The Earth, It’s Crust, and Mining

Induced Crustal Instability

Matthew Handley
19th ISSI Seminar
Stellenbosch, 4 May 2009

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 Introduction
• In modelling to test rockmass stability, we try to
emulate reality as accurately as possible without
compromising results and insights with model
complexity
• Stability = f(load, strength)
• The most neglected input is the virgin stress
tensor, which affects the final load to which the
structure is subjected
• Structural strength is also poorly known
• This presentation focuses on the Virgin Stress
Tensor

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 Model Inputs and Results for
Stability
Stress tensor input and output in modelling:
⎡v ⎤ ⎡m ⎤ ⎡t
τ 13 ⎤⎥
v v m m t t

⎢τ 11 τ 12 τ 13 ⎥ ⎢τ 11 τ 12 τ 13 ⎥ ⎢τ 11 τ 12
2, Y or W
⎢v v v ⎥ ⎢m m m ⎥ ⎢t t t ⎥
⎢τ 21 τ 22 τ 23 ⎥ + ⎢τ 21 τ 22 τ 23 ⎥ = ⎢τ 21 τ 22 τ 23 ⎥
⎢v v v ⎥ ⎢m m m ⎥ ⎢t t t ⎥
⎢τ 31 τ 32 τ 33 ⎥ ⎢τ 31 τ 32 τ 33 ⎥ ⎢τ 31 τ 32 τ 33 ⎥ 1, X, or S 3, Z, or V
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ Typical
Coordinate System,
which must be defined
Input virgin Mining induced Total stress along with the stress
stress model stress tensor – stress tensor – tensor components
(usually as accurate and inaccurate from
inaccurate) precise as input
modeller desires

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 Estimating in-situ Stresses
• For a rockmass in static equilibrium, the stress tensor in
three dimensions has six independent components, all of
which must be estimated at each point of interest;
• The vertical component is the easiest to estimate
because it has to be exactly equal to the overburden
weight divided by a unit horizontal area;
• The vertical component is given by σ zz = ρgz
• If the vertical component is not exactly equal to the
overburden weight, its average over a given area must
be exactly equal, otherwise the earth’s crust will be
moving either up or down.

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 Estimating in-situ Stresses
• All the remaining components need not be
dependent on depth, and generally their values
and directions will be determined by the
geological history of the rock mass;
• There are three very simple models based on
physical processes used to estimate the normal
horizontal components;
• The simplest model for estimating shear
component maxima is the Mohr-Coulomb Slip
Criterion, most relevant near rockmass
discontinuities, but also applicable in solid rock.

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 Simple Physical Model No. 1:
Heim’s Rule
• Every rockmass, if left undisturbed, will slowly tend
towards a lithostatic stress state over geological time by
creep processes (this includes brittle rocks);
• Halite and potash mines show this phenomenon best;
• The full stress tensor is therefore given by:
σ xx = σ yy = σ zz = ρgz , σ xy = σ yz = σ zx = 0
This means that if the first stress invariant I1, given by
I1 = σ xx + σ yy + σ zz ≠ 3ρgz ,
then the rockmass has experienced tectonic disturbances
within its rheological relaxation time.

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 Simple Physical Model No. 2:
Rigid confinement
• During deposition and burial of a sediment it is assumed that
the material has a well defined Poisson’s Ratio, which
remains unchanged from deposition through to the end of the
lithification stage, and then remaining constant thereafter;
• Lateral confinement of every particle in the sediment then
results in the development of a horizontal stress whose
magnitude is determined by the depth of burial and the
Poisson Effect;
• This model assumes that there are no active geological
processes in progress during or after sedimentation, and that
the resulting sedimentary rock preserves the deviatoric
stresses produced during sedimentation;
• The stress tensor is given by:
ν
σ xx = σ yy = σ zz , σ zz = ρgz , σ xy = σ yz = σ zx = 0
1 −ν
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 Simple Physical Model No. 3: Denudation
Model (after Gay, 1975 and Voight, 1966)
• The rockmass is buried at a certain depth at which the
stress state is determined by crustal conditions at the
time of burial;
• Subsequent erosion of the rocks overlying the rockmass
result in a relaxation of the vertical stress component
proportional to the thickness of the overlying strata
removed;
• A similar reduction, also linearly related to the thickness
of overlying strata removed, is manifest in the horizontal
stress components, but this reduction does not take
place at the same rate as the vertical stress reduction;
• Non-zero horizontal stresses can exist at surface,
whereas this is not possible for the vertical stress
component.

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Simple Physical Model No. 3: Denudation Model
(after Gay, 1975 and Voight, 1966), contd.
• The equations for the erosion model are given
below (after Voight, 1966 and Gay, 1975):
σ xx = σ yy = σ h = σ hd + a(0.027)( z − d )
σ zz = σ v = σ vd + (0.027)( z − d )
σ h σ hd + a (0.027)( z − d )
k= =
σ v σ vd + (0.027)( z − d )
σ xy = σ yz = σ zx = 0
d is a specified depth, say 4000 m where σhd and σvd
are defined, while 0 ≤ a ≤ 1
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 Simple Hard Rock Tabular Mine
Model
• Maximum principal stress vertical, and defined
by:
σ 1 = ρ gz
• Minimum principal stresses horizontal and
equal, and given by:
σ 2 = σ 3 = kσ 1 , k = 0.4 − 0.8

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Comparison of Models with Measurements –
preamble to Graphic Comparisons
• In an attempt to obtain consistent stress data from 526
crustal stress measurement records made in Southern
Africa, collected into a database, and reported by Stacey
and Wesseloo (1998), the following was done:
– 332 records deleted because full stress tensor not
reported (results from hydrofracture, earthquakes, etc.)
– From remaining 294 records further 17 deleted because
of non-orthogonality of principal stress components (2°
criterion applied)
– A further 110 records eliminated because the third stress
invariant IIII for the principal stresses and the standard
stress components >5% different
– Finally, 132 records excluded because σob greater than
10% different than τ33
• The 35 remaining records used as a comparison with the
models
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 Stress (MPa)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0

Measured vertical stress τ33

500
Theoretical overburden stress σob

1000
Depth (m)

1500

2000

2500

3000
(after Stacey and Wesseloo, 1998)
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 Stress (MPa)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0

500

1000
Depth (m)

Measured vertical stress τ33

1500
Measured N-S horizontal stress τ11

Measured E-W horizontal stress τ22

2000

2500

3000
(after Stacey and Wesseloo, 1998)
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 Omni-directional k-Ratio
0 1 2 3 4 5
0

500

1000
Depth (m)

1500

k-Ratio σ1h/τ33
2000
k-Ratio σ2h/τ33
2500

3000
(after Stacey and Wesseloo, 1998)
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 Stress Map of Southern Africa –
Maximum Horizontal Stress
(after Stacey and Wesseloo, 1998)

Inset:
Wegener Anomaly,
after Bird et al. (2006)

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 Comparison between Virgin Stress Models
and Measured Data
0
500
1000
Heim’s Rule Rigid Confinement
1500
2000
2500
3000
Depth (m)

3500
0
500
1000
Denudation Hard Rock Tabular Mine
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Stress (MPa) Hands On Mining
Variation of maximum principal stress both
within and between grains

15 mm

after Handley, (1995) Hands On Mining

 Proposed New Models from
Geological Events
• The data plotted earlier is regional, both at large and
small scales
• Individual mines may exhibit local stress conditions that
are represented by one or another of the simple models
• Crustal stresses are varied from small to large scales,
and also in geological time
• Geological processes and events may make overriding
imprints on the stress state in rockmasses, but only
locally and temporarily
• Variation in rheological rock properties may sustain
deviatoric stresses in time spans from thousands of
years (halite, potash) to many hundreds of millions of
years (quartzites, andesitic lavas)

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Four Geological Process Models
for Horizontal Stress Estimation
• Thrusting, folding (Hoek-Brown)
• Normal faulting, igneous intrusions (Hoek-
Brown)
• Denudation (Voight, Gay)
• Sedimentation with basin subsidence

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Planet Earth

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La 10° S

Southern Africa

La 20° S

La 27° S La27° South Section Line

La 27° S

La 30° S

Lo 10° E Lo 20° E Lo 30° E Lo 40° E Hands On Mining

 Cross-section through Earth at Latitude 27° South

21 23 25 27
19 29
17 31
15 33
t 13 35 East
Wes
11 37
09 39
Elizabeth Bay Vredefort Kosi Bay
Astrobleme

+100 km
ntal crust
a 27°S contine Witwatersrand Basin
Africa – L Lithosphere
+1 0 0
km km
+1 0 0
MS L Asthenosphere MS L

km -1 0 0
-100 km

km -2 0 0
-200 km

km -3 0 0
-300 km

Mantle

Crustal Thicknesses after Mooney et al., (1998) Hands On Mining

 Hoek-Brown Limits to Crustal Stress
(m = 12, s = 1, σc= 60 MPa, σt= 0 everywhere, and at all times
Stress (MPa)
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
0

10000

20000
Depth (m)

30000
No

Th
ru
rm

st
f
al

au
lt
fau

40000 ing
σ ,
ltin

m
=σ
σh

ou
σv
σv

h
g,

nt
=
=
= σ3

ain
d

1
yke

σ3
σ1

bu
50000 ild
int

ing
rus
ion
s

60000

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 Detail of maximum permissible stresses using
Hoek-Brown Criterion
m = 12, s = 1, σc= 60 MPa, σt= 0 everywhere, and at all times
Stress (MPa)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
0

500

1000
Depth (m)

σ
σh = σ3

σv =
σv =

1500 h =
σ
1
σ3
σ1

2000

2500

3000
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 Basin Subsidence
y

yc r yr
θr

Karoo Supergroup Subsidence and the effect it had on horizontal stresses

E (Pa) = 40000000000 Loading Constant 1.00E+04
Poisson's Ratio: 0.3 Thickness (m) = 60000
a (m) = 1400000
Plate constant D: 7.91209E+23
Max Deflection yc (m): -3092.954861
Max Moment Mc (Nm) = 4.0425E+15
Max Stress σc (MPa) = 6.7375
13.475
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 Intrusion after Subsidence – sill and dyke
Stress (MPa)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
0

x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x
500 x x

1000 x
before intrusion
σh in country rock

1500 σ x

be v in
Depth (m)

fo co x

2000 re un x
in try
tru r σ
sio oc x
co h and
2500 n k x
un σ
try v in
x
roc dy
k a ke
x
3000
fte and
x
x r in σ
tru h in
3500 x
sio
x n
x
4000
x Hands On Mining
x
 Conclusions
• Stress data is variable at all scales, from granular scales
(of the order of 1 mm, to continental scales (1600 km)
• Not one simple model produces any resemblance to
measured data distributions
• Mining operations need to make regular in situ stress
measurements across the mining lease as well as at all
mining depths in order to draw any inferences about the
state of virgin stress at the mine
• All known stress measurement techniques are too
expensive to gain widespread application, and a new
invention is necessary to make stress measurement
cheaper and more practical

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 References
Annhaeusser C and Maske S (Eds.) (1986): Mineral Deposits of Southern Africa, Vols I and II. The Geological Society
of South Africa, Johannesburg, 2376p.

Billington EW and Tate A (1981): The Physics of Deformation and Flow. New York: McGraw-Hill International Book
Company, 626p.

Bird P, Ben-Avraham Z, Schubert G, Andreoli M and Viola G (2006): Patterns of stress and strain rate in Southern
Africa. Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 111, B08402, doi:10.1029/2005JB003882, 2006.

Gay NC (1975): In situ stress measurements in Southern Africa. Tectonophysis, Vol 29, pp. 447-459.

Moony WD, Laske G and Masters TG (1998): CRUST 5.1: A global crustal model at 5x5 degrees. Journal of
Geophysical Research, Vol 103 B1, pp 722-747.

Roark RJ and Young WC (1975): Formulas for Stress and Strain. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 624 p.

Stacey TR and Wesseloo J (1998): Evaluation and Upgrading of Records of Stress Measurement Data in the Mining
Industry. SIMRAC Project GAP511b, Department of Minerals and Energy, Johannesburg, June 1998.

Voight B (1966): Beziehung zwischen grossen horizontalen spannungen im gebirge und der tektonik und der
abtragung. 1st Congress of the International Society of Rock Mechanics, Lisbon, 1966, Vol 2., pp.51-56.

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