332x2 Satin 570 0.457 5690 x 5165
54 x 48 G 150 2/2 G 150 2/2 16.8 0.018 650 x 590
1584 17.3 x 13.8 9684x2 9684x2 Satin 861 0.686 8315 x 7005
44 x 36 G 75 2/2 G 75 2/2 25.4 0.035 950 x 800
1588 16.5 x 14.2 9334x4 9334x4 Satin 1756 1.27 16 635 x 11820
42 x 36 G 150 4/4 G 150 4/4 51.8 0.050 1900 x 1350
1614 11.8 x 5.51 933 1x 0 968 1x 0 Len0 79.0 0.127 657x744
30 x 14 G 150 1 / 0 G 75 1 / 0 2.33 0.005 75 x 85
1652 20.5 x 20.5 9331x0 9331x0 Plain 141.7 0.114 2154 x 1926
52 x 52 G 150 1/0 G 150 1/0 4.18 0.00454 246 x 220
1665 15.7 x 9.5 9331x0 6681x0 Plain 141.7 0.114 2154 x 1926
40 x 24 G 150 1/0 DE 75 1/0 3.50 0.0049 180 x 180
1674 15.7 x 12.6 9331x0 9331x0 Plain 95.6 0.107 1225 x 832
40 x 32 G 150 1/0 G 150 1/0 2.82 0.0042 140 x 95
1675 15.7 x 12.6 6331x0 6331x0 Plain 95.6 0.107 1225 x 832
40 x 32 DE 150 1 / 0 DE 150 1/0 2.82 0.0042 140 x 95
1677 15.7 x 15.7 6331x0 6331x0 Plain 108 0.114 1225 x 1135
40 x 40 DE 150 1/0 DE 150 1/0 3.20 0.0045 140 x 130
Continued on next page
Fiberglass types 143
Table 7.7 Continued
.
..
Style Count, Warp yarn, Filling yarn, Weave Weight, Thickness Breaking
/cni 7ex system Tex system g/m’ mrn strength,
/in US system US system oz/yd2 in N/5 cm
lb/in
-~ ~~~ _ _ _ ~ _ _ ~ _ ~ ~
1678 15.7 x 15.7 9331x0 9331x0 Plain 108.5 0.109 1839 x 1751
16 x 14 K 18 1 / 0 R 18 1 / 0 9.66 0.014 o.
431 x 41_
2112 15.7 x 15.4 7221x0 7221x0 Plain 71.2 0.086 788x700
40x39 E2251/0 E2251/0 2.10 0.0034 90x80
2il3 23.6 x 22.0 7221x0 5111x0 Plain 80.7 0.081 1225X!i2B
60x56 E225L’O E4501/0 2.38 0.0032 14Ox~
2116 23.6 x 22.8 7221x0 7221x0 Plain 107 0.102 1095 x 1050
60 x 58 F 225 1/11 c 225 I / i ) 1.16 u.001 125 x 120
2117 26~21.6 7221x0 7221x0 Plain 20.4 0.085 1182xlfM9
66x55 E2251/0 R2251/0 3.18 0.0037 135x115
23.20 23.6~228 5221x0 5221 Crowfoot 107 002 1095XlW
60x58 D2251Jf) 0 2 2 5 3.16 0.004 W x 120.
2123 15.7x15.4 5221x0 9331x0 Plain 888 0.094 rnXlP35
80x39 D225 l / O G 150 1/0 2.62 0.0051 9ox13Q
2165 23.6x20.5 5221x0 9331x0 Plain 225 0.114 1095x1220
60 x 52 D 225 1/0 G 150 1/0 3.70 0.0045 125x140
2313 13.6 x 25.2 7221 x 0 511 1 x 0 Plain 80.7 0.81 3 1226 x 525
60 x 64 E 225 1 / 0 D 450 1 / 0 2.38 0.0032 140 x 60
2523 11.0 x 7.9 10 198 1x 0 10 198 1x 0 Plain 403 0.330 5075 x 3370
28 x 20 H 25 1 / 0 H 25 1/0 11.9 0.013 580 x 385
2532 6.3 x 5.5 10 198 1x 0 10 198 1x 0 Plain 246 0.254 2625 x 2450
16 x 14 H251/0
~ H251/0 7.25
~. n.nin 3nn x 2x13
3070 276x76 6 16.5 1 x 0 6 165 1 x 0 Plain 92.1 0.0788 1226xk26
70 x 70 DE 300 1/0 DE 300 1/0 2.74 0.0031 lLPoxlg0
3313 2.3.6 x 24.4 6 16.5 1 x 0 6 16.5 1x 0 Plain 81.4 0.0076 1050x2094
60x62 DE 300 1/0 DE 300 11’0 2.40 0.0030 120x125
34 1 91341 crowfoot 431 0.390 5900x3700
371 G 37 1 12.7 0.0134 571x423
3733 7 1 x7.1 91341x0 91341x0 Plain 197 0.203 2185 x 1750
18 x 18 G 37 1/0 G 37 1/0 5.80 0.008 250 x 200
3743 19.3 x 11.8 9 134 1x 0 5 22 1x 0 Crowfoot 286 0.203 5250 x 525
49 x 30 G 37 1/0 D 225 1/0 8.45 0.008 600 x 60
3783 21.2 x 18.9 9 134 1x 0 9 134 1x 0 8Harness 556 0.406 4816 x 4290
54 x 48 G 37 1/0 G 37 1/0 16.4 0.0160 550 x 490
4522 9.4 x 8.7 9331x2 9331x2 Plain 123.4 0.130 1226 x 1130
(6522) 24x22 G 150 1/2 G 150 1/2 3.64 0.0051 140 x 129
4533 7.1 x 7.1 9681x2 9681x2 Plain 200.7 0.188 2382 x 2601
(6533) 1 8 x 18 G 75 1/2 G 75 1/2 5.92 0.0071 272 x 297
Continued on next page
144 Fiberglass reinforcement
Style Count, Warp yarn, Filling yarn, Weave Weight, Thickness, Breaking
/cm Tex system Tex system g/m2 mm strength,
/in US system US system oz/ydZ in a N/5 em
1b/in
- - - - - - -
4700 5.5 x 5.1 9681x0 9681x0 Rain 147.5 0.1% 2189x1445
14x 13 G 37 1/0 G 37 1/0 4.30 0.0077 250x165
6060 23.6x23.6 6 8 . 2 7 1 ~ 0 68271x0 Plain 39.0 0.0019 656.7 x 718
60x60 DH l b 0 DE 600 5 / 0 1.19 0.048 75x82
6581 22.4x21.3 9331x2 9331x2 8ws 301.8 0.228 3520x2846
57x54 f;1 9 1/2 G 150 112 8.90 0.90 400x325
6781 22.4 x 21.3 9681x0 9681x0 X HS 301.X 0.28 3320 x 28-36
57 x 54 S2C6 75 1 / 0 S2CG75 1 / 0 8.90 0.0090 400 x 325
7500 6.3 x5.5 9682x2 9682x2 Plain 327 0.356 3940 x 3590
16 x 14 G 75 2/2 G 75 2/2 9.66 0.014 450 x 410
7520 7.1 x 7.1 9681x3 9681x3 Plain 294.3 0.304 2890 x 2890
18 x 18 G 75 1/3 G 75 1/3 8.68 0.0120 338 x 330
7532 6.3 x 5.5 9681x3 9681x3 Plain 254 0.254 2930 x 2765
16 x 14 G 75 1 / 3 G 75 1 / 3 7.50 0.010 335 x 316
7533 7.1 x 7.1 9681x2 9681x2 Plain 193 0.203 2010 x 1925
18 x 18 G 75 1/2 G 75 1 / 2 5.70 0.008 230 x 220
7544 11.0 x 5.5 9682x2 9682x2 2xlBSK. 610 0.559 6520 x 7265
7626 13.4 x 12.6 9681x0 9681x0 Plain 183 0.168 1970 x 1750
34 x 32 G 75 1/0 G 75 1/0 5.40 0.0066 225 x 200
7628 17.3 x 12.6 968 1 x 0 968 1 x 0 Plain 203 0.178 2190 x 1750
44 x 32 G 75 1/0 G 75 1/0 6.00 0.007 250 x 200
7629 17.3 x 13.3 9681x0 9681x0 Plain 211.9 0.178 2190 x 1883
44 x 34 G 75 1 / 0 G 75 1 / 0 6.25 0.007 250 x 215
Fig. 7.4 (a) Plain weave; (b)basket weave; (c) twill weave; (d) crowfoot satin (four harness weave; (e) eight-
harness satin weave.
(c) Twill weave: This fabric consists of one or over seven and under one filling yam in an
more warp yarns over and under two or irregular pattern. The resulting fabric is
more filling yarns in a regular pattern. This very pliable and readily conforms to com-
produces either a straight or a broken diag- pound contours. Because this weave
onal line in the fabric, which produces pattern allows comparatively high fabric
greater drapeability and stability. counts, it contributes maximum strength to
(d) Crowfoot satin weave: This weave pattern composites reinforced by it.
has one warp yarn interlocking over three (f) Unidirectional fabrics: Fabrics produced
and under one filling yarn in an irregular with heavy warp yarns and light filling
pattern. The fabric that results is extremely yarns, in either crowfoot or long shaft satin
pliable and lends itself to conforming to weaves. The filling yarns can also be com-
complex contours. posed of yarns other than glass. These
(e) Eight-harness satin weave: A fabric con- fabrics offer high strength reinforcements
structed with one warp yarn interlocking in the heavy yarn direction.
146 Fiberglass reinforcement
(g) Non-woven: Unidirectional fabrics that can ments together, lubricate the roving for contact
be produced by sticking the 'warp' and 'fill- with various processing equipment, and to
ing' yarns together chemically. Although permit the glass filaments to be thoroughly
this chemical bonding contributes to the wetted when combined with other materials.
fabric's stability, these fabrics have a firm Fiberglass roving sizes consist of polyvinyl
hand and do not drape over complex con- acetate, polyvinyl alcohol, or PVA/starch as a
tours. film former with the addition of such chemi-
cals as chrome complexes, organosilane
antistatic agents and lubricants that impart the
7.5.8 OTHER WOVEN FORMS
desired strand characteristics.The film former
Fiberglass yarns can also be woven into tapes, aids in adhering the filaments together and
contoured fabrics, fluted core fabrics and three giving strand integrity that will reduce fila-
dimensional fabrics. ment abrasion during fiber drawing, strand
Tapes are usually narrow fabrics [less than conversion and the end use of the rovings by
30 cm (12 in) wide], with a secured selvedge to the fabricator.
prevent unravelling. Contoured fabrics are An organosilane or coupling agent is
woven into a specific geometrical shape. added, that can react with hydroxyl groups on
Fluted core fabrics are two parallel layers of the glass fiber surface and also possesses one
fabric tied together by stringers of woven fab- or more reactive groups to react with other
rics so that the cross-section is triangular or materials, specifically those present in thermo-
rectangular. Three dimensional fabrics are plastic and thermosetting resins. The silane
really planar or fabrics woven with yarns in produces a form of chemical bridge between
three distinct directions within the fabric plane. the glass surface and the resin matrix.
That is, yams are interwoven in: (i) the machine The inclusion of antistatic agents and lubri-
direction, (ii) +45" from the machine direction, cants improves the softness and choppability
or (iii) -45" from the machine direction. of the roving. The selection of a roving size is
based on its resin compatibility, processing
and the expected end use performance.
7.5.9 MILLED FIBERS
The largest percentage of rovings are used in
Continuous fiberglass strands can be hammer processes that require relatively short fiber
milled into very short fiber lengths [approx. lengths (1-5 cm, 0.5-2.0 in). This type is used in
2-6 mm ( H 6 - X in) long]. The actual fiber processes such as spray-up, preform molding,
lengths are determined by the diameter of the bulk molding compounds and continuous
screen openings through which the fibers pass lamination.
during milling. These milled fibers are usually Rovings suitable for chopping are available
used as inert fillers for thermoplastic and ther- in varying degrees of softness; the softer rov-
moset resin systems. ings are generally more difficult to chop, but
they are recommended for use in applications
that require intricate shapes, sharp comers
7.6 SURFACE TREATMENTS
and difficult radii. Conversely, the harder
types of rovings are generally recommended
7.6.1 ROVINGS
for use where the choppability is of prime
In order for fiberglass rovings to be compatible importance and they are used in simple parts
with processing methods and materials, a with minimum contours and radii.
chemical size is applied during the basic fiber Single strand rovings that are commonly
forming operation. The formulation of this size used in filament winding and pultrusion
is designed to hold the individual glass fila- should have good strand integrity, controlled
Design considerations 147
level of broken filaments, good wettability and nated Y) and hydrolyzable groups (designated
uniform processability under controlled ten- X) in materials with a generic structure X,SiRY.
sion. The hydrolyzable groups are intermediaries in
S-glass based rovings have been used in the formation of silanol groups that bond to
applications where the composite needs the glass surface, whereas the organofunc-
increased physical properties ( e g filament tional groups are designed for reactivity or
wound pressure vessels). compatibility with the polymer to be used by
the composite manufacturer. (Table 7.8)
The chemical functionability of the cou-
7.6.2 FIBERGLASS TEXTILE YARNS
pling agent can determine the resistance to
The continuous fiberglass strands that will be varied environments, chemical, physical and
used in weaving are treated at the bushing thermal (Table 7.9). There are many functions
with a starch-oil binder; the general formula that may be attributed to coupling agents at
for such a binder can be a partially or fully the glass-resin interface. They may provide
dextrinized starch or amylose hydrogenated lubrication to protect against abrasion during
vegetable oil, a cationic wetting agent, emulsi- fabrication. The coupling agent mechanism
fying agent and water. These sizes or binders can protect against stress corrosion as a result
are intended to protect the fibers from damage of water incursion and can help improve the
during their formation and subsequent opera- mechanical and electrical properties of rein-
tions of twisting, plying and weaving. forced composites.
Fabrics directly from the loom still have the It is only recently that the engineering and
original binders that were applied at the yarn design criteria in the combination of such dif-
bushing; the warp yarns have also been treated ferent materials as thermosetting and
with a polyvinyl alcohol solution to help pro- thermoplastic polymers with reinforcing of
tect them during weaving. These binders and glass were properly understood. There are a
sizes are not compatible with the resins used number of basic considerations that are com-
by the composite manufacturers and must be mon to the use of fiberglass as a reinforcing
removed prior to impregnation with other media in the production of composites. The
polymers. This is usually accomplished by type form, weave pattern, weight, permeabil-
treating the fabric to carefully controlled ity and alignment of the fibers have direct
time-temperature cycles, which results in com- bearing on the mechanical properties of the
plete removal of all organic material. However, composite. Also in some instances the chemi-
after this heat treatment no suitable interface cal, thermal and electrical properties may also
exists between the fiberglass surface and the be influenced by the judicious choice of rein-
resin matrices that will eventually be used. An forcing material (Table 7.10).
improved interface with resulting good adhe-
sion even in adverse environment conditions
7.7.1 GLASS COMPOSITION
can be achieved by the application of a cou-
pling agent to the glass fiber surface. The chemical composition of the glass can
The most commonly used coupling agents have a direct bearing on the fiber properties
in current use are those termed silanes. The which can indirectly affect composite perfor-
coupling agent mechanism of these mance.
organofunctional silanes depends on a link It has been noted that 'E' glass composition
between the organofunctional group (desig- fibers can contribute 210 000-225 000 psi to the
148 Fiberglass reinforcement
/”\
EPOXY CH2CHCH20CH2CH2CH2Si(OCH3)3
CH2
I
Methacrylate (CH2=C-COOCH2CH2CH2Si(OCH3)3
Primary amine H,NCH,CH,CH,Si(OC,H,),
Diamine H,NCH,CH,NHCH,CH,CH,Si(OCH,)3
Mercapto HSCH,CH,CH,Si(OCH,),
Cationic styryl CH,=CHC,H,CH,NHCH,CH~NH(CH~),Si(OCH,),HCl
CH3 c1
I I +
Cationic methacrylate CH2=CXOOCH2CH2- N(Me2)CH2CH2CH2Si(OCH&
CH3
I
CH,=C
I
Chrome complex
CH2
I
Titanate (CH2=C-C00)3 TiOCH(CH&
Cross-linker (CH,O), SiCH,CH,Si (OCH,),
Mixed silanes C,H,Si(OCH,), + F
Formulated Melamine resin + C
Table 7.9 Effect of coupling agents on the mechanical strength properties of laminates
Filament diameter does not appear to play The effect of variation in the available sur-
an important role in the determination of the face area for stress transfer is affected by the
mechanical properties of such plied yarn fab- coupling agent-resin interaction. Larger sur-
rics as Style 1581 woven with ECG 150 1/2 face areas with poor coupling agents reduces
(EC 9 33 1 x 2 yarn and style) and Style 1281 specific shear loading on the interface and so
woven with ECB 150 1/2 (EC 3.8 33 1 x 2 produces high laminate flexural strengths. But
yarn). However, in comparison with commer- with improved interfacial bonding the surface
cially available singles yarn Style 7781 woven areas effect disappears because other failure
with ECDE 75 1 / 0 (EC 6.66 1 x 0) yarn, sin- modes appear first. Singles yarns produce
gles yarn Style B 7781 woven with finer higher composite strengths due to the smaller
filaments [ECB 75 1/0 (EC3 8.66 1 x 0 yarn)] angle between fiber axis and load axis in the
gives laminates with higher flexural lower twist yarns. This produces less tensile
strengths, flexural modulus and tensile loading across the interface; the magnitude of
strengths. Conversely a singles yarn G 7681 this effect will vary with the resin coupling
woven with coarser filaments [ECG 75 1/0 agent efficiency and the function of the twist of
(EC9 66 1 x 0 yarn)] gives composites with the yarn or the angle of the spiral of the fila-
improved compressive strengths. ments.
150 Fiberglass reinforcement
Fabric construction
Fabric no. E1581 51581 YM31A"
Count/in (cm) 57 X 54 (22.4 x 21.3) 57 x 54 (22.4 x 21.3) 57 x 54 (22.4 x 21.3)
Warp yarn
Glass system ECG 150 1/2 SCG 150 1/ 2 MCG 150 1 / 2
Tex system EC933 1 x 2 SC933 1 x 2 MC9 33 1 x 2
Filling yarn
Glass system ECG 150 1/2 SCG 150 1/2 MCG 150 1/2
Tex system EC9 33 1 x 2 s c 9 33 1 x 2 MC9 33 1 x 2
Weave Long-shaft satin Long-shaft satin Long-shaft satin
Plied-yarn fabrics
~-
Fabric style 181 1581 1281
Count/in (cm) 57 x 54 (22.4 x 21.3) 57 x 54 (22.4 x 21.3) 57 x 54 (22.4 x 21.3)
Warp yam
Glass system ECE 225 1/3 ECG 150 1/2 ECB 150 l / 2
Tex system EC7 22 1 x 3 EC9 33 1 x 2 EC3.8 33 1 x 2
Filling yarn
Glass system ECE 225 1 / 3 ECG 150 1 / 2 ECB 150 1/2
Tex system EC7 22 1x 3 EC9 33 1 x 2 EC3.8 33 1x 2
Weave Long-shaft satin Long-shaft satin Long-shaft satin
Flexural strength,
psi x lo3 (MPa)
Cond. A 93.0 (641.2) 88.6 (610.9) 92.4 (637.1)
Flexural modulus of elasticity,
psi x 106(GPa)
Cond. A 3.88 (26.8) 3.78 (26.1) 4.06 (28.0)
Compressive strength,
psi x lo3 (MPa)
Cond. A 58.1 (400.6) 64.8 (446.8) 64.9 (447.5)
Tensile strength,
psi x lo3 (MPa)
Cond. A 60.0 (413.7) 60.0 (413.7) 64.8 (446.8)
~.
Singles-yarn fabrics
~ _ _ _ _
Table 7.12 Mechanical properties of S-glass fabrics-epoxy composites as a function of plied compared
with unplied yarn
Plain weave, data from Reference 3 A 5-shaft satin weave version of Style 7781
Crowfoot satin weave, data from Reference 3 li An 8-shaft satin weave
Design considerations 153
and perpendicular to the fibers is quite differ- pattern, weave density and yarn diameters. The
ent. Also, the stress transfer across the material optimum strengths of laminates are obtained
boundaries is greatly affected by the degree of with the lowest practical resin content.
adhesion at the reinforcement-resin interface. With coarse plain weave fabrics using hand
A more subtle effect is the possibility that lay-up, laminates can be produced with resin
wall effects at the surface may alter the matrix contents of 36-38%; with other weaves using
orientation and mechanical properties. less twist in the yarn and optimum yarn spac-
It must also be assumed that there will be ing, excellent physical properties can be
sufficient resin present to fill all of the spaces achieved in the 25% resin content range. Plain
between the fibers. Internal voids have been weave fabrics with higher twist yarn will
shown to produce considerable stress concen- require higher resin contents than low twist
trations resulting in premature mechanical singles fabrics of equivalent weave.
failure of the laminate. Woven fiberglass fabrics In filament winding applications parallel
by virtue of the weave interlocking reduce the strands of fiberglass are wound around a cylin-
effective glass-to-resin ratio below those of fila- drical mandrel, the resulting cross-section of
ment wound structures. The optimum glass to round filaments provides a close packing,
resin ratio then becomes dependent on weave resulting in low resin contents of the final part.
Table 7.14 Laminate mechanical properties as a function of glass-to-resin ratio (Style 181 glass
fabric-epoxy resin composites)
Plies 7 9 11 13 14 16 18 20
~ ~ ~ ___
Resin content, wt.% 55.0 49.2 44.0 35.6 31.2 28.0 22.5 22.2
Thickness, in 0.117 0.126 0.127 0.126 0.125 0.131 0.132 0.147
mm 2.97 3.20 3.23 3.20 3.18 3.33 3.35 3.73
Flexural strength,
Cond. A
psi x103 45.6 58.8 64.8 83.0 81.2 92.1 87.4 91.9
MPa 314.4 405.4 446.8 572.3 559.9 635.0 602.6 633.7
Flexural modulus
of elasticity,
Cond. A
psi x l o h 2.26 2.62 2.92 3.33 3.82 4.04 4.37 4.64
GPa 15.6 18.1 20.1 23.0 26.3 27.9 30.1 32.0
Compressive strength,
Cond. A
psi x lo3 45.2 47.9 44.7 53.2 56.9 52.4 54.3 67.8
MPa 311.7 330.3 308.2 366.8 392.3 361.3 374.4 467.5
Tensile strength,
Cond. A
psi x 103 30.8 35.7 40.5 51.3 53.7 61.0 64.7 65.1
MPa 212.4 246.2 279.2 353.7 370.3 420.6 446.1 448.9
Tensile load/ply,
lb 514 494 468 498 480 500 476 480
N 2286 2197 2082 2215 2135 2224 2117 2135
154 Fiberglass reinforcement
For example, resin contents of 25-30% with right angles to the other half), the resulting
glass fiber content of 70-75% product final mechanical strengths at either angle is less than
composites with high physical strengths. But, if that of the parallel alignment. As the distribu-
there is any variation from the parallel align- tion of strands varies between 0" to 90"
ment of the glass fibers, this will reduce the alignment to a +45" to a 45", this further
degree of packing and inevitably the optimum reduces mechanical strength in the primary
glass-to-resin ratio. The weaving of glass fab- direction, but shows an increase in the +45"and
rics will of course reduce the effective 4 5 " directions. Of course the yarn distribution
glass-to-resin ratios because of the weave inter- can be varied from 0" and 90" directions as part
locking. The correlation between glass-to-resin of the fabric design. A so called %balanced' fab-
ratios and composite strength is well known, ric, that is one with equal yarn distribution in
the composite's strength increases as resin con- the warp and filling directions, will have com-
tents are reduced (see Table 7.14 and Fig. 7.4). parable composite properties in both directions.
When fiberglass yarn is woven with yarn
primarily in the warp direction with only the
7.7.5 FIBER DISTRIBUTION
minimum amount of filling yarn (enough to
Reinforced composites that have the glass give the fabric stability), the result is a unidi-
strands aligned parallel to each other have rectional fabric. Composites reinforced with
their maximum strength and stiffness in the this type of fabric have the maximum mechan-
direction of the alignment. This type of paral- ical strength in the direction of the greatest
lel alignment is conducive to certain filament concentration of yarn5.
winding and pultrusion operations. The differences between the mechanical
When the reinforcement is aligned at right properties, bidirectional and unidirectional
angles to itself (half of the strands are laid at reinforced composites, can be seen in Table 7.15.
Table 7.16 Mechanical properties of polyester lam- Fiberglass remforcement aligned in a ran-
inate reinforced with chopped strand mat dom manner within the polymer matrix (e.g.
chopped strand mat) produces composites with
Resin content, wt.'%, 69.8 fairly uniform mechanical strengths in all direc-
Thickness, in (mm) 0.238 (6.05) tions. However, this also tends to produce
Flexural strength, psi (MPa)
composites that have relatively low physical
Cond. A 26 400 (182.0) properties in all directions (Table 7.16).
Cond. D2/100 30 400 (209.6)
Flexural modulus of elasticity, REFERENCES
psi (GPa)
1. Pitt, C.F. and Harvey J. 20th Anniversary
Cond. A 0.99 x lob (6.83)
Technical Conference, SPI Reinforced Plastics
Cond. D2/100 0.94 x lo6 (6.48)
Division, 1965, Section 9-C.
Compressive strength, psi (MPa) 2. Knox, C.E. Non-Metallic Materials (SAMPE) 4,
Cond. A 27 600 (190.3) 127 1972.
Cond. D2/100 23 200 (160.0) 3. Horton, R.C. and Adams, R.G. 21st Annual
Conference, SPI Reinforced Plastics Division,
Tensile strength, psi (MPa) 1966, Section 10-A.
Cond. A 14 100 (97.2) 4. Knox, C.E. New Horizons in Materials and
Cond. D2/100 13 800 (95.1) Processing (SAMPE) 18, 527 1973.
5. Peterson, G.P. Properties of High Modulus
Reinforced Plastics, S.P.E.J., 57, 1961 January.