FRQ’s CH 11, 44, 45

FRQ #1 (CH 11) Cell Communication

Signal Transduction Pathways

Evolutionary Significance
In cells, once the factors are released, bound, grow towards each
other and fuse, they go through a series of steps called the signal-transduction pathway.
In these steps, the molecular details of these pathways are very similar in yeast and
animal cells, even though their common ancestor lived more than a billion years ago.
These similarities suggest that ancestral signaling molecules
evolved long ago in prokaryotes and have since been adopted for new uses by single-
celled eukaryotes and multicellular descendants.

Overview (receptor protein-relay molecules-response)

Act like dominoes
The signal-activated receptor activates another protein, which
activates another, and so on, until the protein that produces the final cellular response is
activated.
Relay molecules are the molecules that relay a signal from receptor
to response.
Not all components are protein, many involve second messengers
such as cAMP and calcium ions with can spread by diffusion.
However the original signal is not physically passed down,
instead certain info is passed down.
At each step the signal is transduced into a different form very often
brought upon by phosphorylation, which activates a protein by adding one or more
phosphate groups

G-Protein linked receptors (when signals are water soluble and too large
to pass through membrane they bind to one of these three receptor proteins)
Receptor protein with a G-protein on the cytoplasmic side
7 alpha helices
Acts as an on off switch
GDP binds to G-protein (inactive)
When specific signal molecule binds to receptor, the G protein binds
GTP(instead of GDP) and becomes active
It dissociates and diffuses along membrane, where it binds to an
enzyme. (triggering the next step)

It can also act as GTPase enzyme

converts GTP to GDP and thus inactivates so the enzyme returns to
its original state.
 Tyrosine Kinase
Contains: binding site, alpha helix along membrane, intracellular tail
with tyrosines.
Ligands bind and cause a dimer
Dimerization activates tyrosine kinase receptors
adding phosphate from ATP to a tyrosine tail of the other
polypeptide
The fully activated receptor proteins activate various but specific
relay proteins which bind to other specific phosphorylated tyrosine.

Ion Channels
Acts as a gate when the receptor changes shape.
Signal molecule binds as a ligand to the receptor protein
Gate opens to allow ions such as Na or Ca2 through channel
Binding of the ligand changes the protein’s shape and opens
channel
When ligand dissociates from the receptor protein the channel
closes
The change in ion concentration within the cell may directly affect
the activity of the cell
Some gated ion channels respond to electrical signals instead.

Cholera
Bacterium Vibrio cholera may be present in polluted water.
Colonizes small intestine and modifies G protein that regulates salt
and water secretion.
Modified protein is unable to hydrolyze GTP to GDP and remains
stuck in active form
Continuously producing adenyl cyclase to make cAMP
High concentrations of cAMP causes the cells to secrete large
amounts of water and salts, leading to profuse diarrhea and eventually death by
dehydration.

FRQ #2 (CH 44-45) Negative feedback loop

Why we have them?

It prevents overreaction by the system and wild fluctuations in the variable
being regulated.
Very involved in maintaining homeostasis

Overview
 Basically a change in the variable being monitored triggers the control
mechanism to counteract further change in the same direction.
Therefore the variable might drift slightly above and below the set
point but only moderately.
Plays a major role in homeostasis because it prevents wild fluctuations in
the body,
Operates in many endocrine and nervous pathways

Osmolarity of Blood
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which promotes retention of water by the
kidneys, decreasing urine volume helps to regulate osmolarity of the blood via negative
feedback loop.
The secretion is regulated based on water and salt balances which are
regulated by the negative feedback loop.
Secretion is done by the pituitary gland
Involves complex neuroendocrine pathways with 2 negative feedback
loops.

Calcium levels
Ca level falls substantially, skeletal muscles contract convulsively.
PTH is released( raising level of Ca by direct and indirect)
Bone, PTH induces specialized cells, osteoplasts, to decompose
mineralized matrix of bone and release Ca
Kidneys directly stimulates reabsorbtion of Ca
Indirectly effects the conversion of vitamin D to its active
form which stimulates the uptake of Ca
Ca level rises above set point
Releases calcitonin
Lowers Ca levels
Hormone secreting cells monitor variables being regulated through the
negative feedback loop.

Glucose levels (antagonistic hormones)

Maintaining blood glucose near a set point of about 90mg/100mL in huma
When blood glucose exceeds, insulin is released and lowers glucose
When blood glucose falls, glucagon is released, increasing glucose
Both operate in a simple endocrine pathway regulated by negative
feedback

Body Temperature
When the body temperature is to high the thyroid gland decreases the
amount of T3 and T4 being secreted
 When the body temperature is to low, the thyroid gland increases the
amount of T3 and T4 being secreted.