(a) Briefly explain the importance of the disease caused by Phytophthora spp.

worldwide and
describe its infection cycle. (b) Discuss the potential impact of the disease and the factors
influencing its’ spread in New Zealand. (c) Review the methods that might be employed to
control or eliminate the disease.

The consequences of Phytophthora spp. disease on New Zealand native

forest systems: an exploration of global and local impacts, spread dynamics,
control and elimination

Introduction

The genus Phytophthora contains a diverse group of Oomycetes with plant pathogenic

properties, which may reproduce asexually or sexually, and can overwinter by feeding

saprophytically on dead plant matter. Though the host range for each individual Phytophthora

species is fairly narrow, the diversity of the genus means that many different plant species are

susceptible, including many economically important food or production crops around the world. The

diversity of symptoms has serious implications for control efforts, as it is often difficult to diagnose

the presence of the Phytophthora pathogen based on the symptoms, as these may be indicative of

other pathogens or mineral toxicity, which makes it difficult to estimate the size of infected areas. In

New Zealand, Phytophthora is a notable pathogen in native forest, including South Island

Nothofagus forests, and has a significant impact on many endemic tree species, causing diebacks

which could have negative consequences for both conservation and reforestation efforts, as well as

economic impacts on our tourism, timber and farming industries.

Pathogenicity of the Phytophthora genus

Oomycetes is a class of Eukaryota which contains some of the most arrant pathogens of plants,

including the genus Phytophthora, which accommodates many species of plant pathogen. Symptoms

are varied, but may include root rot, blackening of root apical meristems, root galls, leaf wilting,

bleeding stem galls, and crown galls. Since the genus Phytophthora comprehends so many different
species, the variety of plants which are susceptible to the diseases caused by Phytophthora is also

quite diverse. Amongst the most susceptible are members of the Ericaceae family, some perennials,

such as S. tuberosum, and in New Zealand native forest, seedlings of Nothofagus species which do

not posses strong mycorrhizal associations, and Agathis australis.

Infection cycle

As mentioned earlier, Phytophthora species can be difficult to detect as a plant pathogen, which

is both due to the variety of symptoms that may (or may not) manifest, and to the infection cycle of

members of the Phytophthora genus, which in some cases requires specialized detection methods.

During winter, or unfavourable conditions, Phytophthora exists in its dormant form,

chlamydospores, which are much hardier than the mycelia and sporangia that develop once the

chlamydospores germinate. Once the sporangia are fully developed, they release zoospores, which

are motile in water. These disperse and infect the root of the target species just behind the root tip.

Further hyphae, which develop into mycelia, grow in the root and absorb nutrients. This rots the

root, rendering it useless to the plant, which can no longer absorb water or pabulum from the soil.

Global impacts of disease caused by members of the Phytophthora genus

Globally, the genus Phytophthora causes enormous damage, both ecologically and

economically. In Europe, Phytophthora is associated with diebacks, increased crown transparency

and mortality rates of up to 5 trees per hectare in Bavarian oaks. Corks were found to be significantly

affected by rapid decline caused by Phytophthora in Spain, Portugal and Iberia, which would be

associated with economic hardships relating to loss of raw materials. In the United States, California

and Oregon were faced with significant oak diebacks, while the Irish potato famine of 1845, caused

by late potato blight, a disease caused by the Phytophthora organism is another example of

significant economic damage caused by this member of the class Oomycetes.

Potential impact of disease caused by Phytophthora spp. in NZ: impairment of endemic species

through disease activity

In New Zealand, the potential for devastation is increased by the large number of endemic tree

species. Many New Zealand native species face the problem of having evolved in isolation and

relative safety, and without the selection pressures required to force adaptations to pathogens,

these adaptations do not exist, which in some cases leaves our endemic species vulnerable to

diebacks, crown thinning, water and nutrient stress, and eventually mortality. One species which is

particularly susceptible is Agathis australis, the New Zealand Kauri. Phytophthora taxon Agathis is

thought to be a non-native pathogen, which can cause crown transparency, yellowing leaves, collar

rot, bleeding lesions on the bark and death of the tree.

Potential impacts of disease caused by Phytophthora spp. in NZ: economic losses

Economic losses may also be incurred from the presence of the various Phytophthora species in

New Zealand. The economy currently relies heavily on exports of our farmed produce; in 2005

export earnings of fresh New Zealand potatoes to the Philippines alone was $100,000 and by 2009,

this figure was closer to 1 million. Late potato blight, caused by a species of Phytophthora, has the

potential to impact heavily on these figures and reduce the income of the country as a whole,

especially when other relevant export crops are taken into account. Another aspect of our export

industry is prestige boutique wines. Vineyards are fairly susceptible to the spread of Phytophthora as

V. vinifera is often planted in rows with roots or leaves overlapping to maximize space. With the

wine export industry in New Zealand being worth just over 1 billion, a situation like that which

occurred in South Africa, with Phytophthora cinamomi becoming one of the major causes of root rot

in commercially grown grapes, could have a devastating impact on the already fragile economy. This

could lead to serious implications for our budget and subsequent Government spending.
Phytophthora disease spread dynamics

Phytophthora species spread best in warm, wet conditions, where the soil is disturbed

frequently and is heavier, with inadequate drainage. Human and animal activity may also contribute

to the spread of this oomycete. Tourism in New Zealand is a significant risk factor, as visitors may not

realise the importance of sterilising camping gear and foot wear when moving to a new area.

Phytophthora is able to travel through the water in the soil, dispersing to new uninfected root stock.

This means it frequently travels downhill, as it goes with the water to low lying areas.

Chemical controls

Methods of chemical Phytophthora control currently center around . Pinus radiata grown in

nurseries without micorrhizal association are treated chemically with phenylamides including

metalaxyl and metalaxyl-M to control Phytophthora cactorum and Phytophthora cinnamomi

infestations and the associated root rots caused by these. Application of phosphonate has also

proven to be effective as it can activate natural host resistances while simultaneously acting against

the disease causing agent. These are just a few examples of some chemical controls which have

been used with success, of which there are many more, with the probability of more being

discovered in the future. With chemical controls of Phytophthora spp., the drawback is that natural

and beneficial mycorrhizal associations between plants and fungi may be disrupted. While these

methods are very effective at controlling Phytophthora in the nurseries where they have so far been

implemented, the similarity of the Phytophthora genus’ physiology with the true fungi means that

many non-targeted species will also be affected by these chemical control methods if they were

used in a natural setting.

Physical controls

New Zealand Regional Councils are currently recommending

Methods of elimination

Conclusion – reiteration of points covered with link back to NZ importance.