Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Series Editor
Dominique Placko
First published in Great Britain and the United States in 2006 by ISTE Ltd
Translated into English by Jean Barbier
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or
review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may
only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior
permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in
accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction
outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
The rights of the French College of Metrology to be identified as the authors of this work has
been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
____________________________________________________________________
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Metrology in industry : the key for quality / edited by French College of Metrology.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-905209-51-4
1. Quality control. 2. Metrology. I. Collège français de métrologie.
TS156.M485 2006
620'.0045--dc22
2006003530
Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire.
Table of Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Chapter 11. Metrology within the Scope of the ISO 9001 Standard . . . . . 233
Philippe LANNEAU and Patrick REPOSEUR
11.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
11.2. Introduction to the evolution of the standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
11.2.1. The concept of continuous improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
11.2.2. The process approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
11.3. Measurement control process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
11.4. The ISO 9001 (2000) standard step-by-step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
11.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
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Preface
For this reason I welcome this book. It gives a clear outline of the basic ideas of
metrology, why we need it and how, in an enterprise it can be practiced. I wish it
every success.
T.J. Quinn,
Director of BIPM
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Foreword
You cannot achieve such an end if you do not have firm control over the
processes of measurement, analysis and testing. Nowadays, however, the measuring
techniques, the normative and statutory requirements, the methods of measurement
uncertainty assessment or those to secure the traceability of measurements are all
complex and it is more necessary than ever to integrate them into a network of
competent bodies so as to exchange experience and information. It is on this
fundamental principle that the Metrology College was created in 1986, which
became the French College of Metrology in 2002. The purpose of this association is
obviously much wider:
– to identify which firms and organisms’ needs are to be met from the angle of
metrology;
– to spread metrological culture and knowledge through the industrial, scientific
and economic fabric;
– to be a form of exchange between people involved in metrology;
– to contribute to make the collective national and regional actions coherent in
this sphere;
– to perform any action likely to contribute to the development and promotion of
metrology.
industrial concerns and consulting firms) and from different nationalities make up
this working party. This broad range of authors gives the book a pragmatic
characteristic and enables it to answer the questions and concerns of organizations,
whether they be principals, small or medium firms, laboratories, etc.
Whether you are involved in your firm’s metrology function, or are simply
interested in a concrete matter of measurement, analysis or testing, I am confident
you will find here some clues which will help you progress and improve your
processes.
The growing interest you have shown in this book has encouraged us in our
intention of producing this English version. It is my sincere wish that whatever your
need and country may be, you can get as much out of it as our French colleagues do.
P. LEBLOIS,
President of the French College of Metrology
Chapter 1
And then, is it not normal to start wondering what one really needs?
Experience has taught us, too often alas, that this is not a natural process. Many
industrial difficulties, or many costs, grow out of the inadequacy “means of
measurement/real need”.
1.1. Introduction
Does someone want to manage metrology on his or her own, with the help of a
someone else, or to handle it to a subcontractor?
– The material needs for the realization of the measurements. In order to realize
measurements correctly, it is necessary to have appropriate means; these means are
found after analysis of the objectives and the possibilities of the instruments and the
connection. In order to define the firm’s needs, it is necessary to answer the
following questions:
1. What are my industrial needs?
– What do I have to measure and what accuracy shall I expect?
2. How can I meet my needs?
– What are the possible measuring methods?
– Which method and principle will be used?
3. Which measuring instruments can be used?
– Which instrument shall I use?
– Can the selected instrument ensure the required accuracy?
4. How is to be used the selected instrument?
– What assembly is to be set up and what procedure is to be followed?
– What technical competence do you have to have to use it?
The preliminary analysis of the needs will produce a first set of specifications.
There is a good chance that these analysis are going to be a bit theoretical and take
little heed of the notions of profitability. You have to accept the principle which
says that the specifications will evolve and obtain agreement from the major actors
taking part in the drafting of the specifications.
For a new measuring instrument, all the stages from conception to utilization
must be taken into account by the specifications. This is fundamentally the concern
Analysis of the Metrological Requirements Needed to Ensure Quality 21
of the manufacturers, but potential users may sometimes take part in the elaboration
of the specifications.
The specifications for a new measuring laboratory must ignore all of the
environmental characteristics of the measurement (see Chapter 8), and take into
consideration the problems of maintainability (for instance, the maintenance of air
conditioning), of access to the personnel, of user-friendliness, etc.
However big or small the problem is, one must always begin by analyzing one’s
real meterological need.
This process makes it possible to identify and quantify the means (personnel and
material) to be implemented to take the intended measurements.
It is during these phases that the “tools of quality” will be used. Let us point out
that the analysis of the value (fundamental at the outset) is among the most useful
tools. In order to clearly define the objective, we strongly recommend to use
“brainstorming”, cause/effect diagrams, Pareto, etc., which make analysis and
collective participation easier.
The first thing to do regarding the analysis of the supply of material is to work
out:
– the list of physical quantities (e.g. temperature, length, electric resistance, etc.);
– the ranges which need to be covered for each physical quantity (e.g. length
from 0.1 mm to 1,000 mm);
– the permissible uncertainty for each quantity and each range (the uncertainty in
the 0.1 mm to 0.5 mm range will be different from the one which is expected
between 100 mm and 1,000 mm).
Then, for each separate case, it will be necessary to consider and define:
– the analysis of the needs and the choice of the means of measurement;
– the acquisition, the reception and the implementation of these means;
– the traceability of the material of measurement (in the case where materials of
measurement are assigned);
– the traceability of the measurements (which material do they come from?);
– the calibration or the verification of the means and the decisions they entail;
– the exploitation of the calibration results;
– the operations related to the moving of these means (protection, authorization,
etc.);
– the updating of the inventory of these means.
The outcome of this is that the intended objectives must not be mixed up to satisfy:
– the needs for the management of metrology with;
– the needs for the realization of the measurements.
This choice must take possible restraints of qualification into consideration. The
fact is that within the scope of some contracts (notably related to safety, public
security, health, etc.) you may have to qualify the method of measurement. This
means it must be subjected to an authenticated description, officially certified tests,
etc., in accordance with the relevant program and by a very precise process.
Besides, the ISO/QS 9000 or TS 16 949 certification process also involves a
description of the selected method.
Analysis of the Metrological Requirements Needed to Ensure Quality 23
Fortunately, it is often possible to hang on to the methods which are known and
officially accepted. You must not forget that the great metrology laboratories can be
a great help in this area. In France, for example, these are the laboratories of the
LNE (Laboratoire National de Métrologie et d’Essais), and in Germany, those of the
PTB (Physikalisch-Technische-Bundesanstalt), or calibration laboratories accredited
by the DKD (Deutscher Kalibrierdienst).
One of the very first principles of quality assurance is to write down what is
being done. This process is simple and allows people to think further about the
choice of the method. There must be a clear distinction between chosing a method
and chosing a measuring instrument. For example, you may want to measure a
dimension on a rubber part: you happen to be close to a three-dimensional
measuring machine and your instant reaction may be to go to this machine without
thinking whether there may be a more suitable method than this one.
Our advice is to keep only the two (maybe three) most important criteria in mind
and to draw a table. Let us consider the example of Table 1.1. It makes it possible to
analyze the different methods of measurement that lead to the assessment of the
characteristics of industrial robots.
As a rule, there are in metrology three great principles of measurement; the three
of them have advantages and drawbacks. They are:
– differential measurement;
– direct measurement;
– indirect measurement.
1.4.1. Introduction
The choice of the material and/or the equipment must be based on specifications.
To make this choice, you must take into consideration:
– the technical needs;
– the possibilities of calibration;
– the assessments already made;
– the economic conditions (last, for the technical specifications have to be
seen first).
Analysis of the Metrological Requirements Needed to Ensure Quality 25
Moreover, the choice of an instrument depends on its type of use. Four types of
utilization can be distinguished:
– for a study (you must look for an instrument that can evolve);
– for a site (robustness ought to be favored);
– in manufacturing (the “cost” factor will probably prevail);
– for a laboratory (your preference will go to a very reliable, strong and proven
instrument).
The first thing to do will be to see if there is not already in the firm some
available material which can meet your needs. This requires:
– good communication between the various parties concerned with the
measurements; and
– a good knowledge of the material available.
The latter point is all the more important when there is a risk of technological
obsolescence (using a state-of-the-art instrument to its maximum capacity justifies
its acquisition and it makes it easier to get new ones), or when the material is very
expensive (when you increase the duration of its productive use, you make its
amortization easier).
26 Metrology in Industry
The companies which take the trouble to check all the electric and electronic
material they buy admit that a far from negligible proportion of the instruments
delivered is partly defective or does not comply with tolerances on delivery. A few
years ago a survey showed that the percentage of rejected instruments could reach
50%. This is partly explained by the fact that the stated characteristics are obtained
by the manufacturers, in a laboratory and in ideal conditions of use; and this
situation is very remote from the user’s reality. Tests of assessment preliminary to
purchase would be greatly recommended. However, in frequent cases, the
instruments that can perform the same function are many in number, the parameters
of each of them are numerous and, consequently, the tests are long and expensive.
So, before launching into testing, any person who is interested in purchasing an
instrument is entitled to ask the salesman the following questions:
– Have any tests been done? If the answer is yes, when? Where? By whom? In
which domain? Is a report of the tests available?
– How long has the instrument been manufactured? How many copies of it have
been produced?
– Has stopping its production been considered?
– Who has bought it? Is it possible to consult users?
Once you have got this information, and if tests seem necessary, you have to
choose between doing them yourself or subcontracting them to a better-equipped
organization whose results cannot be questioned. A distinction must be made
between learning about a instrument which is presented by a salesman and having
its characteristics verified by a specialized laboratory.
seems to be of paramount importance that the team responsible for maintaining the
instruments, as well as the users, should be involved in choosing the instruments
they need for their activities. In essence there are three reasons for this:
– Because of their experience, the user and the maintenance team know the little
details, which make all the difference (and those which mostly “hinder” the smooth
progress of their work).
– They get used more easily to equipment they have helped to choose (working
and utilizing conditions are improved: that is what is called communicating without
demagogy!).
– They are not so easily influenced by attractive advertising, or by purely
economic criteria, which makes the overall analysis more objective.
So, economic conditions and assessments generally being what they are, we find
ourselves left with technical criteria. The following are those that seem to be the
most important.
The most accurate metrological instruments are expensive and, as such, you
have to be able to use them for a sufficient length of time. So, you should prefer the
makes with good durability; higher investments having sometimes to be considered.
You have to estimate how much longer the instrument will be manufactured or
maintained. In addition, is this instrument “open” to future evolution? Is there any
assurance that it will be compatible with the next generation of equipment?
Placing an order with a instrument dealer may, sometimes, save time, but there is
actually nothing that can replace communication with the manufacturer. As a matter
of fact, there are few dealers who have a good knowledge of the instrument they
sell, or who attend to the training of the users. It is very often difficult to go beyond
the stage of purely commercial advertising.
rubidium clock, from which a 10MHz signal is drawn and distributed in the firm in
order to synchronize frequency meters and synthesizers.
1.4.4.9. Ergonomics
Several types of instruments can be selected for a specific measurement.
However, some will turn out to be less “handy” to implement. The ergonomic aspect
of the utilization must not be forgotten: ease of handling, utilization by a left-handed
person, integration into the work surface, bulk and weight, etc.
Choosing too effective a means would result in a superquality which would lead
to too high a price. On the other hand, a lack of effectiveness would bring about an
unacceptable percentage of defective parts being manufactured. Who amongst us
has not had to struggle with too strict intervals of tolerance, which are hard to
comply with in manufacture, and also in measurement? What is the good of striving
to get a result to the hundredth of a unit (0.01 volt for example) when the dispersion
of a series of measurements is already equal to one tenth of this unit? You need to
take into consideration the limits (and the cost) of the measuring instruments to be
used to check the technical specifications (intervals of tolerance) when you choose
the instruments.
For reasons that are the very bases of the metrological function, it is necessary to
practice metrology with well-known measuring equipment. It is possible to reckon
Analysis of the Metrological Requirements Needed to Ensure Quality 31
how much a measurement costs, but this does not mean anything unless all the
parameters of the cost are taken into account:
– the purchase price of the material and its resale price after it has been used a
certain number of years;
– the costs of operation (expenses for operating the material, usually the lowest
cost), electric power, recording paper, accessories;
– the cost of maintenance (including calibration, and preventive and corrective
maintenance);
– the cost of lack of availability: will a replacement material be needed while it
is being maintained? Will there be any financial consequence?
The various people who are concerned with the instrument should meet to
determine the values of the weightings. The role of these weightings is to give more
weight to one or several items of the grid which, according to the group, have a
certain importance.
The final mark for each item is obtained by multiplying the mark of the item by the
associated weighting (n*c). The weightings c (Σc) are added, then the products c*n
(Σc*n) are added. The evaluation of the measuring instrument is obtained by the
division:
Σc*n
------
Σc
Identification =
Type = Coef. Note c*n
Manufacturer = c n
Technical – homogeneity of the supply of instruments
needs – risk of rapid obsolescence
– documents from the supplier
– technical assistance
– adaptation of the instrument to technological
requirements
– etc.
Outside – evaluation from a centre accredited by the
evaluations COFRAC or the DKD
– evaluation by users (EXERA, etc.)
– experience gained on similar material of the
same make
– press-cuttings from the specialized press
– etc.
Economic – cost/price of the competitor’s range
and – possibilities of purchase or loan
commercial
conditions – required time for delivery
– time allowed for repair
– etc.
The EXERA is first and foremost a club; it is a privileged meeting place for
users, where specialists (over 500) can freely exchange what information about what
experience has taught them, as well as information about instruments and systems.
This club acts, in essence, through its members by organizing the technical
evaluation of materials. It also initiates the writing of guides about the choice of
material in the different technical areas and, at the same time, does its best to
develop a constructive dialogue with manufacturers.
In a spirit of partnership, groups of users are constituted so that they can take
responsibility for their needs and they can better express and defend them in front of
manufacturers. This enables the users and the manufacturers to obtain more
elements of explanation on investments and technological trends. There are
technical commissions about automation, instruments, analyzers, measurements and
systems for the tests, etc.
These two other associations have members in other industrialized countries, for
example, the USA, Canada, Japan, Finland, Sweden, Belgium, Switzerland, etc.
34 Metrology in Industry
The main features of the agreement, which ultimately concerns more than 100
large companies, are:
– the full-scale and well-balanced exchange of assessments of instruments and
surveys, which are all written in English;
– the acceptance of common principles regulating the procedures of evaluation
and the presentation of the documents;
– the harmonization of the work programs;
– the gradual adjustment of the formalities regulating the testing of materials.
In the VDI/VDE guidelines there are three series dealing with the treatment of
measuring equipment:
These discrepancies resulted from the lack of a national reference (let us not
even talk of a European one), and of local comparisons to each reference. Just
imagine the Airbus today manufactured from all parts of the world.
It is to be regretted that all the industrialized countries are not at the same level
of progress in metrology. However, such European countries as Britain, France,
Germany, Italy, Spain, etc. are the leaders.
It has been said above that it is important to have reference standards in one’s
firm and to have them calibrated in accredited calibration centers or laboratories.
However, a choice must be made between having the metrology integrated in the
firm and having it subcontracted. As some providers of calibration services propose
to calibrate the measuring instruments with standards of their own, you need to be
careful.
You have to be able to demonstrate full traceability of the measurement that has
been made, the relationship between the measurement and the instrument used, and
also the traceability of the firm’s instrument, in order to show that the chain of
calibration has not been broken. In addition, do not forget to verify that at every
stage the uncertainties of measurement are not too large.
Bringing in a provider of services who has their own accredited laboratory is not
a must. However, if the provider has one, it is further evidence of his seriousness
and commitment to his job. There is every reason to think, that a provider with an
accredited laboratory knows better what the word “metrology” means than a
competitor who does not have any accredited laboratory. The provider with the
38 Metrology in Industry
accredited laboratory can grasp the primary technical needs of the client: quantities,
scope of measurement and uncertainties.
Nevertheless, let us point out that what has been said so far applies to movable
measurement, control, test or analysis instruments. In the case of equipment such as
heavy machinery (traction, compression, hardness, etc.), scales, air conditioning
chambers, etc., the verification can only be done on-site. It is not necessary for the
provider to have their own laboratory since the whole intervention is carried out on-
site. However, the provider must use working standards which are related to the
calibration chains.
Several problems come to mind when thinking of calibration. First of all, how
can a particular measuring instrument be calibrated? If it is a calliper, you will think
about using gauge blocks. Has anyone even considered measuring rods for a
micrometer? What is to be done with dynamometric spanners, balances, etc.? If you
go into physical chemistry, etc. it gets even more complex! Some methods of
measurement demand equivalent methods of calibration. Fortunately, some
manufacturers of materials provide tips.
When you look deeper into the matter, you realize that quite often you talk about
calibration, but what you actually need is a verification, perhaps even a metrological
confirmation (see ISO 10012 standard). Therefore, it might be necessary to proceed
to an internal checking between two interventions, which is just a simplified
examination of good working order.
Never must it be forgotten that the major purpose of calibration is to verify the
measuring instrument and calculate the uncertainties that go with the results of the
measurements taken with that instrument.
The question of the interval of the calibrations inevitably arises quickly. The
answer, which should make everybody happy, is that it depends.
The reader should wary of any person who claims that they can tell which
intervals are the right ones. As a matter of fact, you always start quite randomly and
then, with experience, you define the necessary intervals more accurately.
It is our opinion that a compromise can be considered. In fact, even though the
metrology is not the firm’s chief activity, it is a part of the “Management of
Quality”. If you retain part of it in the firm, it makes it possible to maintain the
user’s awareness of the importance of the measuring instruments, of the notion of
connected uncertainty, etc. However, a firm cannot excel in everything and it must
avoid spreading its resources too thinly. It is always possible to ascertain whether
there are any local providers of services in metrology and, if so, their charges.
The content of this technical paragraph does not concern all firms; the small- or
medium-sized firms that do not use many standards (merely a set of gauges or
masses for example) need not worry. What is presented here is a practically
complete line of thought which can reveal useful for the firms with a metrology
service. However, let us first recall the definition of the word “standard” in the
“International Vocabulary of basic and general terms in Metrology” (ISO document,
1993):
40 Metrology in Industry
For a given metrological quantity, the standard will be the “reference” of the
firm. The standards may, or may not, differ from the usual measuring instruments.
The standards of the lowest orders often have the same shape as the standards of
usual instruments. They are selected according to their type and their individual
characteristics. Thus, they will have to be differentiated from the other usual
measuring instruments because they will not have the same assignment, calibration
or verification. Consequently, the mode of management concerning them, choice,
identification and conservation of the references, will have to be clearly defined.
Most of these factors have overall effects (metrological, technical, but also
economic) and are liable to considerably restrain the choice.
1.6. Conclusion
Today, more than ever, the firm focuses its attention on its particular activity. In
relation to its metrological function, it must focus its energy on its primary
responsibility: the analysis of the requirement, the selection of the materials and the
authentication of their metrological capability.
Doing that requires data that no one else possesses. The periodical follow-up and
the administrative management are somebody else’s affair; a quick economic survey
will, most of the time, show that having these activities carried out externally is less
expensive – just add up the investments (initial and periodical), the training, the
drafting of the procedures and the periodical calibration of the reference standards.
The reality is that doing metrology, that is, trying to give meaning to the results of a
measuring instrument, is a full-time job which requires you to be independent.
However, one must not forget the necessity to compare the specifications
(tolerances) on the measured parameters to the uncertainties of measurements of
these parameters.
Chapter 2
Organization of Metrology:
Industrial, Scientific, Legal
The authors have purposefully devoted the first chapter to the analysis of
metrological needs. The reason for this choice is simple. People’s needs for
measurements of all kinds and the necessity to be sure of their reliability and their
universality have given rise to metrology, the science of measurement. It is only
through satisfying the needs of industry that metrology finds its raison d’être,
whether at the international or national levels, or at the very core of each firm.
Therefore, the metrological organization could only comply with the rules that
make it possible to meet these needs, and in the modern day to anticipate these
needs; of course, this task falls to the metrologists who intervene at the scientific,
technical and industrial levels.
laborious. For a long time, talking of quantities or units sounded more like a babel
of languages than a modern means of communication.
From very early days, trade required measuring instruments and thus standards.
The need for universal and unified measurements made it necessary to establish
an independent organization which would guarantee the fairness of exchanges that
were affected by deep-rooted economic, political and social realities: localization of
the exchanges, economic and political interests, not to mention the various national
habits and customs which are the hereditary enemies of metrology. It needed
powerful triggers to change these customs.
The scientific developments of the 17th and 18th centuries prepared the ground
for the French Revolution to create the metric system. In spite of political
vicissitudes, the industrial developments of the 19th century, which increased needs
tenfold, accelerated the process of establishing a metrological organization. It
emerged from concepts which will be studied later on in the chapter. It is interesting
to quote Lavoisier, who said that: “never has anything greater, simpler, more
coherent in all its parts come out of man’s hand.”
Expressing the real needs, and fighting poor practices, is one of the missions of a
metrology organization.
The metric system medal, stamped in 1840, commemorating the law of 4th July
1837, has on one side “To all times – To all peoples”, and “Unity of the
Measurements” on the other. This states the need that was felt very early in the
world of industrial measurement, the need to collaborate regardless of political
differences and, in addition, to establish and use a coherent and universal system.
In order that measuring should have some meaning, and its results should be
unquestionable and might be compared to those obtained at other times and in other
places, each measurement must be related to a standard by an unbroken chain. It is
the role of metrology to forge the different links of the chain and to make sure it
does a good job.
The organization of metrology cannot, and must not, be arbitrary. It can, and it
must, evolve. It ever tends towards being more universal, which explains the
success of the metric system that has become the International System of units (SI).
For about 30 years, regionalization of the world has been witnessed. Regional
organizations that bring together national organizations have been created, and this
allows a keener harmonization which makes the user’s task easier.
laboratories. The latter activity was taken up by the COFRAC in 1994. In 2005, the
monitoring of French metrology was transferred to the Laboratoire National de
Métrologie et d’Essais (LNE).
The Italian system has been acknowledged since 1991 by a law, no. 273, which
establishes a national system of calibration (SNT) which in turn integrates all the
structures (primary laboratories and accrediting institutes) (see Figure 2.4). The list
of the accredited calibration laboratories, which are called SIT centers, is published
in the Official Journal of the Italian Republic, Gazzetta Ufficiale; these are the only
laboratories that guarantee traceability to the standards.
All the official activities of metrology are to be found gathered in one institution
and one place, the federal office of metrology and accreditation, METAS, which
also manages the Swiss Accreditation Service, the SAS. This centralized
organization was adopted at the beginning of the confederation’s activities related to
metrology, after the Convention of the Meter was signed in 1875. The Swiss
accreditation service (SAS) sets the examinations and delivers the accreditations in
all the fields covered by the European or international standards in relation with
accreditation and, in particular, in all the domains of metrology (Swiss Calibration
Service – SCS).
In order that correct values of units be disseminated with the required accuracy,
Swiss metrology has set up traceability chains that guarantee the traceability of
physical quantities, and of some chemical quantities such as gas mixtures. These
chains originate from the METAS’s primary laboratories which materialize the units
in accordance with their definition and transmit them to the METAS’s calibration
laboratories through material standards. These calibration laboratories calibrate the
standards of the clients.
Organization of Metrology: Industrial, Scientific, Legal 47
Only the essential elements of the general nature and the history of metrology
have been retained as they make it possible to better understand the current
structures; but the history of metrology is fascinating; it is closely tied to the
evolution of science and techniques, and to the evolution of mankind.
Once the aims of the BIPM were established, all that was needed was a venue.
On 22nd April 1876, the French government set the former Breteuil pavilion at the
disposal of the Comité International des Poids et Mesures. The pavilion was situated
at the heart of the Saint Cloud park, far away from any sources of vibration, and was
a 4 hectare international enclave in French territory.
48 Metrology in Industry
CIPM
BIPM
18 members
Laboratories
10 consultative
committees
Today, at the beginning of the 21st century, the BIPM continues to attend to the
standardization of physical measurements in the world.
Its scientific activity aside, the BIPM is certainly the oldest establishment that
“standardizes”; it is indeed possible to consider the SI as the oldest published
document of international harmonization.
Organization of Metrology: Industrial, Scientific, Legal 49
The BIPM, together with the national metrology institutes, are responsible for
the SI, which is the key to the uniformity of measurements internationally and one
of the unquestionable bases of the industrialized world.
In order to fulfill this mission of standardization, the BIPM has to establish the
basic standards, as well as the scales of the physical quantities, and keep the
international prototypes.
To this day, only the unit of mass is kept under the form of a “materialized
measure”. The other basic quantities of the SI are defined today from physical
constants, such as the distance traveled by light in 3.34 nanoseconds (the physical
constant is the speed of light in vacuum):
– to compare the national standards to the international standards;
– to organize international comparisons at the level of national standards;
– to ensure the coordination of the corresponding techniques of measurement;
– to bring into existence the determinations relative to the basic physical
constants and coordinate them.
The scientific activity of the laboratories of the BIPM is divided in relation to the
units of the SI into:
– length;
– mass;
– time;
– electricity;
– ionizing radiations;
– chemistry.
The CIPM supervises and guides the BIPM’s work and it is itself under the
authority of the Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM). The CGPM is
composed of delegates (51 in 2004) from all the states, which have signed the
Treaty of the Metre Convention. The CGPM meets every four years and its mission
is, in particular:
– to debate and prompt the necessary steps to bring about the propagation and
the improvement of the SI;
– to approve the results of the new basic metrological determinations and adopt
the various scientific resolutions of international significance.
50 Metrology in Industry
At the conference 18 members of the CIPM are elected, half of which are re-
elected every four years.
In October 1999, the directors of the national metrology institutes (NMI) of the
states belonging to the Metre Convention signed an arrangement (MRA) to mutually
recognize the national measurement standards and the calibration and measurement
certificates issued by their laboratories. In order that the criteria of mutual
recognition be unbiased, the agreement is based on, first, the results of a set of key
comparisons carried out according to specified methods that lead to a quantitative
assessment of the degree of equivalence of the national measurement standards;
secondly, the setting up by each NMI of appropriate means so as ensure the quality
of the measurements; and thirdly, the actual participation of each NMI in suitable
additional comparisons. This agreement is in two parts: in the first part, the
signatories recognize the degree of equivalence of the national measurement
standards of the participating national laboratories; in the second part, the
signatories recognize the validity of the calibration and measurement certificates
delivered by the participating laboratories.
Thanks to the work of the CIPM and to the coordination by the BIPM, it is
possible to compare measurements made in Europe, in North America, in South
Asia, or in a nation which has joined the Metre Convention.
More precisely, by taking into account the human factor, the major objective of
the world organization of metrology is to determine the causes of the deviations and
to define the uncertainty of the measurements (reproducibility, repeatability).
The quality of the measurements that ensues will be synonymous with quality in
essential spheres at the world level. These spheres include multinational industries
which involve the development of subcontracting, the international trade of
products, the networks of communication and navigation as well as a multitude of
theoretical or applied technical and scientific activities.
2.3.3.1. EUROMET
EUROMET is an organization which was officially founded in Madrid, in
September 1987, following the signing of a “Memorandum of Understanding” (it
was amended in August 1990 and July 1998), and it is made up of the NMI of the
countries from the European Union, of the NMI of the European Free Trade
Association (EFTA) and of the Commission of the European Communities. It is
now also open to all the European countries, including new members, e.g. Turkey,
Bulgaria and Romania. It was set up to develop cooperation between the national
laboratories of metrology of Western Europe and provide an efficacious utilization
of the means which are available.
EUROMET does not have any funds of its own; it operates on the basis of a
voluntary participation. The expenses for cooperation and research are borne by the
participating laboratories. Total autonomy is retained by the members. However,
external financing is not excluded: the European Community in particular
financially participates in the research programs.
Structure
Each member (the national metrology organizations) appoints a delegate; all the
delegates constitute the General Assembly of EUROMET which meets at least once
a year to debate its aims and objectives. EUROMET’s president is elected for two
years and he provides a secretariat staff.
On 1st May 2004, 256 projects were in progress; 368 have been previously
carried through and have been concluded with a report. Four to five participants on
average have collaborated in each project. It can easily be imagined that an
important role in the European metrology is played by the countries with a larger
GNP or possessing a larger size of metrology institute; they play the largest part in
the projects. The number of projects is a proof of the success of EUROMET in
terms of European cooperation, and some countries have taken advantage of their
participation in EUROMET to develop their own metrological infrastructure.
The spheres that give rise to the greatest number of projects are electricity, mass
and length; time/frequency, acoustics and flowmetry give rise to the fewest. The
spheres which have the highest number of projects are those that arouse a high
interest, or are developing. There is often a collaboration outside EUROMET for
those whose number of projects may seem low.
Likewise, the number of projects are not the same within the categories of
cooperation. The realization of common surveys is the type of collaboration that has
the greatest attraction, which shows that metrologists are determined to pool their
work. Interlaboratory comparisons come second because they are used to
demonstrate the equivalence of standard realizations; they also make possible the
gathering of information about traceability in Europe for the use of accreditation
organizations.
54 Metrology in Industry
The most significant works to be carried out within EUROMET in the coming
years will be the interlaboratory comparisons and the accreditation of the national
laboratories of metrology which are the two major components of the planned
elaboration of the mutual recognition agreements.
The objective of the WECC was to establish and maintain a mutual and
reciprocal confidence between the different accreditation services of Western
Europe, so as to obtain the signing of recognition agreements and thus eliminate the
technical obstacles to free trade resulting from calibrations, traceability or
measurements.
Another goal of the WECC was to secure and maintain the free movement of the
know-how between the different organizations, in order to bring the capacities of
calibration in Europe to the same level and to give the clients of the service the
required guarantees.
Organization of Metrology: Industrial, Scientific, Legal 55
In June 1994, the WECC merged with its counterpart that dealt with testing and
analysis laboratories, the Western European Laboratory Accreditation (WELAC) to
form a new structure, EAL (European Cooperation for Accreditation of
Laboratories), which in 1997 became the EA when it merged with EAC (European
Cooperation for Certification), a counterpart which carried on the coordination
between the organizations of accreditation and certification organizations.
The organizations which have been invited to sign the multilateral recognition
agreement declare that:
There is no significant difference which might induce a user not to grant the
same confidence to the calibration certificates issued by someone accredited:
they are equivalent and can then be considered as such by those the
certificates are addressed to.
Each physical quantity is the object of a similar analysis; this leads to the
drawing up of an accreditation certificate which defines the calibration which can be
accredited for a given domain (dimensional metrology, electricity, mass, forces,
ionizing radiations, temperature-hygrometry, etc.).
The main objective of the national traceability chains is to make possible the
connection of industrial measurements to national standards and to understand the
needs of industry in the field of metrology, while ensuring there is a dialogue
between laboratories and industrialists. The firms are then in a position to show that
their products meet all of requirements, by means of tests carried out in their own
laboratories, in accordance with the standards or rules the product is subjected to.
The accreditation bodies take into consideration the competence and the
experience of the personnel, the equipment, the calibration methods used and the
connection to the national standards. Those elements are ensuring the coherence of
the technical activity of the accredited laboratories and their calibration capabilities
and associated uncertainties.
B.I.P.M
(Sèvres)
Laboratories
SIM EUROMET
Reference standards
of the firms
National and European firms
Control of the process
of measurement
However, the organization as a public interest group (GIP) had two principal
disadvantages: first, its temporary nature whereas metrology is a perennial task, and
secondly, its position as an intermediary that did not have a high visibility at the
international level, as most countries have only one national metrology institute
(NMI) linked to designated bodies, if necessary.
In January 2005, the Ministry of Industry and the Ministry of Research decided
to dissolve the BNM and transfer the central task of metrology to the LNE which
was renamed the Laboratoire National de Métrologie et d’Essais.
The metrological needs that the LNE is charged to satisfy arise from very
various spheres of activity: car manufacture, aircraft, space and nuclear industries,
armament, public works, health and security, communications, transport,
environment, chemistry and analysis, etc.
To meet these needs, the LNE, together with three other national metrology
laboratories and six designated laboratories, form a coherent and coordinated body
of four national metrology laboratories and six designated laboratories associated to
the LNE (they have signed a contract with the LNE).
The LNE, together with the national metrology laboratories (NML), defines the
structure of the calibration chains and provides COFRAC with its scientific and
technical competence. The principle structure of these chains is shown in Figure 2.3.
Standard LNE
NML
Laboratories
Accredited for
calibration
Laboratories
NMI Transfer to Associated to
users LNE
Laboratories
National Accredited for
Standards calibration
Not Accredited
Calibration
laboratories
Industrial measurements
International cooperation
The LNE is France’s representative to international metrological organizations
(Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures, Comité International des Poids et
Mesures). It is on all the consultative committees and chairs several working groups.
This presence enables it, together with its counterparts, to ensure the coherence of
the implementation of the SI, and of the new Mutual Recognition of the CIPM.
organizes theme days about specific metrological sectors, and takes part in
exhibitions about metrology.
Every year, the LNE, the NML and the designated laboratories organize training
courses in the various fields of metrology, as part of continuing education.
The SNT has a three-level structure, as shown in Figure 2.4. The first level is the
primary metrology institutes which establish the SI units and maintain them; they
also ensure their dissemination at the highest level and guarantee the traceability of
the measurement results.
For historical reasons, three institutes are responsible for the different units of the SI:
– the IMGC-CNR, units of mechanics and science of heat;
– the IEN-GF, units of electric quantities, time and frequencies, photometry,
optics and acoustic quantities;
– the INMRI-ENEA, unit of ionizing radiations.
The IMGC-CNR and the IEN-GF recently merged to create the INRIM, a single
national institute covering all the metrological activities.
The IMGC-CNR is situated in Torino where it has, since 1968, been carrying out
research in the field of metrology. The national standards established by this
institute, in compliance with the SI, cover the following basic quantities: length,
mass and temperature. The IMGC also uses the units derived from the basic units:
angles, force, pressure, volumic mass and flowmetry, scale of hardness, hygrometry
and accelerometry.
The IEN-GF is also in Torino, not far from the IMGC, in an area which is
known as the Italian metrological pole. The national standards developed by this
institute are: power intensity, luminous intensity, acoustic pressures and electric
quantities (farad, volt, ohm, watt, joule, henry, magnetic flux, luminous flux). The
IEN-GF’s activity is not limited to metrology; it also involved in the sector of
materials and technological innovation.
64 Metrology in Industry
The IMGC, the IEN-GF and the INMRI, which set up the metrological standards
for Italy, enjoy an environment that is very conducive to innovation in the different
fields of measurement sciences.
These three institutes cooperate in the activities carried out as part of the
Convention of the Metre, at the level of the International Committee of Weights and
CIPM, as well as at the level of the consultative committees for the definition of the
meter, mass, thermometric quantities, time and frequency, electricity and
magnetism, photometry and radiometry. In addition, they contribute to the activities
of EUROMET.
SNT – NATIONAL
NATIONALCALIBRATION
CALIBRATIONSYSTEM
SYSTEM
MINISTRY
MINISTRY MINISTRY
MINISTRY
of INDUSTRY
INDUSTRYanand of UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITYand
an
COMMERCE SCIENCE RESEARCH
METRIC
METRIC
CENTRAL
COMMITTEE
COMMITTEE NATIONAL CALIBRATION SYSTEM
PRIMARY
PRIMARYMETROLOGY
METROLOGY INSTITUTES
INSTITUTES
IMGC
IMGC – IEN – ENE
ENEA
SIT
SIT
Accreditation Structure
Accreditatio Structure
SIT
SIT Users
EA SIT
SIT COMMITTEE
COMMITTEE
Calibration
Calibration • Research centers
Researc center
services
service Secretariat
Secretaria • Test laboratories
Tes laboratorie
in Europe Technical Committees
Technica Committee • Industrial sectors
sector
Working Groups
WorkingGroup • Services
Service
SIT
SIT Calibration
CalibrationCenters
Centres
The SIT (Servizio Italiano di Taratura) is found at the second level; it is the
national accreditation organization with full authority to deliver accreditation to
calibration laboratories.
Organization of Metrology: Industrial, Scientific, Legal 65
The laboratories which are accredited by the SIT (SIT centers) perform
calibrations and deliver calibration certificates which are technically as valid as
those of the primary institutes, but with higher uncertainties.
METAS’s tasks
METAS’s tasks are defined in Article 17 of the federal law on metrology; this
law sets out the scope of official metrology in Switzerland. Article 17 states that the
office has, in particular, the following tasks:
– it prepares the legislation related to metrology and ensures that it is enforced;
– it determines and circulates sufficiently precise standard values of the units
used in metrology and does the necessary research and the scientific and technical
work of development;
– it elaborates the requirements needed for the determination, the transmission
and the accurate estimation of physical quantities;
– it examines measuring instruments and metrological testing methods and
makes decisions about their conformity, their acceptance or approval and, if
applicable, their verification;
– it advises and trains the personnel of the cantonal offices of verification, draft
directives for these offices and checks their measuring instruments;
– it oversees the enforcement of the law in the cantons;
– it gives consultations and performs evaluations;
– it performs the activities that third parties request it to do (and is paid for those
activities) within the limits of its capabilities. the agreement of the relevant
department is needed for important activities.
METAS has adopted a matrix organization and a matrix distribution of the work
and responsibilities to carry out these different tasks. Teams of experts are formed
for the particular objectives to be reached, which ensures cooperation between all
the specialists and a rational and efficient utilization of the experience and
knowledge of each specialist.
66 Metrology in Industry
To ensure the availability and the transmission of the correct values of units with
the required accuracy, Swiss metrology has set up traceability chains which
guarantee the traceability of physical quantities and of some chemical quantities
such as gas mixtures. These chains originate in METAS’s primary laboratories
which materialize the units from their definitions and pass them to METAS’s
calibration laboratories in the form of material standards. These calibration
laboratories calibrate the standards of the clients, most of them being accredited. In
their turn, the accredited laboratories calibrate the standards of industry, commerce
and research. In legal metrology, METAS itself calibrates the standards of the
verification organizations which are usually dependent on the cantonal authorities.
METAS takes an active part in the works of the following organizations and it
collaborates with many of their subcommittees.
Organization of Metrology: Industrial, Scientific, Legal 67
In metrology
CGPM General Conference of Weights and Measures (CGPM);
OIML International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML);
ISO International Organization of Standardization (ISO);
EUROMET International Electronic Electrotechnical Commission;
WELMEC European Cooperation for Legal Metrology (WELMEC);
and other more specialized organizations.
With the exception of research, any application of metrology may fall under the
scope of legal metrology if regulations are applicable to all measuring methods and
instruments, and in particular if quality control is supervised by the state. This is the
case in some countries, whereas in most countries the regulated area generally
concerns measurements for trade. However, many countries also regulate Health
and Safety policy and evidential measurements. Legal metrology covers
measurements and measuring instruments that the state considers to be to much a
sensitive subject for society.
The first aim of legal metrology is to define which units of measurement are
acceptable in the relevant country and for what purposes. In most countries, legal
1 This section has been written with the help of Gérard Lagauterie, Sous-Directeur de la
Métrologie, France.
68 Metrology in Industry
units are the SI units, plus special units for specific applications and, in some
countries, customary units.
Usually, the instruments used for the implementation of technical regulations are
submitted to legal control, but the list may be diverse according to the countries.
This is to give confidence to the public that regulatory controls are carried out with
appropriate and reliable instruments (brake efficiency of vehicles, exhaust gas
analysis, sound level of equipment for industry or public works, lighting in the
workplace, etc.), and that prosecution of offenses is based on reliable measurements
(radar speed meters for vehicles, breath analyzers, etc.).
Although its organization differs from one country to another, legal metrology is
present in nearly all countries – hence an international organization, the OIML, was
set up 50 years ago to deal with this aspect of metrology.
regulations and to foster mutual confidence. The OIML has about 60 member states
(who are signatories to the treaty, committed to implementing common decisions),
and about 50 corresponding members.
The OIML has close liaisons with a number of international organizations, and
in particular with the Metre Convention, ISO, the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC), the International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC),
the International Accreditation Forum (IAF), the World Trade Organization (WTO),
etc. Regional legal metrology organizations (the Asia-Pacific Legal Metrology
Forum (APLMF), the Euro Mediterranean Legal Metrology Forum (EMLMF), the
Southern African Development Community Cooperation in Legal Metrology
(SADCMEL), and European Cooperation in Legal Metrology (WELMEC)) and
regional metrology organizations (the Euro Asian Cooperation of National
Metrology Institutes (COOMET), the Systema Interamericano de Metrologia (SIM),
the European Collaboration in Measurement Standards (EUROMET), etc.) are also
key liaisons for the OIML.
The OIML languages are French (official language) and English (working
language). The BIML publishes a specialized bulletin four times a year.
The national legal metrology regulations have been harmonized by four series of
European Directives:
– Directive 80/181/EEC on 20th December 1979 (modified) on legal units;
– Directive 71/316/EEC (“Old Approach” Directive) and the Directives adopted
in its application;
– Directive 90/384/EC modified (“New Approach” Directive), related to Non-
Automatic Weighing Instruments;
– Directive 2004/22/EC on 31st March 2004 (“New Approach” Directive,
usually called the “Measuring Instruments Directive” or MID), which covers 10
categories of measuring instruments.
These Directives are applicable through their adoption into the national
legislative and regulatory texts.
2.4.3.2. WELMEC
WELMEC was created in 1989: it is an organization which coordinates the
national authorities of legal metrology of the Western European countries within the
European Union and common European economic frameworks. WELMEC grew
after its creation by accepting as associated members the countries of Central
Europe which were committed to entry into the European Union. Today WELMEC
has 28 members and two associated members, as most of these original associated
members have since joined the European Union.
72 Metrology in Industry
All the inspections and controls have been recently delegated to the local offices
of the provincial Chamber of Commerce. These activities are related to:
– the approval of the model;
– the initial verification;
– the periodic verification and inspection assessment (control at the user’s place,
where the equipment used for trade is inspected every other year).
The metric central office of the Ministry keeps close contact with the primary
metrology institutes which are described in section 2.3.4.2. Representatives of the
primary metrology institutes are members of the bureau of the metric central office;
they link legal metrology and scientific metrology and ensure the traceability to the
SI units.
In METAS, the federal office of metrology and accreditation, all the official
activities of metrology are brought together in one institution and on one site. It is
also in charge of the SAS. This centralized organization was established as soon as
the confederation became involved in metrology after the signing of the Convention
of the Metre in 1875.
Since 1st January 1999, METAS is managed according to the principles of the
new public administration. They require a budget and acceptance of the cost of the
services by the public authority. In this context, METAS has defined four groups
that characterize the provided services. These four groups are as follows.
for the whole traceability chain. The units are established with as high an accuracy
as possible, according their definition.
Legal metrology
The group deals with the preparation of requirements, the supervision of their
execution, the training of the operators, and the strict surveillance of the market.
Legal metrology deals with the domains of trading, public health and security and
also with the official measurements of data related to physical quantities.
Industrial metrology
In this group are all the calibration services which provide interested parties with
sufficiently accurate values of the units. Model pattern approvals, which will
become certificates of conformity, are dealt with by this group, some of the
measuring instruments used in legal metrology.
Accreditation
The SAS does the tests, performs the evaluations and delivers the accreditations
in all the domains coming under the European or international standards related to
accreditation.
The support activities needed to run the METAS office, but which do not
provide services to third parties, have to be added to the above four groups.
The Swiss constitution states that the legislation on metrology is the domain of
the confederation. From this constitutional foundation, the parliament has brought
into effect a federal law on metrology which stands as the framework for all
metrology in Switzerland.
76 Metrology in Industry
Legal metrology is the modern form of the very old control of weights and
measures; it includes all the statutory measures as well as the administrative and
technical procedures that have been introduced by the authorities to guarantee the
quality of the measuring instruments used in trading (scales used for retail sales,
petrol pumps, etc.), in official controls when safety is involved (cinemometers
(“radars”), chronotachygraphs (“black boxes”), manometers, etc.).
Concerning the assessment of the design of instruments and the approval of the
quality systems of manufacturers, repairers and fitters, the delegation process has
been completed. It is well on its way for primitive verification and almost over for
in-service checking.
Once the delegation process is over, the role of the state will chiefly consist of
approving or appointing the verifying organizations and ensuring that the system as
a whole is soundly implemented. That role will include:
Organization of Metrology: Industrial, Scientific, Legal 77
The relations which are built up in the OIML enable the exchange of information
with numerous countries about the statutory requirements, the testing techniques and
procedures, etc. More formalized cooperation with some other countries is being
developed. The topics of collaboration are: activity of model approval, exchange of
experts and technical information. This is true of Poland, Romania, Morocco and
Tunisia, in particular.
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Chapter 3
Firms that are setting up a metrological function find the following difficult:
– obtaining a good understanding of the aims of, and reasons for, metrology in a
firm;
– obtaining a good understanding of the basic concepts of metrology, such as
traceability, calibration, reference standard, uncertainty of calibration, uncertainty of
measurement, etc;
– understanding the metrological requirements of the ISO 900: 2000 and 9004:
2000 standards and adapting them to the specific needs of the firm.
There are many pitfalls which have to be avoided when setting up a metrology
function:
– overdoing the function;
– confining oneself to formal aspects without technically exploiting the results of
a well-controlled metrology;
– accepting too much guidance, for example from sometimes not very competent
representatives or from an auditor, instead of bringing in one’s own views.
There is a real need to define the physical or chemical quantities, as well as the
characteristics of the products that the firm is to measure, to set the measuring
ranges, and to define the measurement uncertainties with regard to the requirements
of a standard of products, of the method of testing or of any other criteria which
have to be complied with.
Note 2: metrological confirmation is not achieved unless and until the fitness of
the measuring equipment for the intended use has been demonstrated and
documented.
Note 3: the requirements for intended use include such considerations as range,
resolution and maximum permissible errors.
Note 4: metrological requirements are usually distinct from, and are not
specified in, product requirements.
The EN ISO 10012 standard introduces the notion of measurement process and
defines it as:
– measurement process (ISO 10012 section 3.2);
– set of operations to determine the value of a quantity.
82 Metrology in Industry
Austria – BMwA
Abteilung I/12
Dampfschiffstrasse 4
AT - 1030 Vienna
Tel: 43 1 71 100 8248/Fax: 43 1 71 43582
Belgium – BKO-OBE
Federal Public Service Economy/Division Accreditation
WTC III - 5th floor, 30 Boulevard Simon Bolivar
BE - 1000 Brussels
Tel: 32 2 206 46 80/Fax: 32 2 206 57 42
Czech Republic – CAI
Opletanova 41
CZ - 110 000 Praha Novemesto
Tel: 420 2 2100 4501/Fax: 4202 2100 4111
Denmark – DANAK
Dyregaardsvej 5 B
DK - 2740 Skovlunde
Tel: 45 77 33 95 36/Fax: 45 77 33 95 01
Estonia – EAK
Estonian Accreditation Centre
Aru 10, Tallinn
10317 Estonia
Tel: 372 602 18 01/Fax: 372 602 18 06
Finland – FINAS
c/o Centre for Metrology and Accreditation
P.O. Box 239
FI - 00181 Helsinki
Tel: 358 9 616 7553/Fax: 358 9 616 7341
France – COFRAC
Secteur Laboratoires
37 rue de Lyon
FR - 75012 Paris
Tel: 33 1 44 68 82 28/Fax: 33 1 44 68 82 23
Mastering Measurement Processes Approach 83
Greece –ESYD
Hellenic Accreditation System
8 Sissini street
115 28 Athens
Tel: 30 210 7204514/Fax: 30 210 7204500
Holland – RvA
Radboudkwartier 223
P.O. Box 2768
NL - 3500 GT Utrecht
Tel: 31 30 239 4500/Fax: 31 30 239 4539
Ireland – NAB
Wilton Park House - Wilton Place
IE - 2 Dublin
Tel : 353 1 607 30 03 / Fax: 353 1 607 31 09
Italy – SIT
Strada delle Cacce 91
1 - 10135 Torino
Tel: 39 011 397 73 35/Fax: 39 011 397 73 72
Latvia – LATAK
157, Kr. Valdemara St
LV - 1013 Riga
Tel: 371 7 37 3051/Fax: 371 7 36 2990
Lithuania – LA
Algirdo 31
LT - 2006 Vilnius
Tel: 370 5213 6138/Fax: 370 5213 6153
Norway – NA
Justervesenet
Fetveien 99
NO - 2007 Kjeller
Tel: 47 648 48 484/Fax: 47 648 48 485
84 Metrology in Industry
Slovakia – SNAS
Slovak National Accreditation Service
PO Box 74, Karloveská 63
SK - 840 00 Bratislava
Tel: 421 7 654 12 963/Fax: 421 7 654 21 365
Slovenia – SA
Slovenian Accreditation
Smartinska 140 (BTC City, 4.nadstropje)
SI - 1000 Ljubljana
Tel: 386 (0)1 478 3080/Fax: 386 (0)1 478 3085
Spain – ENAC
Serrano, 240 - 7° psio
E - 28016 Madrid
Tel: 34 91 457 32 89/Fax: 34 91 458 62 80
Sweden – SWEDAC
P.O. Box 878, Osterlanggatan 5
SE - 50115 Boras
Tel: 46 33 17 7730/Fax: 46 33 10 1392
Switzerland – SAS
c/o OFMET
Lindenweg 50
CH - 3003 Bern Wabern
Tel: 41 31 323 3520/Fax : 41 31 323 3510
Australia – NATA
7 Leeds Street
NSW 2138 Rhodes
Tel: 61 29 736 8222/Fax: 61 29 743 5311
Brazil – INMETRO
Rua Santa Alexandrina
416 - 90 andar - Rio Comprido
CEP 20261-232 Rio de Janeiro
Tel: 55 21 502 6531/Fax: 55 21 502 6542
Hong-Kong – HKAS
36/F, Immigration Tower
7 Gloucester Road
Wanchai
Tel: 852 28 29 4830/Fax: 852 28 24 1302
Israel – ISRAC
2 Habonim Street
Ramat Gan
52522 Beit Habonim
Tel: 972 3575 1690/Fax: 972 3575 1695
New Zealand – IANZ
P.O. Box 914 2142
1136 Auckland
Tel: 64 9 525 6655/Fax: 64 9 525 2266
Singapore – SAC-SINGLAS
The Enterprise #02-02
No.2 Science Centre Road
609077 Singapore
Tel: 65 826 3000/Fax: 65 822 8326
South Africa – SANAS
P.O. Box 914-2142
Wingate Park
0153 Pretoria
Tel: 27 12 349 1267/Fax: 27 12 349 1249
United States – A2LA
5301 Buckeystown Pike
Suite 350
MD 21704-8307 Frederick
Tel: 1 301 644 3212/Fax: 1 301 662 2974
86 Metrology in Industry
One of the principles laid down in the ISO 9000 standard lies in the so-called
“process oriented” approach. The measurement processes have to be considered as
particular processes meant to introduce a support to obtain quality for the products
manufactured by the firm.
8.4 Improvement
Clause 5 Management
responsibility
Clause 8 Measurement
Customer Clause 6 Resource Management system
measurement Customer
management analysis and
requirements satisfaction
improvement
Paragraph 4.7 of the ISO/CEI 17025 states that: “The laboratory must cooperate
with its clients or their representatives to clear up the client’s request and supervise
the laboratory’s performance with regards to the work done ...”
The purpose of the synergies is that the developer will take the performances,
the costs of the measurement and test processes into account. The person in charge
of the metrology function will have to be made aware of the critical nature of the
characteristics to be measured and he will see that processes are developed that are
suitable for the controls of the specifications.
– At the end of the development process, a report (with regards to the defined
deliveries and the specifications) corresponding to the characterization of the
performances of the measurement process (repeatability, reproducibility,
uncertainty, rapidity, ergonomics, costs, etc.) is made, and a decision about whether
to put the project into service is taken.
It is essential for the firm that the development of the measurement process
should accumulate knowledge. The results obtained, and the recording of those
results, are important, but the process is important as a way to pass on learning and
knowledge.
Figure 3.2 shows the “pilot” of the process being provided with the available
information to enable him to act on the process.
Characterization
Characteristion Data
Characteristics
Data
data Characteristics
characteristics
environment
method
mathod instrument
method
Method Instrumentation Environment
output data
result
Input data of measurement
measuremente
Qualification
Batches
Batches,
Continuing
continuing
manufacture
education
Elements o
Element of Input/output
Input / output
Information data
processus
processes
Figure 3.2. Information available for the control and the optimization
of measurement processes
One of the roles of the metrological function is to ensure that all the measuring
equipment used in the firm, and likely to have an influence on the quality of the
product or the service, are suitable for the task. This is so as to be able to guarantee,
with minimum risk, that the measuring equipment as a whole is within the limits of
permissible errors. For that purpose the firm must implement a system of
management of all its measuring equipment. This system will establish traceability
90 Metrology in Industry
to the International System of Units (SI) and carry out the verification of all the
measurement equipment in use.
To secure the traceability of its reference standards to the SI, the metrological
function must resort to subcontracting.
The selection of measuring equipment is made after taking the following factors
into consideration: technical requirements, economic and commercial conditions,
and evaluation of this measuring equipment.
In fact, the specification of the measuring instrument depends on the needs of the
firm.
– The main thing is ensure that the performances and the accuracy class, or the
freedom of bias and the repeatability of the measuring equipments, meet the
technological requirements of the firm; the restraints of implementation and use
(influence quantities, handling, maintenance, etc.) of these means must be taken into
account.
– A firm’s measuring equipment is often used when assessing whether a product
complies with its specification. Therefore, it is up to the user of the equipment to
decide whether the measuring equipment will be submitted to a calibration test and
then used, the corrections notified in the calibration certificate being applied, or
whether a verification will be made, which would set the limits of permissible error
as well as some acceptance criteria making it possible to qualify the equipment.
– At the time when the decision is made, the homogeneousness of the measuring
equipment of the firm can be a deciding criterion if use or maintenance are, for
example, taken into consideration.
– It is judicious to make a prospective and retrospective analysis of the use of the
measuring equipment and its possibilities of evolution so as to limit the risks of
obsolescence and, mostly, to keep the firm advised of anticipated developments.
– Measuring equipment must be delivered with the information necessary to
bring it into service, use it, adapt it or repair it.
– When the measuring equipment is new to a firm, or outside its usual scope, it
may be important to discuss with the supplier the conditions in which the equipment
will be used and the content of the assistance required.
– For specific or complex measuring equipment, it is recommended that a file of
the specifications be opened with, in particular, definitions for:
– the requested characteristics of the measuring equipment;
– the conditions of use, environment and maintenance;
– the particular requirements concerning the calibration and the verification;
– the conditions of acceptance.
The following elements show that the firm has the technical information that will
enable it to have the measuring equipment adapted for use: measuring range,
resolution, freedom of bias and repeatability, parameters ruling the acquisition of
data, conditions of traceability to national standards (interval/uncertainty), standards
needed to verify that the test or control equipment is fit for use, drafting of the
acceptance criteria, which makes it possible to say that the measuring equipment is
suitable.
Mastering Measurement Processes Approach 93
Moreover, the user alone is aware of the future environment in which the
measuring equipment will be used and of the measurement method into which it will
be used (see Chapter 8).
It will be the role of the metrological function to provide the “purchase” service,
using the technical information about the measuring equipment and its projected
use; this will make it possible to justify the cost of one solution or another at the
expense of a less expensive option, but which would be unsuitable for the projected
use. These ideas are embodied in the following standards: ISO/CEI 17025, ISO
9001: 2000, ISO TS 16949: 2002 and ISO 15189: 2003.
Depending on the requirements of each firm, the inventory can be in the form of
a set of cards, which are called life cards. Some suppliers are marketing software for
the management of measuring equipment (see Chapter 4).
Traceability (VIM section 6.12) and (ISO 8 402 section 3.15 note b)
Property of the result of a measurement whereby it can be related to generally
stated national or international standards through an unbroken chain of comparisons.
Metrological confirmation (EN ISO 10012 section 3.5 without the notes)
Set of operations required to ensure that measuring equipment conforms to the
requirements for its intended use.
Note 1: the results of a calibration make possible either the assignment of the
corresponding values of the measurand to the indications, or the determination of
corrections with respect to indications.
Both the calibration and the verification operations are based on a comparison to
a standard and, except for the preliminary operations, do not include any
intervention on the measuring equipment. They are indispensable operations, which
make the indications provided by the measuring equipment meaningful.
The result of a calibration comprises all the values which have got out of the
comparison between the measurement results of the equipment and the standard.
The calibration, in the strict sense of the VIM, will generally result in a
calibration certificate with a view to applying corrections to the measurement results
afterwards; exploiting them will make it possible to decrease the uncertainty of the
measurements taken with the equipment.
These uncertainties about the values of the corrections will also be used when
assessing the causes of the uncertainties so as to determine the compound
uncertainty that will be connected to the measurement results (see Chapter 7).
We wish to draw the reader’s attention to the need to adapt the verification
program (measurement points, distribution in the measuring range, etc.) to the use
intended of the instrument (see section 3.4.3.2, note 4) rather than verifying the
compliance with the manufacturer’s specifications because what matters is that the
instrument should be fit for use.
The different operations for calibration and verification are shown in Figure 3.3.
S ta rt e q u ip m e n t w ith a
m e a s u re m e n t s ta n d a rd )
Calibration
C a lib ra tio n
C e rtific a te /R e p o rt
C a lib ra tio n S ta tu s
Id e n tific a tio n 1
Metrological Verification
M e tro lo g ic a l
Yes R e q u ire m e n ts No
Recalibration Loop
E x is t?
V e rific a tio n Is N o t
V e rific a tio n /
E q u ip m e n t P o s s ib le
C o n firm a tio n
C o m p lie s W ith Y es
D ocum ent
R e q u ire m e n ts ?
No
Yes
A d ju s t O r R e p a ir S ta tu s
Id e n tific a tio n
R e v ie w
C o n firm a tio n
In te rv a l
Customer2
R e tu rn T o
C u s to m e r
End
1
C a lib ra tio n id e n tific a tio n /la b e llin g m a y b e re p la c e d b y m e tro lo g ic a l c o n firm a tio n id e n tific a tio n .
2
O rg a n iza tio n o r p e rs o n th a t re c e ive s a p ro d u c t. E xa m p le : C o n s u m e r, c lie n t, e n d -u s e r, re ta ile r, b e n e fic ia ry a n d p u rc h a s e r. N o te : A c u s to m e r
c a n b e in te rn a l o r e xte rn a l to th e o rg a n iza tio n (re f. IS O 9 0 0 0 :2 0 0 0 § 3 .3 .5 ).
Note 1: proceeding to limited controls within the set period is not to be ruled out;
they make it possible to detect any glitch at the measurement points that are
normally used. In no way can these controls replace1 the planned calibration and
verification operations (see Chapter 6).
Note 3: some measuring equipment is used only now and then; the strict
periodicity rules are not to be applied to them. In those circumstances there should
be written instructions that the instruments be submitted to comparison operations
before they are used if the validity period of the previous comparison has expired.
Note 4: some equipment is only used for one or a few of its functions; it can be
agreed to calibrate (or verify) the equipment only for the function or functions used.
In this case, the equipment has to be identified so as to avoid any risk of error if they
occasionally were used for a non-calibrated (or non-verified) function; clear
mention of use restrictions must be stated on the equipment.
1 In some measuring processes it can be considered that if the measuring process remains
“under control”, the calibration at set intervals is not required.
100 Metrology in Industry
Just as one has to periodically make sure that employees still have the
qualifications required to perform the task(s) required – one cannot rely on the
initial training and the diploma possibly obtained – likewise, it is important to
ensure that the measuring equipment, which contributes to the quality of the product
or the service, still possesses the performances and characteristics required to what it
is meant to do, or what it is planned that it will do.
•••
•••• •
••• • •
• • • •
• •
• • •
• •
• •
•
The traceability to standards will make it possible to know the value of the
corrections to make to indications of the instrument to compensate for its biases.
Supervising the drift is equally essential because if the errors become considerable
the indications of the instrument might lie outside the tolerated limits of errors.
102 Metrology in Industry
The easiest and most efficient solution will be to request a calibration laboratory
to calibrate the equipment; this will ensure its traceability to the SI. Either a national
laboratory of metrology or a calibration laboratory accredited for the quantity and
for the measuring range expected would be acceptable.
Several benefits are derived from this type of organization: less expense, shorter
immobilization periods and the possibility of using a local reference if there is a
doubt about a measurement (metrological redundancy).
A procedure has to be established when the firm uses reference materials; this
makes possible the control, the implementation of a new sample of reference
materials and the answer from the measuring equipment when two samples of
reference materials are used.
The criteria that have led to the decision to renew the reference material must be
in writing.
in 1999. See the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) website
(www.bipm.org).
The traceability to the SI of all the equipment which can influence on the quality
of the product has to be guaranteed.
For either operation, a connection program sets the list of equipment involved,
the interval between calibrations, the points to be calibrated and the possible
requirements. This program can be drawn up with the help of a national laboratory
of metrology or an accredited laboratory.
Note: the optimization of connection programs is one of the major tasks of the
metrological function. This optimization must be:
– technical: uncertainties are to be optimized;
– economic: the costs of the calibrations (traceability program and periodicity)
are to be optimized.
It would be wise, in any case, to look into the ratio between the uncertainty of
the calibration of the equipment and the measurement uncertainty requested by the
firm
3.7. Bibliography
EURACHEM/CITAC Guide 2: Quality Assurance for Research and Development and Non-
routine Analysis (1998)
EURACHEM Traceability in chemical measurement (2003)
ILAC P10:2002 ILAC Policy on Traceability of Measurements Results
EA-4/07 (rev 01): Traceability of Measuring and Test Equipment to National Standards
(previously EAL-G12)
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Chapter 4
There is no particular chronology to follow, except that one should start with the
inventory, define the responsibilities, etc. However, this chapter has been written
with certain logic, following the order of successive steps. The time needed to
initiate the handling of a bank of measuring instruments is also stressed. It is a long
process that you cannot complete in a couple of months, unless there are only a
dozen instruments or the handling is fully subcontracted; and even in the latter case,
subcontracting specifications will have to be drafted, the subcontractor will have to
be found, you will have undertake thorough quality audits to ensure that the
subcontractor is competent, and responsibility for the follow-up of the metrology
function will need to be given to somebody in the firm. Do not forget that it takes
time to analyze the measurement requirements and to select the suitable means, and
that is something that is not subcontracted.
Throughout this chapter, the term “measuring” is used in the broad meaning of
“measuring, checking, analyzing and testing”, as in each of these actions the result
is obtained through measuring equipment which has to be looked after.
4.1.1. Inventory
The first step is to draw up a complete list of the measuring equipment, without
omitting those which are never used (the question of why some are never used can
then be raised) and those no longer in working order, and including the gauges,
templates, height gauges, etc., as well.
You must take advantage of this step to build up contacts with the users;
knowing them with an ability to sense their problems will turn out to be very useful
later on. At the same time, you should take note of the assignment (to places and/or
persons) of the measuring instruments and of the people who keep them (in the case
of statutory-use measuring instruments).
4.1.2. Identification
After you have listed all the measuring equipment, you have to identify them in
a concrete form. It means you have to define a code system. For example, you could
take numbers in numerical order, from 1 onwards. You could also make the
allocated number more significant; for example, you could assign the numbers:
– from 0001 to 0999 to the metrology laboratory;
– from 1000 to 1999 to the testing laboratory;
– from 2000 onwards to the workshops.
Handling of a Bank of Measuring Instruments 111
You could also use a combination of letters and figures; for example: DG 1117
which would mean:
DG: depth gauge,
- - 1 - - -: assigned to the testing laboratory;
- - - 1 - -: assigned to the laboratory of ground mechanic-testing;
- - - - 17: 17th gauge in the laboratory.
You could also use a two-part number: 000 - 0001, where first part (on the left)
would be the category:
– Series 100: mechanics category;
– Series 200: electricity category;
– Series 300: weighing category;
– do not forget the “others” category.
This code system makes the management of the codes easier when the handling
of the bank is computerized.
The main thing is to establish a clear, simple system, preferably one that can be
used for the codification of the documents related to the measuring instruments (see
section 4.3.1 below).
The identification must be clearly affixed, preferably with a mark or label fixed
on the instrument without altering it; if the marking is engraved, you must be careful
about which method is used. It may also be helpful to identify the instrument’s
container, especially if it also contains documents or data useful for the operation of
the instrument. In the same way, in case the data about the periodicity of the follow-
up (e.g. date of the next calibration) cannot appear on the instrument (e.g. because
of lack of space), the data could appear on the container, on the condition that the
container remains in sight of the instrument and mentions its reference.
In most cases, a label is simply affixed to the instrument; depending on its size, it
indicates the instrument number, the date of the last calibration and the date of the
next one. The periodicity can be seen immediately by using labels of different
colors; for example: yellow = 6 months; blue = 1 year; green = 2 years.
112 Metrology in Industry
The date can be mentioned in “week – year”; the individual number and the
identification sheet make it possible to easily go back to the verification or
calibration report.
Last calibration:
Instrument number:
Next calibration:
Though it is easy to use, the label may sometimes not be the ideal solution
because it may come unstuck. However, much progress has been made in this area,
and a little effort may allow you to uncover a good solution.
When there are many measuring instruments to handle, some firms use bar codes
which are stuck straight on to the instrument by means of a label. It is an attractive
solution, but it involves risks. The bar code refers directly to the data-processing
unit for the whole of the information concerning the instrument; it also requires a
very advanced computerized management and the ownership of bar code scanners
(in good working order) by the users; finally, it makes the follow-up of the
instrument anonymous (which runs counter to the users being made to feel
responsible). Nevertheless, these difficulties can be circumvented by putting the
individual number of the instrument near the bar code.
The firm can define its policy about the handling of the metrology function
before or after proceeding materially to the identification of the instruments. In any
event, both marking and identification have to be done right at the beginning, after
the inventory.
Handling of a Bank of Measuring Instruments 113
The firm must clearly state what objective it wants to reach: for example, to
satisfy the demands contained in the ISO 9001 norm, to obtain an aeronautical
acknowledgement of the JAR 145 type, or to become qualified for the QS 9000
(American motor referential) or the ISO TS 16949. The firm then defines the
objective of the metrology function. It has to decide, from the information gathered
during the inventory, whether it wants to do everything internally, or subcontract
part of it, or all of it. According to what it has chosen, it draws up a plan of what has
to be done and defines the responsibilities of the various people who are to
intervene as well as their “sphere of influence” and the functional connections.
Once the objectives have been defined and the commitment has been clearly
stated, the actions to be launched must be specified. The list of the missions to be
carried out will be established, and a degree of priority for each one will be
indicated. As far as it is possible, it is worth trying to estimate the time which is
needed to perform each operation.
Then someone has to be made responsible for each action; one person can be in
charge of several actions: heading the metrology function, identifying the material,
drafting the documents, training the users, assessing the capability, verifying the
instruments, etc.; he or she must, however, make sure that the documents are
verified and approved by another person.
You have to make sure, before any action, of the personnel’s adherence. You
will then have to start informing people and making them aware of the importance
of looking after the measuring instrument; they will be reminded that natural drifts
are possible, that uncertainties are related to measurement results, that it is important
not to believe spontaneously in a “top level electronic” instrument, etc.
114 Metrology in Industry
When you analyze what the firm needs for the handling of metrology, you must
not forget to train the person in charge; among other things, he or she should have
technical knowledge in metrology, in quality handling and about the notion of
traceability. He or she should also ensure that the users of the measuring instruments
have the necessary ability to use the material. A training program, adapted to the
needs of users, will have to be set up, both for the person in charge and for the
users.
Faced with all the demands one is supposed to comply with, it is easy to panic
and consider that it is too heavy, constraining and expensive a job; as a rule, in this
situation, one may prefer to do nothing. On top of this, one wonders, quite rightly,
whether the same strict handling applies to all the measuring instruments,
apparatuses, gauges, sensors, etc. The answer is obviously no, all the measuring
instruments are not handled in the same way, although this position is far from being
unanimously accepted among metrologists and quality managers. This is for a very
simple reason: the cost of the operations.
However, all the means have to be seen to, but not necessarily all in the same
way. Some are merely listed in an inventory, others are followed with normative
strictness, complying with ISO 10012. What are the criteria which can be selected in
order to perform the sorting out? The main question to ask is: “how important is the
measurement which is to be carried out as far as the contractual requirements of
quality assurance, security and safety are concerned?”
All the instruments that fulfill these requirements should be followed very
strictly. Let us underline the importance of carefully defining the contractual
requirements (and reading attentively the documents attached to the contract; for
example, the military American military norm 45662-A does not leave much room
for instruments that are not followed), of not guaranteeing a lot of parameters on a
product if you do not look after the instruments which are used and if you do not
record the results obtained.
Handling of a Bank of Measuring Instruments 115
You must not, for this second category, let metrology indulge in the free and
easy attitude of former times: a minimum of work should always be undertaken. The
instruments must all be listed in an inventory, even if they have to be put together in
series (this is especially the case in the chemical industries which can have 10,000
temperature gauges) and whenever it is possible, the importance of the measurement
in the process will be determined. This material will never be followed over time; it
will be either on account of doubts the users might have or only when it is first
verified before it is put into service.
Let us go back to the example at the beginning of the chapter; if you use “DG” for
the depth gauge, you will use “DG” in the codification of all the documents
concerning the measuring instrument: ISDG1117: identification sheet of the 17th
depth gauge of the laboratory of ground mechanic.
116 Metrology in Industry
The codification is important because it enables you to find your way through all
the documents. Thinking things out a bit when finalizing the document can make the
work much easier.
After you have defined the codification for the documents, you have to draft
them. These make up two different categories: the work instructions and the
documents which will show the results.
It is important to emphasize here that this approach is only one way to proceed.
The first work document is the general procedure for dealing with the
measurement processes. It provides the outlines of what is to be done and refers to
the work instructions for further details.
You have to set out how the material is identified, the meaning of the labels
when necessary. That is the identification instruction. It enables all the services and
shops to identify the material similarly. You also have to document:
– the instruction that sets the intervals for the periodical follow-up of the
material over time;
– the instructions about the verification of the measuring means to define the
way each category is verified;
– the calibration instructions for the metrological references which have to be
calibrated;
– the instructions about upkeep and maintenance, when the materials would be
put at risk if these operations were not done correctly.
Handling of a Bank of Measuring Instruments 117
If possible, get ideas from existing norms and from suppliers’ advice. Regarding
the verification of the measuring instruments, it is often difficult to thoroughly apply
all that the norms prescribe. Do not worry too much about it. To begin with, the
main thing is to define what you want to do and stick to it. If what you have decided
turns out not to be enough, work on it to further it. You should give an instrument
only the time it requires; this is dependent on how useful and important it is.
The technical content of the instructions must take the users’ standard into
consideration. As a rule, the users are technicians whose basic standard is
reasonably good, so the documents can be simple. However, the instructions have to
give plenty of details if the personnel are not well-trained.
At the same time as you define the work instructions, you have to define the
documents in which the results are recorded. The most important one among these is
the identification sheet. To draft it, you can get your inspiration mostly from the
national norm, when there is one. There is one identification sheet per measuring
instrument and it holds all the information about the life of the instrument in
question, especially:
– the name of the instrument (or standard) and its individual identification;
– the name of the manufacturer;
– the date of its receipt and setting up;
– its usual location, if the question arises;
– the account of the interventions it has been subjected to, by referring to the
documents containing the details of the operations and the figures of the results;
– the maximum length of time between two successive calibrations (periodicity);
– the references of the work instructions (verification, maintenance, etc.) to be
used.
The identification sheet does not contain the detail of the operations which have
been performed; it only indicates the result. If it is possible, only one type of
identification sheet should be used in order to facilitate the use of the documents.
118 Metrology in Industry
The other documents which have to be formalized are, according to the firm’s
particular needs:
– calibration certificates;
– verification reports;
– test reports, maintenance reports, etc.
The reports are the documents that contain the details of the results obtained,
step by step, and whose conclusion generally appears in the identification sheet. A
template report should be established at the same time as the work instruction it
refers to.
At the stage when a system for handling a bank of measuring instruments is set
up, what has been achieved is both the easiest and the hardest parts: the hardest part
because it is never easy to lay the first stones of a construction as they are the ones
upon which the stability of the work rests; but the easiest part, too, because the first
steps are simple, understandable by everybody and, more and more often, demanded
by the clients, who have contributed to their development.
Handling of a Bank of Measuring Instruments 119
Beyond that, only what is strictly necessary should be documented. A craze for
documents often arises, especially if the first ones have been launched easily. Some
exception rules, if they are peculiar to the firm, can be documented in writing; they
are usually called “internal norms” and might be a formalization of the processes of
physical handling of the measuring instruments, such as they are described in the
next paragraph.
4.4.1. Receipt
Until these operations have been completed, the equipment must not be
implemented except, exceptionally, in an emergency; even then, it must be handed
back as soon as possible, in order to be put through the correct steps.
Concerning the initial verification, you should do this yourself, or have it done
by a laboratory which has the required competence; ideally, however, this should
not be done by the supplier, unless he or she can give guarantees of his or her
impartiality.
4.4.2. Transfer
4.4.2.1. Traceability
In order to know at any moment the state of the bank of the measurement means,
it is vital to ensure a traceability, which should be both satisfactory and adapted to
the firm’s requirements, of all the components of the bank. It should be possible to
locate all the instruments, name the person responsible for them, and know their
latest places of assignment or use according to the contractual importance of the
measurements made or the cost of deviation in the case of wrong measurements.
Traceability of measuring instruments and measurements also means being able to
determine which instrument has been used to make a particular measurement.
Let us take the example of measurements made on testing benches. There are
three benches and one of them turns out to be faulty. If measurements have to be
redone, it is indispensable to identify the benches in order to repeat only those
measurements which were made on the faulty bench.
Depending on the importance of the bank of instruments and the size of the
equipment, it might be a good working technique to establish a computerized
procedure of the “outgoing equipment ticket” type, which would make it possible to
know all the transfers.
4.4.2.2. Transfer
Any transfer must be performed under someone’s responsibility.
4.4.2.3. Precautions
Every time the means of measurement have to be transferred from the place of
use to the place of calibration, or vice versa, or between the place of storage and the
place of use, appropriate precautions have to be taken. The conditioning of the
measuring instruments is well defined and the transfer is subject to instructions
which are pre-established and which concern handling, packing, transportation, and
maybe, intermediate storage. Some elements of the equipment may have to be
secured before the transfer, for example, the arm of a measuring column, the arm of
one-pan scales, etc.
The accesses to the adjustment devices which may affect the performances
should be protected so that untimely or accidental handling is prevented. This does
not concern the devices which are meant to be accessible to the user without any
outside help; that is the case, in particular, for zero adjustments.
Instruments which are subjected to regulations are protected by lead seals whose
location is indicated in the model approval. You must ensure that the seals are
unbroken. No uncontrolled intervention by the state should be performed on these
instruments.
– to define suitable methods to allow receipt into and dispatch from these areas;
– to have perfect environmental conditions (temperature, hygrometry, dust,
vibrations, etc.) and knowledge of the consequences of the variations of any of
them;
– to equip the premises with the necessary energy sources;
– to have a device to watch over the surrounding parameters (if it is felt to be
necessary).
It is advisable to keep the measuring instruments in their original cases and keep
them flat (when possible) on an appropriate piece of furniture. It is advisable to
store separately the common measuring instrument and the standards of the firm.
4.4.4. Maintenance
It is important to assess the life span of each instrument, even though it is very
difficult, if not impossible, in some cases to do so. Replacement should be prepared
beforehand so that the services that use the instrument may be as little
inconvenienced as possible. To assist you in this task, take heed of the
manufacturer’s advice, of the calibration results, and of the identification sheets. It is
advisable to use the method of the control charts (see Chapter 6, section 6.2) in
order to keep track of the variations of the equipment over time.
There are some elements of the measuring equipment which you know will wear
out: in particular, the batteries, springs, belts, etc. Spares should be kept handy to
make the immobilization time as brief as possible while any of these elements is
being replaced.
Regarding those instruments for which only one accuracy class was defined
when they were new instruments, four classes at most will be defined for their use;
for example:
– class 0 (wear out limit = tolerance as new);
– class 1 (wear out limit = 150% of tolerances as new);
Handling of a Bank of Measuring Instruments 123
Keep in mind that a measuring instrument cannot go off limits, except for two
reasons:
– “natural” drift (whether it is used or not);
– accident.
Following the drift in time will make it possible for the users to avoid facing the
very embarrassing situation of the measuring instrument being declared “off limits”
at the end of its periodical verification, and avoid the question: “what am I doing
with the measurements taken with this equipment since its previous verification?”
In addition, too high a calibration frequency is costly for the following reasons:
– the process is never free of charge;
– there is a drop in the production of measurements when the instrument is
immobilized;
– there may not be a substitute instrument.
However, too long intervals may make it impossible to detect a drift of the
metrological qualities of the measuring instrument early enough. Therefore, a
compromise is necessary, though it is difficult to draw up a list of universally
applicable validation intervals. You should bear in mind two fundamental and
opposing criteria which have to be balanced when you set the follow-up intervals.
124 Metrology in Industry
They are:
– to make the risk of the measuring instrument straying out of the tolerances
while being used as small as possible;
– to make the costs of verification or calibration as cheap as possible.
The calibration frequency does not have to be constant. The time intervals
between two verifications or calibrations can be adjusted. They will be reduced
when the results of the previous comparisons do not allow you to permanently
guarantee the accuracy of the means of measurement. They will be increased if the
previous comparisons show that longer intervals do not impair the reliability or the
accuracy of the means of measurement.
Sporadic checks to detect any malfunction should be ruled out within these
periods. For some instruments, you can use surveillance standards to check the
condition of the measuring instrument, as a quick verification, before each use. If
this operation is done in a strict and well-documented way, it can replace the
scheduled verifications, or make it possible to adjust the periodicity of the
verifications.
If some means of measurement are used only now and then, or exclusively used
for one or only a few functions, a specific method of verification could be used for
these means. These means must then be identified so as to avoid any risk of error.
The periodicities may be granted a tolerance to give the quality system some
flexibility; for example, the follow-up periodicity can vary from 1 year to a month,
or from 6 months to 15 days.
It is of paramount importance to tack the instruments down over time. Once the
periodicities have been settled, all that is left to do is to proceed to the recalling of
the means of measurement. It is important to make clear who is responsible for the
follow-up, whether the material is to be collected, whether it is to be brought in by
the users, whether it is to be checked on site, etc.
Knowing a instrument is going to be out of use for a time, you must avoid
hampering the production line that might need it. It is strongly recommended that:
– the recalls be planned;
– the users be forewarned;
– some replacement material be provided.
Handling of a Bank of Measuring Instruments 125
By this way, the inconvenience caused to the users is reduced, and the
application of the scheduled plans is facilitated.
A planning-board with “T-shaped” cards could be used to follow the shifts of the
measuring instruments, if there are not too many. For example, you only display on
a board the work to be done over the next three months; you can move the cards
back and forth and remove them when the work is done; the instruments which have
been sent back can be easily identified by using different colors of cards. Hence, at
one glance, you can see the progress of the follow-up. Also, the users of the
instruments are easily informed if there is easy access to the board.
You must not forget to follow the handling of the bank. It must periodically be
subjected to audits to ensure that the procedures are followed, that the system is
developed, and that research is being undertaken to improve it.
Work has been done by some French associations to help potential buyers (or
architects) of software handling measuring material. For example, the French club,
Métrologie Centre, has assessed and compared about 30 types of software. A few
years ago, the French metrology group FAQ Ouest (Federation of the Quality
Associations of the West) established an assessment grid along the following
principles:
– the main criteria were listed with a rating;
– the criteria rated 3 were deemed indispensable when choosing software;
– the criteria rated 2 were more specific to the utilization of the software;
– the criteria rated 1 were a plus.
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Definitions
5.2.1. Traceability
It is the term that you must base your work on to comply with the demands
relative to the traceability to national standards as they appear, mainly in the written
standard ISO 9001:
Chapter written by Luc ERARD – Laboratoire National de Métrologie et d’Essais (LNE), and
Patrick REPOSEUR – Comité Français d’Accréditation (COFRAC).
128 Metrology in Industry
– 2000 or ISO/TS 16949 for firms, ISO/IEC 17025 for laboratories (or firms
when they undertake analyzing, calibrating or testing activities);
– EN 45004 for inspecting activities;
– EN 45011 (ISO Guide 65) for product certification.
Note 3: the way the connection to the standards is effected is called connection
to the standards.
Note: in metrology, the definition in paragraph 6.10 of VIM 1993 is the accepted
definition.
5.2.2. Calibration
Note 1: the result of a calibration makes possible either the assignment of values
of measurands to the indications or the determination of corrections with respect to
indications.
Traceability to National Standards 129
5.2.3. Verification
ANSI/NCSL (1) – standard for calibration – Z540: 1994 section 3.28 defines
verification as an evidence, from calibrations, that the specified requirements have
been satisfied.
This written standard should be withdrawn when the ISO 10012 standard about
verification comes out.
As the basic principle of traceability consists of linking the measurement “in its
most general sense” to relevant standards, most industrialized countries have set up
traceability chains which fulfill this function, at least in relation to the most accurate
measurements, the instruments which are regarded as reference standards, or those
which contribute to the guarantee of the quality of a product or of a test.
130 Metrology in Industry
These traceability chains rely, at the highest level, on one or several national
metrology institutes whose principal missions are to realize, improve and maintain
the national references. Theoretically, these are directly defined in relation to the SI.
The realizations of the national references can, for some quantities, be implemented
in associated laboratories which are delegated for this activity by the national
organization in charge of metrology (the CETIAT (Centre Technique des Industries
Aérauliques et Thermiques) for hygrometry in France, the National Engineering
Laboratory (NEL) for flow in the UK, etc.).
The national metrology institutes and the associated laboratories are liable, in
their calibration services, for the measurement units they provide to users who may
be scientists, research laboratories or industries. It is also their duty to make sure
that their realizations are coherent at the international level; this coherence is
obtained through the participation of the National Metrology Institutes (NMI) in
comparisons organized by the consultative committees of the Comité International
des Poids et Mesure (CIPM), or by regional metrology organizations such as
European collaboration on measurement standards (EUROMET), Asia-Pacific
Metrology Program (APMP), Sistema interamericano de metrologia (SIM), etc.
More and more often, so as to secure the quality of the calibrations, these
laboratories are requested to become accredited, or to set up a quality system for
their calibration activities in accordance with the requirements of the written
standard ISO/IEC 17025.
In their calibration services, the national metrology institutes and the associated
laboratories directly provide traceability to the references of the accredited
calibration laboratories (frequently identified as SMH (Service de Métrologie
Habilité) in France) and provide the organization which accredits the calibration
laboratories with their technical competence and their support.
They have other activities which include: calibration, both internally and for
third parties; training personnel; and technical assistance, especially for setting up
calibration laboratories.
Since 1984, the NMIs and the national accreditation bodies (NAB) have been
collaborating in order to allow the free movement of calibration documents. The
process of securing the traceability to the SI system is made simpler for industries
Traceability to National Standards 131
Each seal that has been recognized as equivalent can be consulted and any
additional information can be obtained from the national accreditation body
(COFRAC in France).
The presence of this “symbol” proves the accreditation and the recognition of
equivalence.
5.4. Traceability
The traceability has to be secured when the firm cannot technically show that the
absence of traceability does not have any influence on the result of the
measurements, or on their associated uncertainty (see ISO/IEC 17025, section 5.4.6)
The needs of the firm and the causes of uncertainties of measurement will make it
possible to determine the consequences of the absence of traceability.
132 Metrology in Industry
5.5. Calibration
Such a laboratory may issue calibration certificates, but they are not guaranteed
by an accreditation body, and they do not mention any certification of a system of
quality management in compliance with the requirement of the IAF (International
Accreditation Forum, which, at the international level, includes the certification
organizations, their accreditation body and the principals) no. G.3.5.7, which
prohibits these logos from appearing on anything that can be related to a product or
a result. The traceability will not be secured unless the following conditions are met:
– the technical traceability must be justified by traceability of the laboratory’s
reference standards to the national standards, or equivalent, and by appropriate
calibration procedures completed by calculations of the uncertainties;
– the documentary traceability must be justified by compliance with the
requirements concerning quality assurance.
The user, from the laboratory or from outside, should make sure the service of
the laboratory is in conformity with the different requirements and relevant,
thorough, appropriate assessments, not limited to the audit of the system of quality
management based on the service company’s ability to perform the measurements
requested by the user.
Note: whatever the nature of the laboratory which has delivered a calibration
certificate, it is important to point out that it is not sufficient to look only at the
flyleaf (or the label stuck on the instrument); it is necessary to ensure that the
calibration program is relevant and sufficient for what is expected from the
instrument. A calibrator or a multimeter may be calibrated for one function and one
range, but the traceability will be secured only for that range if the calibration
program includes a sufficient number of measurement points.
Traceability to National Standards 133
5.6. Verification
The verification operations carried out in such a laboratory, and within its
accreditation scope, entail the issuing of verification reports in conformity with the
requirements in effect, and referring to the national accreditation body. The
requirements of the national accreditation body (COFRAC, DKD and UKAS, for
example) guarantee the traceability from a technical, as well as documentary, point
of view.
Such a laboratory may perfectly deliver verification reports. The reports, quite
obviously, cannot refer to any guarantee from an accreditation body. The
traceability cannot be secured unless the following conditions are met:
– the technical traceability must be justified by the traceability of the laboratory’s
reference standards to the national standards, or equivalent, and by appropriate
verification procedures which include the calculations of the uncertainties of the
measurement that have led to the drafting of the report;
– the documentary traceability must be justified by compliance with the
requirements concerning quality assurance.
The user, from the laboratory or from outside, should ensure that the verification
reports are relevant and in conformity with the different requirement, by means of
audits.
Note: as for calibrations, the user should make sure that, at the technical level,
the content of the verification report completely fits the use scheduled for the
instrument (verification program, uncertainty of measurement, maximum permissible
errors, etc.).
The calibration certificate, as defined in the VIM, theoretically contains all the
technical elements that enable the beneficiary instrument to be one of the technical
links of the traceability chain:
– “relationship between the values of the indicated quantity and the
corresponding values of the quantity realized by the standards”;
– uncertainty of measurement.
As a result, the calibration certificate can be used as the starting point of or the
reference for a new calibration or a verification in the field for which was been
issued; the uncertainty used as a base for the calculation of the uncertainty is the one
which appears in the certificate. This point is particularly important because a
“calibration document” in which no indication of uncertainty appears cannot be
used for the propagation of uncertainties or for ensuring the “technical” traceability
of any instrument.
The calibration certificate of the calibrated instrument is one of the links in the
traceability chain in the field for which the calibration certificate has been issued.
The verification report, in its usual form and except in the special cases
mentioned above, together with the associated instrument, cannot be regarded as
one of the links of a traceability chain, but as the end of it.
Whether the concern is the ISO 9001 written standards, or its specific
requirements for a particular industry (automotive, aeronautical, etc.), a particular
activity (ISO 14001), or the ISO/IEC 17025 or ISO/IEC 17020 (EN 45004) written
standards, there is a requirement for the person in charge of the metrology function
and responsible for the bank of measuring instruments. It is: “The measuring
equipment must be traceable to national or international standards.”
To say that this requirement for traceability can be applied only in the domains
of science in which it is possible to materialize a basic quantity of the SI, or a
derived quantity, is to summarize things all too briefly.
In all cases, the metrology function should be able to ensure the coherence of the
measurement results, for example by taking part in national or international
interlaboratory comparisons, so as to optimize its method of analysis or by verifying
this coherence by using another method of measurement.
level of concentration, the mean of the results coincides with the conventional true
value (CTV) which is given by reference samples, or by a reference method
(absolute).
Faced with this situation, many “chemist-analysts” consider that they have only
one means at their disposal to validate their method and verify their measurement
results: to repeat the analyses on samples characterized by known values which have
Traceability to National Standards 139
The influence of the type of the method is not insignificant. It can be classified in
three categories according to the principle of calibration which is used.
The method for the traceability chain consists of separately identifying the
elementary quantities which have been measured in the analysis process and linking
them to national standards. Should these properties have a significant effect on the
results of an analysis, then the requirements defined in the ISO/IEC 17025 written
standard in sections 5.4 and 5.6 must be complied with.
This assessment can then be used as a tool of the functional analysis of the
measurement process. In their concern to help industrials and laboratories as a
whole, EURACHEM (European Cooperation for Chemical Analysis) and the
CITAC (International Committee for the Traceability in Chemical Analyses) have
published a document which is a guide to the assessment of uncertainties of
measurement.
However, one should always keep in mind that the objective is to satisfy an
industrial need and therefore one should estimate the share contributed by each one
of the causes of uncertainty and then compare their total sum to the final uncertainty
of the result of the analysis.
Another technique consists of comparing the results of the sample with those of
a reference method from the first two categories, for example, measuring out fat in
milk by infrared spectrometry compared with an ether-hydrochloric extraction.
Traceability to National Standards 141
In the case of physical methods of chemical analysis, the question is not so much
to find the track of a particular document; it is to be able to prove that the techniques
used for “adjusting” the method make it possible to have confidence in the
measurement result and the uncertainty which goes with it. On the other hand, the
question arises: “what is to be connected and how do you prove the connection?”.
The answer is “yes, it is”. The traceability to a national standard is valid; the
accuracy of the means of reference is in the order of 0.1 milliseconds in France and
the timekeeping of this clock is controlled from an atomic clock connected to the
national standards: in France, the Laboratoire Système de Références Espace Temps
(SYRTE), in Germany, the Physikalish Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), and in
Italy, the Instituto Electro Nazionale Galiléo Ferraris (IENGF).
Should all the gauged glassware be verified and how often should this be done?
This equipment may represent more than 80% of a “chemistry” laboratory’s bank of
measuring equipment. Therefore, you need to be cautious about this demand. It is
possible to verify one volume per weighing:
1. However, what uncertainty can you guarantee when you weigh a volume of
water from a micropipette of 10 µl?
2. Is this uncertainty comparable to the maximum errors allowed for this order of
pipettes?
Surveys of new or “precision” material have been undertaken and are currently
being continued in some laboratories; they conclude, for the moment, that about
142 Metrology in Industry
80% of the verified glassware was within the error limits allowed by their class or
their requirements.
It is then possible, depending on the various cases, to trust the values of the
permissible maximum errors and use them in the evaluation of the overall
uncertainty of measurement.
Once again, it is the analysis of the need and the calculation of the uncertainties
which tell you whether the method of connection is relevant and whether it is
reasonable to invest in these verifications. The decision to calibrate a
spectrophotometer will depend on the type of analysis made with this
spectrophotometer.
To sum up, the principle of this method consists of an elution of the elements
constituting a sample; the detection at a time T is depending on each one of the
constituent elements. This technique seeks to make use of reference products so as
to be able to identify the constituent elements.
The reference materials are obtained by the user through successive dilutions
(mass and volume). The user, before turning his attention to the connections of these
two quantities, has to determine the contribution to the overall uncertainty of the
injection system, the geometry of the column, the analysis temperature, the response
of the detector and the response of the integrator.
In order to reduce the influence of the successive dilutions, the same parent
solution has to be used for each dilution, as long as the sought for uncertainty
permits it.
Traceability to National Standards 143
When the laboratory uses reference materials (RM) of its own or from outside, a
procedure has to be established which makes it possible to check, to use a new
sample and to compare the response of the measuring equipment, with the two
samples of RM (the older one and the newer one), in order to determine the
systematic component of the uncertainty related to the reference. Moreover, the
laboratory must be absolutely sure about the homogeneousness of a lot, the
sampling conditions, etc.
The criteria that rule the decision to renew the RM must be written down. These
RMs must meet the previous requirements and be applied to the standards related to
the SI; when this cannot be done, the products used as references must be treated
like consumable products used as part of the tests or analyses. In addition, the
laboratory should have at its disposal a range of RMs adapted to its sector of
analysis, if these RMs are available.
The file relating to the equipment should always contain its follow-up
information, especially the follow-up of the monitoring of the coherence of the
product which is used to control the drift over of the response of the measuring
equipment.
The reference materials and the chemical standards have to be clearly labeled so
that they can be unambiguously identified and referenced in relation to the
certificates and other documents that go with them, and so that their documentary
traceability is secured. The information must be available and mention the duration
of preservation, the storing conditions, the applicability, and the restrictions of use.
The made-up standards should be treated as the reagents, in relation to labeling.
Details about the tests of homogeneity and stability, the methods used for
certification, uncertainties and variations of the stated values are usually obtainable
from the producers and this information must be used to assess the quality of the
CRM and whether it is appropriate to use it for a given analysis.
The required purity of chemical standards can be defined in relation with the
tolerances of the method. For example, a tolerance of 0.1% of the targeted value
requires the chemical standard to have a precision of concentration significantly
better than 99.9%.
5.9.5. Conclusion
In the domains of what we have called chemical analysis, as well as in the field
of the measurement of the basic quantities of the SI, it is fundamentally important to
remain open-minded and to take the whole process of measurement into
consideration. Thus, metrology is neither the science of measurements (as defined in
the Concise Robert Dictionary) nor the science of uncertainties (Pierre Giacomo –
Honorary Director of the BIPM), but “the conscience of the process of
measurement”.
The subcontractor will need to prove that the operations of calibration and
verification that he performs are traceable to the SI, by using the document ILAC P
10, for example.
In any case, there will come a time when the connection to national standards
can only be proved by showing a calibration certificate delivered by an accredited
laboratory. As for the principal, he must demonstrate that the services of calibration
and verification he has ordered from the subcontractor are relevant.
During an audit, the best way to ensure that the stipulated requirements have
been met is to rely on the technical and documentary requirements of the ISO/IEC
17 025 norm about technical and documentary requirements.
5.11. Bibliography
French norm NF X 07-010, The metrology function in the firm, December 1992
(www.afnor.fr)
Guide ISO 34:2000, Quality system requirement for the production of reference materials.
ISO-CASCO
ILAC, Guide for calibration and maintenance of measuring test equipment in laboratories,
February 1994 (www.ilac.org)
BCR, Report reference materials – checking the quality of the analyses of agricultural
produce, JJ Beliardo – BCR
ISO 9004: 2000 System of Quality Management – Guidelines for the improvement of
performances (www.iso.org/iso/fr/iso 9000-14000/tour/magical.html)
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Chapter 6
The control of the measurement processes resulting from the application of the
norm ISO 9001 (2000) is an inducement to ensure that the measurement process
“does produce” correct results. This type of demand also applies to testing and
calibration laboratories.
These measures can have significant technical and financial implications for a
firm or a laboratory. For firms there are two immediate consequences of this
requirement:
– the need to have the intervals of calibration of the instruments under control;
– the need to set up methods of monitoring the measuring instruments.
The determination of the calibration intervals and their modification, plus the
setting up of the methods of monitoring, make it possible to minimize the risk, or at
least to control it.
These methods should satisfy some criteria in order to work efficiently and be
applicable when the instruments in use are monitored:
– ease of implementation: in many cases, these methods have to be implemented
by the instrument operators;
– speed of execution: the time needed to implement these methods must be short,
so that the monitoring can be done frequently;
– use of the results: the results should be easily understood and provide the
operators with information;
– motivation of the operators: the operators must be interested in the methods
and motivated to use them.
Principle
This method consists of deliberately duplicating some critical elements of the
firm’s metrological system so as to easily compare information that should normally
be in agreement. Any deviation makes it possible to easily detect a fault.
Calibration Intervals and Methods 151
Hypothesis
The method rests on the assumption that the probability of a similar and
simultaneous drift in two instruments is low. This assumption may lead to choosing
measuring instruments which are technologically different or from different
manufacturers.
Applications
This method is implemented, in particular, in relation reference standards:
standard rings, standard masses, etc. The reference standard represents the first link
of the calibration chain inside the firm; if it happens to drift, this may entail serious
errors of measurement and, most importantly, these are undetectable if no
duplicating item is available in the firm. Let us mention, by way of example,
reference-standard rings whose 80 mm diameter has altered by 2 µm in a year; this
alteration is to be compared to the uncertainty on the known diameter of the ring
which was +/- 0.17 µm. The cause of the alteration was probably a defect in the
stabilization of the material.
Principle
This method is based on the examination of the measurement results and the
calculation of characteristic values such as the standard deviation of repeatability, or
on drafting graphs, and comparing them to typical values or to standard graphs.
Hypothesis
This method assumes that instruments of the same nature, or the same
technology, perform more or less similarly. Take, for example, platinum-resistance
temperature sensors; the model of the variation of the resistance as a function of the
temperature is shown by a second degree polynomial:
R = Ro (1 + at + bt 2)
It is widely accepted that the value Ro can vary between two thermometers, but
the general aspect of the curve remains parabolic, and a discontinuity in the curve
will act as a warning.
Applications
The two following examples illustrate this method:
– An electronic comparator made of a table fitted out with two inductive sensors
is generally used to calibrate standard gauges. A method can be used to monitor
152 Metrology in Industry
MEANS METHOD
RESULTS
OF
MEASUREMENT
Just as any manufacturing process, even one that is perfectly controlled, cannot
turn out identical products, so the measurement process comes with errors of
measurement that fluctuate from one result to the next. That is why it is necessary to
attempt to monitor and control the measurement processes.
Principle
The objective of this method is to place and then maintain the process under
“statistical monitoring”: the dispersions of the results that are observed are only due
to the random fluctuations of the instrument or of the environmental conditions, and
sometimes to the operator’s initiatives, but not to attributable causes that can be
controlled. From a statistical point of view, it can be said that the samples
represented by the series of measurements of the same object are extracted from the
same population and so have the “same mean”.
Check standard
Monitoring standards have to be used to implement these techniques. A
provisional definition of monitoring standards may be measuring instrument,
material measure, or product, whose function is to generate or achieve the value of a
quantity in a stable way in time. These standards are used at regular intervals to
ensure a statistical control of the measurement processes. Several examples illustrate
this concept.
There are numerous types of control charts, but in relation to the monitoring of
the measurement processes, three should be retained: the chart of the mean, the chart
of the standard deviation, and the cumulative sum chart.
These two estimators will be called m and s. Two cases are to be considered to
calculate the value of m. Either you know the value of m, thanks to a calibration of
the monitoring standard by a method of a higher accuracy, and you use the value of
m supplied by the calibration, or the monitoring standard is only supposed to be
stable and m should be estimated by performing a number of series of
measurements. The series of measurements should be sufficiently representative of
the different operating conditions so as to ensure a proper characterization of the
distribution.
nh
1
xh =
nh
∑x
i =1
ih
1 nh
∑ ( x ih − x h )
2
s h2 =
nh − 1 i = 1
The variance of the population should be estimated by use of s by combining the
different variances:
s 02 =
(n 1 − 1) s12 + ( n2 − 1) s 22 +A+( nk − 1) s k2
=
ν1s12 + ν2 s 22 +A+ν k s k2
(n 1 − 1) + ( n 2 − 1) +A+( nk − 1) ν1 + ν2 +A+ν k
s0
estimators m and ,. The mean of the series of the n measurements will be noted
n
on the graph.
The values of the warning limits (WL) and control limits (CL) will be the
coefficients 2 and 3 respectively appearing in front of the estimator of the standard
deviation of the mean. They can be modified in accordance with the risk you are
willing to take. Nevertheless, using a whole multiple of the standard deviation is
certainly sufficient and more meaningful for metrologists.
The warning and control limits for the standard deviation are:
s ≤ s 0 F1− α ( n − 1,ν )
The initial phase of the drawing up of the chart is bound to involve progress
because, practically all the time, it will be noticed that the process is not “under
control” and the attempts to find the attributable causes will be a indicator of
obvious progress. It seems that the control charts of the mean and of the standard
deviation both deserve attention; they provide complementary information on the
way the process works. A variation of the mean reveals a drift either of the
instrument or of the environmental conditions, whereas an abnormal increase of the
standard deviation indicates that the measurement process is not stable. Leaving the
checking limits means a compulsory examination of the measurement process.
If the successive values are all obtained in the region of m, the cumulated sum
remains close to zero, but if on the contrary a phenomenon of drift occurs, it is
quickly detected.
As, in order to study the tendency, the cumulated sum smoothes out the paths, it
saves supplementary treatments on the chart of the mean. It is possible to use a
mobile mean to “smooth out” the series.
s(t)
+ a
tim e
-a
Calibration means the passive observation of the calibration status without any
action. Setting the calibration status to zero or to some other conventional value is
called adjustment. Nevertheless, once a calibration is performed, the calibration
error is kept in due consideration either by a physical adjustment or by a software a
posteriori correction of the successive measures. Therefore, we speak of calibration
interval independently if it is followed by a physical or software adjustment,
meaning the time interval at which the calibration condition of a measuring
instrument is measured and its value is taken into account for the subsequent
measurements.
Let us suppose that the measuring instrument at hand is kept under stochastic
control, according to the methods explained in the previous sections, by means of
repeated measurements of check standards, whose results are registered on a control
chart as in Figure 6.2. Two calibration interval determination policies can be
considered.
In the first policy, the measuring instrument is always kept under stochastic
control and the calibration condition is almost continuously monitored on a control
chart. The recalibration is only performed when deemed necessary, for example
when the calibration condition exceeds an alert threshold ± m , which is fixed
below the limit of permissible errors ± a , as depicted in Figure 6.3.
160 Metrology in Industry
+a
+m
time
∆t
-m
-a
On the other hand, when using the second policy, the monitoring of the
calibration condition can only be performed for a certain learning period useful to
identify a stochastic model suitable to describe the evolution in time of the
calibration condition. Such a learning period can be sufficient to evaluate the risk of
using the measuring instrument “out of calibration” when it is used at a certain time
after calibration. The optimal calibration interval is then identified by time interval
which guarantees that such a risk does not exceed a certain fixed level. In this case,
the control chart and check standard are only used for a limited period, after which a
certain reasonable rule is deduced and the calibration interval is determined.
exceeded the alert threshold m at a certain check, but that it has exceeded the limits
of permissible errors before the next check, therefore leading to the unpleasant
situation of an instrument out of calibration before the adjustment is performed (see
last example in Figure 6.3).
In addition to the criteria in section 6.2, a cost function can be added by inserting
the cost either of the use of an instrument out of calibration, or of repeated
calibrations, with the aim to minimize the total cost. For safety, one should choose a
brief calibration interval, which means calibrating very frequently, to reduce the
risks and the costs of using an instrument out of calibration. On the other hand, the
cost of calibrations depends on the operations themselves, either if calibration is
performed internally or by an external body, the cost of instrument unavailability
during the calibration, plus other costs as standard breakage or their equivalent.
Therefore, to reduce calibration costs, one is led to calibrate very seldom, which
increases the calibration interval. These two contrasting tendencies can be
formulated by a suitable annual cost function, whose minimization leads to the
identification of the optimal cost saving calibration interval.
6.4. Bibliography
ISO 10012, Measurement management system – requirement for measurement processes and
measuring equipment (2002)
AFNOR, FD X 06-030, Application of statistics – guide for the setting up of the statistical
control of processes (1992)
OIML (International Organization of Legal Metrology): “Advice for the determination of the
intervals of recalibration of the measuring equipments used in testing laboratories”,
International Document no. 10, (1984)
DR. Cox, HD. Miller, The Theory of Stochastic Processes, Science Paperbacks, London:
Chapman and Hall (1965)
Statistical Methods in Research and Production, 4th ed, edited by Owen L. Davies and Peter
L. Goldsmith, London and New York: Longman (1984)
Gérard Brunschwig and Alain Palsky, “Statistical control of processes (MSP) – Utilization of
control charts”, Techniques of the Engineer R - 290
Marc Priel and Christian Ranson, “Let’s make sure of the quality of our measurements”,
International Metrology Congress, Lyon (1991)
Chapter 7
7.1. Introduction
Whether the decisions taken are apt and wise directly depends on the quality of
the received information, that is to say, on the results of the measurements.
The systems of observation and comparison and the standard make up the
measurement system.
Note: the words “error” and “uncertainty” which stand for two different
concepts must be carefully distinguished; they must not be confused or
interchangeably used.
Measurements and Uncertainties 165
It is now admitted that once all the known or suspected components of the error
have been assessed and the adequate corrections have been made, there still remains
an uncertainty about the value of the stated result (the correction is done as
accurately as possible, but it is never perfect).
probability
uncertainty
error
values that
value 1 value 2 value 3
could be
attributed to
result true value the mesurand
The metrologist’s aim is to get a result close to the right value. In order to reach
this goal, he will reduce systematic errors by applying corrections and random errors
by repeating his measuring process.
This new approach was initiated in 1980 by a working party formed within the
context of the International Bureau of Weights and Measurements (BIPM). It has
resulted in the publication of an ISO guide in 1993 entitled “Guide for the
expression of measurement uncertainty”, also known under its acronym, “GUM”.
This chapter is based on the concepts and notations written in the 1993 ISO guide.
The GUM is referred to in numerous national norms.
166 Metrology in Industry
when these quantities are used to express uncertainties the following notations will
be written:
– variance of X: u 2 ( X )
– standard uncertainty of X: u ( X ) = u 2 ( X )
– covariance of X 1 and X 2 : u ( X 1 , X 2 )
u(X 1, X 2 )
– linear correlation coefficient: r ( X 1 , X 2 ) =
u ( X 1 )× u ( X 2 )
– combined uncertainty: uc ( y )
– expanded uncertainty: U = kuc ( y ) with k as coverage factor.
It will be noticed that the u symbol found in the notations is the initial letter of
the word uncertainty.
To make the analysis of the measurement process correct is most likely the
toughest and trickiest task in the assessment of uncertainties. This analysis demands
some technical abilities, an inquisitive mind and a sense of analysis. It can only be
performed by somebody who perfectly masters the technique of measuring.
MEANS METHOD
RESULT
OF
MEASUREMENT
The following list (from the GUM) can also be used in order to have as
exhaustive a list as possible:
a) incomplete definition of the measurand;
b) imperfect realization of the definition of the measurand;
c) non-representative sampling: the measured sample may not represent the
defined measurand;
7.3.3. Errors
The error concept is ideal and errors cannot be known. The objective of the
metrologist is to declare a result as close as possible to the true value. So, for this
purpose, he has to reduce the errors.
Measurements and Uncertainties 169
It is always possible to split up the error into a systematic error and a random
error.
Note 1: the random error is equal to the error minus systematic error.
Note 2: like true value systematic error and its causes cannot be completely
known.
170 Metrology in Industry
Measuring
True Result
value
systematic random
error
The objective of any metrologist is to provide a result close to the true value;
hence the need to cut down the errors. How can these errors be cut down?:
– generally random errors are cut down by repeating the measurements and
calculating the arithmetic mean of the readings;
– systematic errors are cut down by applying corrections.
Let us consider a very simple case: an operator uses a glass liquid dilatation
thermometer. He has it calibrated by a laboratory which gives it back with a
calibration certificate indicating a correction (appropriate around 20°C) equal to
+0.3°C. The operator takes the temperature of a bath and he reads it as 19.3°C; the
numeric value of his measurement result is then:
y = x + Ce
y = 19.3 °C + 0.3 °C
y = 19.6 °C
172 Metrology in Industry
where:
– y is the numeric value of the measurement result;
– x is a one reading (or the mean of readings if measurement process has been
repeated);
– Ce is the calibration correction.
When the process of measurement has been thoroughly analyzed and a certain
number of causes of error have been identified, do not boast, but think of all those
forgotten ones.
information at his disposal to calculate the measurement or test result he gets: for
example, a series of readings of the instrument, the value of a correction read in a
calibration certificate, the value of a quantity obtained from a book, the measuring
or the assessment of the effects of an influence quantity, etc.
The corrections (or corrective factors) appear among the Xi, as well as some
quantities which take all the other sources of variability into account: the different
observers, the instruments, samples, laboratories and times of the measurements.
Therefore, the function f does not merely refer to a physical law, but to the
process of measurement or test; in particular, the function must consider all the
quantities that significantly contribute to the uncertainty of the final result.
You must be aware that the most critical phase of the evaluation of the
uncertainty of a result happens when the mathematical model describing the
measurement is being written.
If you omit to introduce a correction into the model (even if it is estimated equal
to zero, due to ignorance), you will forget about it when the law of propagation of
uncertainties is applied. That is why the stage during which the measurement
process is analyzed and as thorough as possible an assessment of the causes of error
is made is the key part of the estimation of measurement uncertainties.
s2
uc = + u2
n
in which s represents the variance of repeatability of the measurement process and n
the number of measurements defined in the measurement procedure; the result is
referred to the arithmetic mean of n observations.
Therefore, the uncertainty is the result of the combination of two terms; it can be
admitted that in order to optimize the number of observations n, the two components
have to be of the same quantity.
Application:
– let us suppose that s = 5 and u = 3;
– let us estimate the optimal number of measurements;
– the diagram below illustrates the situation;
– the curve s / n shows the decrease of the variable part of the uncertainty as a
function of n and the curve u = 3 shows the invariable part. As you watch the curve
of the compound uncertainty you can observe that increasing the number of
measurements n does not make the uncertainty drop dramatically, for n > 5 for
example.
7.00
6.00
5.00
Uncertainties
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Number of repetitions "n"
When the model of the measurement process has been established, the
contribution of each one of the input quantities to the uncertainty of the announced
measurement result will have to be assessed.
Measurements and Uncertainties 175
Two methods can be used to estimate the numeric value (standard deviation or
variance) of each one of the components: Type A method and Type B method. If
there are enough resources, all the components can be estimated with Type A
methods. Type B methods require experience and technical skills.
When a measurement process is repeated while keeping (as well as possible) the
same conditions, a scattering of the measured values is generally observed, if the
measurement process has a good enough resolution. With n independent values xi ,
the best estimator of the standard deviations is given by the arithmetic mean of the
individual values xi . The best estimator of the expectation of the population is
given by the arithmetic mean of the individual values x. The estimator of the
expectation is given by:
1 n
x= ∑ xi
n i =1
1 n
s= ∑ (xi − x )
n − 1 i=1
The number of measurements in each series being (n1, n2 ... nk), a better
knowledge of the variance of the total population can be obtained by combining the
different estimators (pooled variance):
υ1s12 + υ 2s 22 + ... + υk sk 2
s2 =
υ1 + υ 2 + ... + υ k
s2
u 2 (x ) =
n
These methods are used to quantify the uncertainties of the different components
occurring in the model of the measurement process: uncertainty about the
calibration corrections, uncertainty about the environment corrections, etc. Type B
methods are used when you cannot or you do not want to use statistical methods.
These Type B methods will be based on the experience of the operators, on some
tests, and on the knowledge of physical phenomena.
Measurements and Uncertainties 177
For each one of the Xj occurring in the model describing the measurement
process, the corresponding standard uncertainties will be “assessed” by using all the
available technical information (extent and a priori distribution of possible values).
xi =
1
(aii + ais )
2
s x2 =
1
(aii − ais )2
i
12
If the difference between the two limits (lower and upper) is noted 2ai, the
equation above can be written:
1
s x = ai2
i
3
( )
from which the standard uncertainty of xi can be assessed as u xi =
a
.
3
These calculations correspond to a rectangle distribution, which means that xi is
as likely to take some value or other in the interval [aii , ais].
The following table sums up various practical cases. The first column specifies
the type of the component, the second the a priori selected distribution law and the
third indicates which calculations to make.
178 Metrology in Industry
A priori
Component Calculation method
distribution
Resolution of an indicating rectangle If the resolution is b u = b / 12
device.
Hysteresis. rectangle If the maximal difference between
the indications obtained by
increasing and decreasing values is
b, then u = b / 12
Effect of influence quantities derivative of sine If the variations of the temperature
varying between two extrema in a arc are referred to by ± a, then u =
more or less sinusoidal way, for a/1.4
example, the temperature of
premises whose temperature is
regulated.
Drift of a measuring instrument. If the analysis of the results of the
successive calibrations reveals a
tendency that can be modeled, then
a correction is made. The
uncertainty about this correction is
assessed, for example by a
regression technique.
To conclude, too great a stress should not be put on the differences between
these two approaches; a Type B method based on long experience is preferable to a
repetition of observations that would not implement all the causes of variability.
Conversely, when you have little experience, repetitions make it possible to get
closer to the uncertainty. In section 7.7, an example will be found in which the
uncertainty is assessed by only using Type A methods; the norm ISO 5725:
“Accuracy of results and measurement methods” is put into practice.
Once the model has been worked out and the standard uncertainties of the input
quantities of the model have been assessed, the law of propagation of uncertainty
can then be used to calculate the combined uncertainty on the measurement result.
u (y) =
2
∑ ⎢ ⎥ u (xi ) + 2 ∑∑
⎣ ∂xi ⎦
c
i =1 i =1 J =i +1
Note: it will be noticed that the partial derivatives represent the “coefficients of
sensitivity of the result” to the different input quantities. For example, if in the
mathematical model the temperature is mentioned as an influence quantity, then the
corresponding partial derivative may represent the coefficient of temperature of the
measuring instrument.
In this case the terms of covariance are zero and the law of propagation is more
simply written:
2
N
⎡ ⎤
uc2 ( y ) = ⎢ ∂f ⎥ u 2 (xi )
∑ ∂x
i =1 ⎣ i ⎦
7.6.1.1. Situation when the input quantities are independent and the model is a sum
y = x1 + x2 + ..... + x N
then:
uc2 ( y ) = u 2 (x1 ) + u 2 (x2 ) + ..... + u 2 (xN )
Measurements and Uncertainties 181
This type of model is frequently seen in chemistry. In this case, the relative
variance of the result Y is the sum of the relative standard uncertainties for the
different input quantities xi of the model:
uc2 ( y ) u 2 (x1 ) u 2 ( x2 ) u 2 (x N )
= + + ...... +
2
y x12 x22 2
xN
In this case the terms of covariance will not be zero any more. The covariance
u (xi , x j ) can be assessed; three methods of assessment are possible:
A practical solution will consist of varying r for the extreme values, -1, 0, +1,
and watching the values of the uncertainties on y and for safety’s and caution’s sake
keep the utmost value of the uncertainty. It is also possible, through reasoning based
on physics, to evaluate r, but this requires much experience.
The example below uses this expression of the covariance to calculate the
uncertainty about the sum of the two masses; the common term comes from using
the same standard.
The way the model is written may lead to simplifications when the law of propagation of
the uncertainty is applied.
Let us take the following example: two masses A and B, whose nominal value is 50 g,
are compared to a same standard E. Then, A and B are used together to make a 100 g
standard: what is the uncertainty on the 100 g mass thus obtained y = A + B?
If you apply the law of propagation of uncertainty directly, you get the following
equation in which there is a term of covariance. This term comes from the fact that A and
B have been calibrated in relation to the same standard E:
uc2 ( y ) = u 2 ( A) + u 2 (B ) + 2u ( A, B )
If you take the precaution to simplify the model it can be written as follows:
y = E + x1 + E + x2
If then you apply the law of propagation of uncertainties, you get an equation in which
there are no more terms of covariance:
uc2 ( y ) = u 2 (E ) + u 2 (x1 ) + u 2 (E ) + u 2 (x2 )
Of course the same result will be obtained if you consider that 2u ( A, B ) = 2u 2 (E ) (see
GUM section F1.2.3); it will be noticed that the covariance of A and B is the variance of
their common terms. What is common to A and B is the standard E. To conclude, it is
better to use a developed written model of processes; it avoids introducing covariance
terms.
Note: when the non-linearity of f becomes significant, you should include terms
of a higher order in Taylor’s development for the expression of u c2 ( y ); see the
GUM sections 5.1.2 and H.1.7.
Measurements and Uncertainties 183
7.7. Use of the performances of the method (repeatability and freedom of bias)
to assess the uncertainty of the measurement result
The method developed in this section constitutes a means which supplements the
procedure of the GUM (see Chapter 8) when you do not know how to, or you do not
want to, write or use the mathematical model to describe the measurement process.
This method is based on the idea that information can be drawn from the results
of interlaboratory tests or intra-laboratory tests to assess the uncertainty. The
method is described in the fascicule of documentation AFNOR X 07 - 021:
Assistance to the process of assessment and use of the uncertainty of measurements
and test results (1999). This idea has been taken up at the ISO level by the
“statistical methods” 69 Technical Committee; they are the subject of the ISO TS
21748 publication “Guide to the use of repeatability, reproducibility and trueness
estimates in measurement uncertainty estimation”.
There are numerous situations for which the method for obtaining the result is
complex enough to make it impossible to model it. This situation is particularly
found in some test processes. In order to ensure a reproducibility of the results, the
conditions in which the test method is implemented are vital and must be perfectly
controlled.
The quality of a test method is judged by its accuracy (see ISO 5725):
– trueness of agreement between the average value obtained from a large series
of test results and an accepted reference value;
– precision of agreement between independent test results obtained under the
stipulated conditions.
Other characteristics of the method (e.g., linearity, robustness, etc.) can also
contain some interesting information to assess the uncertainty. The ISO/CEI 17025
norm provides that the validation data can be used to evaluate the uncertainty of the
measurement result:
The most quoted characteristics which quantify the performances of the method
are “detection limit, selectivity of the method, linearity, repeatability and/or
reproducibility, robustness against external influence, etc.”. All these characteristics
matter when making sure that a method is capable of meeting the needs of the
customer of the test, but not all are useful for assessing the uncertainty. In general,
knowing the repeatability, the reproducibility, the robustness of the linearity and the
freedom of bias are sufficient to assess the uncertainty of the result.
Those readers who might find it difficult to connect this with the traditional
application of the GUM can imagine a “Type A super method”, which alters all the
identified factors as having an effect on the measurement result.
summarized in Chapter 8. The other branches present the channel “use of the
method’s validation data”; this channel can be activated either by an intra-laboratory
approach or by an interlaboratory approach.
Definition
Definition of the
measurand,
Measuran ,
List of uncertainty
components
Intra-laboratory
Intra laboratory interlaboratory
Inter laboratory
approach approach
Physical
Yes model
model?? No
Including Statistical
correction model
Analytical
method
Proficiency testing
Proficiency testing
Evaluation
Evaluation Organization of
Organisation of
Method accuracy ISOguide
Iso guide43
43
of standard
of standard - uncertainties
uncertainties repetitions,
repetitions,
Iso 5725
ISO 5725
validation
validation method
method +
Iso/Dis
ISO/Dis13528
13528
Use of values
Variability
already published
Published
+
+
Use of propagation Adding
Adding others
other uncertainty
uncertainty Uncertainty on the bias
Uncertainty onon the
thebias
bias
law of uncertainty factors e.g.
factors and factors not
not taken
taken
and factors not taken
GUM e.g.uncertainty
uncertainty on on
thethe bias
bias into account during
into account during
interlaboratory
intelaboratory
interlaboratory
study
study
y = m +C Jus +C Lin + ∑c x + e
i
i i
where:
y = result of the measurement;
m = true value;
C Jus = correction of freedom of bias of the method;
C Lin = correction of linearity;
∑ ci xi = corrective terms for robustness, sampling, time, the operator;
i
e = residual error (repeatability).
186 Metrology in Industry
u 2 ( y ) = u 2 (cJus ) + u 2 (cLin ) + ∑ c u (x ) + S
2 2
i i
2
r
Just as a statistical model has been established for the intra-laboratory approach,
the same thing can be done for the interlaboratory approach with:
y = m +δ + B + ∑c x + e
i
i i
where:
y = measurement result;
m = true value;
δ = freedom of bias of the method;
B = laboratory effect;
ci xi = corrective terms for not included effects at time of interlaboratory tests;
e = residual error (repeatability).
The variance of reproducibility is the sum of the variance of repeatability and the
intra-laboratory variance:
S R2 = S L2 + S r2
u 2 ( y ) = u 2 (δ ) + S R2 + ∑ c u (x )
2 2
i i
If you plan a test (for a level of the quantity) you should use a table in the
following form:
Two statistical tests (Grubbs and Cochran tests) will then be used (homogeneity
test and elimination of ouliers). After checking the validity of the data, the average
level will be calculated; it is the arithmetic mean of the different values:
p
∑y
i =1
i
y=
p
then the standard deviation of repeatability sr:
p
∑s
i =1
i
sr =
p
and the standard deviation of reproducibility sR:
∑ (y − y )
p
1 2 n −1 2
sR = i + sr
p −1 i =1
n
188 Metrology in Industry
If the laboratory has applied the test method correctly and the obtained results
could have been partly used in the interlaboratory test, it may first be satisfied when
its uncertainty can related to the reproducibility as follows:
uc ( y ) = s R
This statement is not quite correct, because if you adopt this solution, you
actually modify the definition of the measurand; you are no longer concerned by the
value announced by a laboratory, but by the average value resulting from the tests
of all the laboratories. Considering that the standard uncertainty is equal to the
standard deviation of reproducibility may lead to overestimating the uncertainty,
which is being cautious, but it entails drawbacks, namely a standardization of
uncertainty. This practice may conceal real differences of quality between different
laboratories. It is preferable to give an attention to the intermediate repeatability.
Corrections of bias are seldom applied in some fields (e.g., analytical chemistry);
it is customary to improve the accuracy of the method until it is acceptable. This
procedure is developed in chemical analysis; you have to be able to decide whether
the bias is acceptable and the following test can be used. To calculate the
normalized error En, if this quantity is lower than 2 the deviation from the reference
is regarded as negligible:
xi − xRe f
EN =
ui2 + uRe
2
f
However, even if the deviation is not significant, the uncertainty of the reference
will come into this process and at least it will be necessary to consider that the
uncertainty due to the bias is equal to the uncertainty about the reference used:
u 2 (CJus ) = uRe2 f
Measurements and Uncertainties 189
The deviations from the line are calculated (deviation between the value
experimentally obtained and the value obtained by the model); these deviations are
then tested by comparing them to the repeatability to determine whether they are
significant. The following equation can be used as an uncertainty component related
to the lack of linearity. In this equation, the maximal residual constitutes the largest
deviation between the experimental points y and the modeled points y, by the
calibration curve drawn by the method of the least squares:
U (C Lin ) =
Residual Max
3
The reader has noticed that the terms of this type appear in the intra- or
interlaboratory approach. They represent all the contributions to the uncertainty of
the result which it has not been possible to implement, or that were not used when
the tests were being repeated. For further details, see the norm ISO TS 21748.
U = kuc ( y )
in which k is the extending factor. The value of the extending factor k is chosen
according to the level of confidence requested for the interval y - U, y + U;
generally k = 2 or 3. Choosing k = 2 is the same as considering an interval with a
confidence level of approximately 95%.
The numerical values of the estimation Y and its standard uncertainty u (y) or U
must not be given with an excessive number of digits. Two significant digits are
usually enough for the standard uncertainty and the expanded uncertainty:
Y=y±U
190 Metrology in Industry
As for the numerical value of the result, the last figure to retain is the one which
holds the same position as the second significant figure in the expression of the
uncertainty.
The estimate of the measurand has to be rounded according to its uncertainty: for
example, if y = 10.057 62 Ω with u c (y ) = 27 m, u c (y ) has to be rounded up to
10.058 Ω.
7.9. Example
mx = ms + δmD + δm + δmc + δB
where:
m x : value of the unknown mass (conventional mass);
ms : value of the standard mass (conventional mass);
δmD : drift of the standard mass since the last calibration;
Measurements and Uncertainties 191
E4: Estimation of the standard uncertainties on the input quantities of the model
– Reference standard ( ms ): the calibration certificate indicates the value of
10,000.005 g with an expanded uncertainty of 45 mg (extending factor k = 2).
Therefore, the value of the standard uncertainty is u (m s ) =
45
= 22.5 mg.
2
– Drift of the standard ( δmD ): the drift of the value of the standard mass is
inferred from previous calibrations; its value is considered equal to zero with
variations of ± 15 mg. If a rectangular distribution is surmised, the value of the
corresponding standard uncertainty is:
u (δmD ) =
15
= 8.66 mg
3
– Comparator ( δm , δmc ): a previous evaluation of the repeatability of
comparison of two masses having the same nominal value of 10 kg has resulted in a
variance (accumulated; see section 7.5.2) of 625 mg2. No correction is applied to
make up for the variations due to the off-centering of the masses on the pan, but it is
considered that these effects result in a maximal variation of the indications of the
comparator of ± 10 mg; if a rectangular distribution is surmised, the corresponding
standard uncertainty is:
u (δmc ) =
10
= 5.77 mg
3
Differences
Series no. Mass Readings
observed
1 Standard +0.010 g
Unknown +0.020 g
Unknown +0.025 g
Standard +0.015 g +0.01 g
2 Standard +0.025 g
Unknown +0.050 g
Unknown +0.055 g
Standard +0.020 g +0.03 g
3 Standard +0.025 g
Unknown +0.045 g
Unknown +0.040 g
Standard +0.020 g +0.02 g
It will be noticed in this table that the sensitivity coefficients (partial derivatives)
are equal to 1; this comes from the fact that the mathematical model of the
measurement process is a sum.
Final result
The fiducial value of the 10 kg nominal value mass is: 10,000.025 kg ± 59 mg
(k=2).
7.10. Bibliography
Books
Twenty-seven Examples of Evaluation of Calibration Uncertainty, Collège Français de
Métrologie, (1999)
Christophe Perruchet, Marc Priel, Estimer l'incertitude – Mesures Essais (Assessing
uncertainty – Measurement and tests), Afnor (2000) ISBN 2-12-460703-0
Ignacio Lira, Evaluating the Measurement Uncertainty: Fundamentals and Practical
Guidance, Institute of Physics Publishing (2002) ISBN 0-7503-0840-0
Chapter 8
All these elements have an influence on the result. Thus, it is essential to make a
few general points:
– depending on the expected accuracy, the place where the instrument is used is
analyzed in order to reveal any possible significant interactions;
– so as to make sure of the quality of the measurement results, the qualification
of the operators has to be checked and ascertained. As in any field, it is important to
ensure the suitability of both the manpower and the function;
– it can be difficult to guarantee the quality of these activities without a good
document which describes, among other items, the measurement procedures.
Chapter written by Jean-Yves ARRIAT – Ascent Consulting, and Marc PRIEL – Laboratoire
National de Métrologie et d’Essais (LNE).
196 Metrology in Industry
These are, according to us, the main points that should be taken into account and
are what we define as the “environment of measuring”.
We will now take a closer look at some of the parameters. We suggest that the
reader carefully note each one of them. If the reader thinks that some of the
parameters do not concern him, he will be wrong. By way of example, the remarks
about electric measurements concern most laboratories as there are electronic
devices which can be sensitive to radioelectric disturbances in all measuring
instruments instruments.
We would like to emphasize the approach a firm should adopt: the specifications
on the conditions of temperature have to be established according to the margins on
the manufactured items, the uncertainties of measurement required to master the
manufacturing processes and the uncertainties of measurement which establish the
conformity of the manufactured products. It is one of the firm’s responsibilities to
check their implementation.
We would draw the reader’s attention to a very important point: the cost of
installation. You may wish to have a very hi-tech installation to make life easier, but
you must also have the means to ensure its maintenance; it is not enough to have the
funds to buy it, you also have to keep it functioning over time. In metrology, good
working organization and an ability to meet deadlines and under pressure are
usually the required qualities.
must be determined before the instrument is plugged in, in order to avoid harmful
condensations; likewise, when the equipment is temporarily stored after calibration,
means have to be found to make it possible to control the environmental conditions
as well as possible.
Particular attention must be given to the handling and the maintenance of air
conditioning systems; in some metrology laboratories, temperature is one of the
essential components in the budget of uncertainty. It could be considered that air
conditioning should be looked upon as a measuring instrument and be as well
looked after. Technical files with the recordings about all the maintenance
operations and adjustments, and charts of the temperature readings should be kept.
The fluctuations of the voltage of power supply may affect the performances of
the electrical measuring equipment.
One should consider taking certain precautions in order to protect the measuring
equipment from the influence of these disturbances, especially in those laboratories
that are close to a strong source of radioelectric disturbance (radiodiffusion
transmitter, etc).
200 Metrology in Industry
In many cases, the firm must calibrate the measuring equipment on-site where
they are used, either because the instruments cannot be transported or because once
they are installed they are not easily dismantled.
The calibration equipment used has to be specifically developed for that use
(robustness, container for the transportation, autonomy, etc.). The factors that
influence the different environmental parameters likely to be found on the site have
to be assessed. A specific procedure for the assessment of the uncertainty should be
prepared. It should, in particular, take into account the “sensitivity coefficients” of
the instruments to the different influence quantities (see Chapter 7).
Assuming that its metrology function does not automatically result in a company
creating a laboratory equipped with expensive material, the company can simply
obtain a few references such as boxes of gauge blocks, of smooth rings, of reference
temperature gauges, etc. These references will then be used to check such measuring
means as calipers, micrometer screws, air-conditioned chambers, etc.
The Environment of Measuring 201
The metrology function can subcontract out of the firm all or part of its
activities, or delegate some to other sectors of the firm (especially if it is an
industrial firm) but the person in charge of the metrology service remains
responsible for the metrology function and continues to manage it.
Metrologists must have the technical competence required to do their job. Their
job is precisely defined. The person responsible for the service ensures that the
qualification and experience of the personnel is maintained at an appropriate level
through continuing education. There are different ways to achieve this:
– the circulation of scientific and technical journals;
– information and training meetings;
– the participation in the work of vocational groups;
– training courses, etc.
The basic need for technical knowledge must not ignore certain useful human
qualities such as precision, which is not the least of them.
The metrology function also often takes the role of adviser about the choice of
measuring instrument and it participates in the training of the personnel who use the
equipment. Therefore, it should be aware of the need for information and should
inform the other people in the firm about the existence of courses that are in their
fields of activity, or likely to interest them. The metrology function puts them in
touch with different working entities which can answer their queries as far as
possible.
Given the number of documents that exist in a firm in relation to the metrology
function and their diversity, it is important to be well-organized, precise and
methodical when dealing with them. There are two categories of documents.
– the files related to the measuring equipment which can include specifications,
as well as the copy of the order, the report of revenue, the documents about
maintenance, about calibration and verification, etc.
These documents should be handled and set up with great care before they are
used. The time spent considering and specifying what you want is seldom wasted. It
often avoids later corrections, adjustments or alterations which are real problems for
quality.
The documents in which the measurement results are saved must be clearly
presented. Presentation must be given special attention and care, especially on the
transcription of the parameters and the measurement results; and remember to make
the documents reader-friendly. Similar documents should be as uniform as possible.
The results must be laid out accurately, clearly, unambiguously and in full, in
conformity with instructions which may be part of the method of measurement. The
results are given with their uncertainty, either calculated or estimated.
The signatories of the documents and the meaning of their signatures or initials
must be explained in a separate document. The importance of the signature must be
emphasized; it creates an awareness of responsibility for any metrological action.
Every document must be dated.
204 Metrology in Industry
It is vital for the reader that he or she should not to forget that a document is not
created for the personal satisfaction of its author, but to satisfy a need. The phase of
creation is fundamental, for it meets a need that has been expressed.
It is useful to put the documents into charts with the following information
(these lists can preferably be computerized):
– the sources of the documents;
– the titles of the documents;
– the category of readers the document target;
– the name of the signatory persons;
– the latest edition in use;
– the frequency of revision, etc.
These charts make it possible to know at all times the titles of the documents in
use and the name of their present readers.
The Environment of Measuring 205
The people who use the documents should immediately say if they do not
understand a document or if a document is outdated. Any irrelevant document
should not remain available; it could lead to errors and a loss of credibility in other
documents. Doubt is a generator of chaos.
8.4. Bibliography
8.5. Appendix
When you write a procedure, you must include a certain amount of information.
The level of information must be suitable to the level of knowledge of the potential
readers. The following are the main headings that you ought to consider, even if all
of them are not used:
8. Preliminary operations
The purpose of these operations is to guarantee the validity of the process after
you have ensured that the instrument works correctly; the description of these
operations can be found in specific documents. The operations have to be realized
so that the validity of the verification, or of the calibration, can be ensured. The
following are examples of these operations:
The Environment of Measuring 207
This document completes the procedure; it contains the results that have been
obtained from the calibration or the verification. At least one copy should be kept to
ensure traceability has been achieved. The document will be the calibration
certificate if calibration has occurred. In the case of verification, the report of the
verification will show which decision has been taken about the measuring
instrument verified. Whether a calibration or a verification, the operation will
appear in the instrument’s file and will be noted on the instrument’s identification
sheet.
For further information, you can consult the French documentation fascicle of
AFNOR titled “Practical method for the drafting of the procedures of calibration
and verification of measuring instruments”.
Chapter 9
About Measuring
Therefore, first of all, it is necessary that you should know well the physical
quantity, or quantities, to be measured. In the easiest cases it is enough to determine
one single quantity: a mass, a temperature, a length of time, an electric value, etc.
For example:
– the mass of a powder does not mean anything unless you know its water content;
– measuring a Weston battery is of no use if its temperature is not known;
The example of quartz is not so well-known. Even when set in air-tight bulbs,
quartz is slightly sensitive to atmospheric pressure. So, even in relation to the best
quartz oscillators, one should, strictly, take into account the atmospheric pressure at
which they are used.
The choice of instruments, the methods and the precautions will vary depending
on the object to be measured. Thus, the pressure exerted by a sensor to measure
dimensions is acceptable if the part you examine is made of metal, but it must be
rejected if the object is soft. The length of a material will raise other measuring
problems. Finally, if the object the length of which you want to know is a red-hot
metal ingot, you will have to use non-contact, then optical, methods. Another
example: electric resistances with two, three or four terminals require different
methods and measuring equipment.
The field of measurement is the set of values that the quantity to be measured
can take; this field is entirely defined by the minimal and the maximal values of the
quantity.
The range of measurement is the difference between the minimal value and the
maximal value.
It follows from these definitions that the range can be deducted from the field,
but not the reverse. Therefore, it is far more favorable to know the field rather than
the range.
For a building site, you have to choose instruments that are automatic and
multifunctional and the accuracy of which is limited; however, they must be
watertight and very robust.
All this can be taken into account when selecting the types of instruments.
There are many other influencing quantities: the hygrometric level of air, electric
and magnetic fields, shocks and vibrations and, it must be added, the location of the
instruments in the area, which act as an influencing parameter.
In other words, how do influencing quantities interact? And how does one
become free of them? This is a difficult problem because of the frequent lack of
information in technical notices. It can be solved by making a list of the influencing
quantities, finding their effects in order to get rid of them or compensate for them,
or even assess their effects. As an example let us take the case of metal gauges that
dilate when the temperature rises. It will be necessary:
– to assess the interference of the influencing temperature quantity: this may
entail finding out about the alloy of the gauges in order to know their dilatation
coefficient;
– to get rid of the influencing quantity, which – still in the same case – will
imply a reduction of the variations of temperature affecting the references and
elements being controlled;
– to proceed by compensation: this will be possible if the element to be
measured has the same dilatation coefficient as the gauges. If element and gauge are
kept at exactly the same temperature, this temperature will then be able to vary
without the comparison being affected;
– to undertake some calculations: more generally, if the element in question and
the gauges have different dilatation coefficients, it will be possible to measure the
temperature at which the comparing of length is done and calculate the error
resulting from the gap between the temperatures.
In the case of direct measurement, the user does not have to proceed to any
assembly. The user no longer has to bring together a comparator and separate
references; he uses an instrument that immediately gives a result: a caliper to
measure a length, a multimeter for a difference of potential, a frequency meter for a
frequency. Contrary to what it seems, this measurement is also a differential
measurement because there is in the instrument a reference of the same nature as the
measured magnitude: the caliper “refers” to its graduated body which, representing
a ruler, the multimeter compares the unknown voltage to that of its Zener diode, the
frequency meter compares the unknown frequency to that of its internal oscillator.
However, reference and comparator make up a whole, which leads one to forget that
it is a comparison that is being made. In some cases, the same instrument enables
the user to choose between differential measuring and direct measuring. This is true
of digital frequency meters if the user can choose between the inbuilt quartz and an
external synchronization signal. In fact, a direct measurement is a “masked”
differential measurement. Direct and differential measurements have the same
principle but set out in two different ways:
– differential setup is preferable for metrology laboratories;
– all-in instruments (masked differential measurements) are better suited for
industrial uses.
All these extra actions transform mere measuring into a “metrological action”.
216 Metrology in Industry
The secret of metrology lies in the saying, “More haste, less speed”. Indeed, to
avoid a series of measurements turning out to be useless, a many precautions must
be taken before starting:
– check the measuring assemblies;
– give sufficient time for the stabilization of the elements to be measured;
– use a guide list that you have drawn up for each type of operation;
– keep a laboratory notebook and write down all the information about the
operations: date, time, identification of the elements controlled, operations
undertaken, results, temperature, etc.
9.3.3. Measurements
Taking measurements may take little time compared with the preparation.
However, the metrological spirit urges one to repeat the measurements again and
again and to practice self-verification.
The three determinations of the 100 gram mass (reference) may possibly reveal a
systematic error. If, on the contrary, the three weighings are repeated correctly, it
will be a sign of exactness and it will be a plus in the evaluation of the uncertainty in
the two determinations of Mx.
You have to be all the more careful as all measuring benches are not based on
the same principle. For example, to control digital voltmeters there are:
– sources of reference providing round values of, for example, tension; for a
tension (source) of 10.000V a given voltmeter will display 10.003V;
– sources of reference that have to be adjusted until the voltmeter displays a
round value; the voltmeter of the example will show 10.000V when the source
supplies 9.997V.
The two results 10.003V and 9.997V, seemingly conflicting, represent the same
flaw in the voltmeter. The raw result of the control (10.003V or 9.997V) only means
something if one knows the principle of the measuring bench used and the method
applied.
218 Metrology in Industry
When a measuring problem is tackled for the first time, it is not unusual for the
preparation to last 20 to 30 times as long as the execution of the measurements.
Preparing actually means studying the problem, choosing a method and some
instruments, setting these up in a stable thermal surrounding, testing them and
critically assessing the results. At the risk of making the time spent on this
preparation even longer, it is advisable to write a procedure, especially if the
operations are exceptional and only irregularly performed.
In metrology, a set of measuring is completed when the values that have been
found have been written, printed, recorded or committed to memory. The expression
of the results must always indicate the two following elements:
– the designation of “the object” that has been measured: identification of the
instrument, of the subset, of the sample;
– the date, and in some cases the precise time of day of the measurings.
As for the actual result, it must include the three parts indicated in section 7.2 of
Chapter 7:
– the numerical value;
– the unit;
– the uncertainty.
The value of this measurement, with its many repetitions of the number 9, is not
easy to read, so it will be expressed differently.
The value of the mass is at -125µg (which implies “with regard to the nominal
mass”). In this form, the result includes more than three elements:
– the nominal value (1 kg), which is implied;
– the algebraic value of the variation (with regard to the nominal value);
– the uncertainty;
– the units, for the nominal value, the variation and the uncertainty.
3rd example: the frequency of a quartz measured with an atomic oscillator (cesium) is:
F = 4,999,999. 999985 hertz (symbol Hz)
To avoid using a great many 9s or 0s, the frequencies of oscillators are most
frequently expressed by their relative variation with regard to the reference.
In this example:
reference Fo = 5,000,000.000000 Hz
quartz F = 4,999,999.999985 Hz.
F − F0 ∆F −0.000 015 Hz
= = = − 3.10−12 (no dimension number)
F0 F0 5, 000,000 Hz
9.4.1. Graphs
These values are apparently close, but a diagram in a proper scale immediately
shows that indeed the results form a cluster, except the fourth result.
Value
0.704902
0.704901
0.704900
0.704899
0.704898
0.704897
0.704896
0.704895
0.704894
0.704893
0.704892
0.704891
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of measurements
9.4.2. Histograms
A histogram is a graph which for each value found gives the number of times it
has appeared (frequency). For the series of 7 measurements, taken as an example in
section 9.4.1 above, the histogram is as follows.
About Measuring 221
Frequency
3
0
892 893 894 895 896 897 898 899 900 901
Results
Figure 9.2.
The group of the six results on the histogram goes without any comment and the
isolated value stands out.
9.5.1. Be inquisitive
First and foremost, a metrologist has to be curious, and his curiosity must take
many forms, and be about everything. A metrologist must make inquiries:
– about the instruments he controls;
– about the proceedings;
– about the influential quantities.
But that is not all: he must also keep himself regularly informed of his firm’s
activities that have a direct influence on measuring problems, current and future. He
must visit laboratories and meet other metrologists.
9.5.4. Be observant
9.5.5. Be honest
This is a long list of qualities, but do not let that worry you. Tackling metrology
is the fate of those who intensely love measuring. You could almost assert that one
takes up metrology as one takes holy orders.
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Chapter 10
Solvay Research and Technology is the major research center of the group. Its
research programs take in Solvay’s activities, minus the pharmaceuticals sector.
10.2.1. Creation
The creation of a metrology sector in 1995 was the result of a 1994 survey
concerning the organization of the firm in conformity with quality insurance.
The main conclusions of the survey revealed the urgent need for some divisions
to join a quality system (ISO 9000, GLP-GMP) and the necessity to create a
metrological organization of the basic quantities (temperatures, pressures, mass flow
of gases, masses, time, etc.). The mission assigned to the organization was that it
should be a center of competences in which the means and experience of the site
were integrated, and in which the consistency of the management of the
metrological requirements was secured. The metrology sector was naturally
integrated to the group in charge of the activities concerning the instruments and the
automation on the site; some of its personnel who were technically competent were
recruited.
10.2.2. Missions
10.2.3. Organization
The metrology sector has organized itself in such a way as to provide a technical
competence which is adaptable to the needs of the client and to offer an
administrative organization which is as homogeneous as possible for all the internal
clients of the site. When he decides to set up a quality system, the client uses these
services in order to define and organize the calibration operations.
Once started, the process goes through the main following stages:
– inventory of the representative measuring equipment and analysis of the
metrological constraints is undertaken with the client;
– identification of the measuring equipment in agreement with the codification
that has been adopted and, using labels, marking the measuring equipment;
– introduction of the data and the specifications of the measuring equipment into
the database;
– checking whether the measuring equipment is suited to the needs specified by
the clients;
– calibration of the measuring equipment; drafting the documents and handing
them over;
– periodical follow-up of the measuring equipment.
Calibration activities are carried out either at the laboratory of metrology where
the instruments are returned, or directly on-site. Calibrating on-site makes it possible
to consider the measuring equipment in their environment; it also favors direct
dialog with the client. The metrology laboratory has air-conditioned premises, the
temperature of which is regulated and the hygrometry of which is under control. In
it are most of the working equipment, the standards, the data-processing tools, the
documents and the archives.
The figure below represents how the categories of measurements are distributed.
228 Metrology in Industry
Dimension 1%
Pressure Mass
30% 8% Flow 6%
Others
15% Speed 2%
Level 2%
Temperature
49% Others 4%
10.3. Metrology
10.3.1. Identification
The latter part also mentions the general identification of the equipment, and
thus a coherent link is ensured. Self-adhesive labels mark the measuring equipment
and instruments.
The measuring instruments or equipment are calibrated with the help of working
standards. In their turn, the working standards are periodically calibrated by
laboratories accredited by the OBE (Belgian Organization of Calibration), which is
itself a member of the EAL (European Cooperation for Accreditation of Laboratories).
Organization of Metrology at Solvay Research and Technology 229
The data concerning the measuring equipment are recorded in a file located in a
share zone of the firm’s local area network. All the clients can access and read the
file. The chief benefit of this organization is the updating of the source in real time
and the ability of the client to use his part of the file for his own internal
management.
Details of the work done are given in the calibration certificate; there are several
steps (or stages):
– the results of the calibration before corrective maintenance (adjustment or
repair); they concern the time since the last calibration and make it possible to verify
the possible impact of a measurement drift on the process;
– the comparison with the specifications (tolerances);
– the results of the calibration after, perhaps, corrective maintenance; the results
concern the period to come, beyond the date of the calibration;
– the final comparison with the specifications;
– the ruling about whether the measuring instrument that has been checked is
metrologically in conformity with the specifications.
The comparison of the calibration results with the instructions about measuring
equipment (tolerances) leads to two possible types of decisions to be decided:
– if the deviation is within the interval of tolerance, the measuring equipment is
said to be conformable and brought back into service;
– if the deviation is outside the interval of tolerance, the measuring equipment is
said to be not conformable, which means one of the three following solutions:
- adjustment or repair; both interventions require a new compulsory calibration
before the measuring equipment returns to service,
- downgrading; there will be a less demanding new prescription adapted to the
new use,
- scrapping; the instrument is judged to be unsuitable to measuring, it is
scrapped and some parts, intended for the repair of similar instruments, are
salvaged.
Qualified subcontracting personnel are used to carry out part of the activities.
They work according to the procedures and with the documents established by the
metrology function. The metrology function is responsible and answerable for the
quality of the performances of the subcontracting personnel.
Chapter 11
11.1. Introduction
This binding link between metrology and quality was taken into account by the
quality directors who took part in the drafting of the ISO standard of the 9000 series
on the “management of quality”.
From the beginning, a chapter (out of the 20 of the original standards) was
devoted to this theme. Its drafting by quality directors somehow raised problems for
its implementation by metrologists, mostly regarding the strictness of their
technique, particularly the specificity of the vocabulary.
On the other hand, the official metrological structure, at the national as well as
international levels, has to be coherent with the requirements of the system of
reference. This has brought the Comité francais d’accréditation (COFRAC) together
with the National Metrology Institute (BNM), with all the partners concerned and
circulated under the double stamp of COFRAC and BNM.
The third version of the “quality” ISO 9001 standard (December 2000) presents
noticeable evolution in comparison with the previous versions.
As a matter of fact, it is proposed split it up into four phases which come one
after the other in a logical order with the purpose of improving the functioning of
the existent organization.
The control of the checking, measuring and testing equipment (section 7.6) is
explicitly mentioned in the phase which describes “the realization of the product”
(Chapter 7). It is not without reason that metrology is positioned as one of the
elements integrated into the firm’s central process.
The elements which are necessary to control the measurements are found in the
phases called “monitoring and measurement of the processes” (section 8.2.3),
“product” (section 8.2.4), and “control of the production” (section 7.5.1d).
Metrology within the Scope of the ISO 9001 Standard 235
The phase of the process of “realization of the product” also proposes an original
approach that seeks to put the functioning of the firm on a line which goes from the
client’s request, to the delivery of the product (or service!) to the client. It is the
process (sometimes called “client – client” process) that is positioned crosswise in
comparison with the firm’s vertical hierarchical organization.
In this context, our approach to metrology is defined in the ISO 9001 standard as
a control of the “measurement process”1, the client being the user of the result of the
measurement.
Measurement Measurement
request process
Measurement
result
Figure 11.1.
This approach has consequences in the area of the process which concerns
metrologists who are no longer satisfied by simply having their measuring
equipment calibrated and affixing the appropriate labels. Metrologists become
involved very much earlier, at the time of choosing of the equipment which means
at the time of implementation, in order to meet the needs of user of the measurement
(the client of the process).
However, first of all, the “policy of the control of the measurement” has to be
defined at the firm’s highest level; this makes it possible to make a decision that is
suitable for the kind of risk the management has decided to take, that is either:
– moderate control of its measurements for a low cost, but a high risk of internal
malfunctions or of clients’ complaints; or
– an intensive control, which means a higher cost for a greater security.
This evolution of the standard encourages the firm “to take itself in hand” by
defining objectives without going into details or fixing the means necessary to reach
the objective.
Let us start with the schematic representation to be found in the ISO 9001
standard (section 0.2) to situate the process of measurement control.
Management
responsibility
Customers Customers
Resource Measurement,
analysis and Satisfaction
management
improvement
Value-adding activities
The contents of the five steps of the measurement process are described as follows.
From this step it will be possible to give a correct answer to the problem
regarding:
– which technique to implement;
– the corresponding fitting range;
– the uncertainty that goes with it.
Step 4 – traceability
In our approach, the metrological follow-up corresponds to the traceability to the
national references (the standards) and to the checking done within the firm. These
latter checks make it possible to ensure that the equipment has an adequate
calibration status. This makes it possible to create confidence in your exchanges
with the clients, as the client’s and his supplier’s results are similar. It is necessary
to make a periodic check of of the calibration status to be able to confirm that it is fit
for use.
238 Metrology in Industry
Step 5 – availability
This step comprises the work environment, the conditions of the implementation,
the measurement procedures and the operator’s competence. Also included are the
methods of protection while the material is used, stored or transported. The
significant moments of the “life” of the equipment are to be recorded on the
identification sheet mentioned in step 3.
This makes it possible to complete the whole set of the measurement processes.
This chapter addresses the different requirements of the ISO 9001 standard and
provides point-by-point explanations and practical illustrations:
Section 7 – Product realization
7.5 Production and service provision
7.5.1 Control of production and service provision
d) the availability and use of monitoring and measuring devices
The requirement about measuring equipment is integrated into the chapter that is
devoted to the “realization of the product”. It is about the availability and the
implementation of the equipment, which are presented as one of the elements of the
control of the realization of the products of the company.
Available equipment means that the need has already been defined, both at the
technical level and concerning the amount of equipment needed to carry out the
measurements.
The implementation implies that one knows and complies with the measurement
procedures and/or the specific competence of the personnel.
Section 7.6 (continued) – The organization shall determine the monitoring and
measurement to be undertaken …
This requirement corresponds to the step where the need for measurement. It
must be satisfied by the functions which are concerned with the result of the
measurement is defined. The functions should assess their needs for measurement
and have an objective knowledge of these needs; necessary competence has to be on
hand to assess this.
Section 7.6 (continued) … and the monitoring and measuring devices needed to provide
evidence of conformity of product to determined requirements (see section 7.2.1) …
This step corresponds with the definition of the technical response that is to be
set up, in relation to the equipment capable of meeting the need determined in the
previous step.
Into this notion of accuracy should be integrated the type of measurement, the
fitting range for this measurement and the tolerance which goes with it. This last
point is provided earlier, either by the ultimate client or by the person who has
conceived the measured element (the measurand).
Section 7.6 (continued) – The organization shall establish processes to ensure that
monitoring and measurement can be carried out and are carried out in a manner that is
consistent with the monitoring and measurement equipment.
240 Metrology in Industry
After the need for measurement and the relevant responses have been defined,
this phase corresponds to the implementation of the tools in accordance with defined
methods, which are the measurement processes themselves. This phase also
broadens the notion of equipment to the notion of the process as a whole, which
includes the measuring instrument as well as the personnel who operate it (and their
competence), the methods, the environment, etc.
Section 7.6 (continued) – Where necessary to ensure valid results, measuring equipment
shall
a) be calibrated or verified at specified intervals, or prior to use, against
measurement standards traceable to international or national measurement standards; …
The setting up of the rules is described elsewhere in this book. It is the firm’s
responsibility to make sure they are implemented and complied with. The evidence
of the connection with the references (metrological traceability) has to be available
at the level of the firm.
Section 7.6 (continued) – Where necessary to ensure valid results, measuring equipment
shall
a) …; where no such standards exist, the basis used for calibration or verification
shall be recorded.
This phase widens the notion of “standard” as it is generally used in the fields of
physical measurement to the other fields of monitoring and measurement (for
example, in chemistry).
2 Since 1989, there has been a multilateral agreement of recognition of the equivalence of the
calibration certificates delivered by European calibration laboratories (www.european-
accreditation.org). Since then, an identical agreement at global level has been reached
(www.ilac.org).
Metrology within the Scope of the ISO 9001 Standard 241
Section 7.6 (continued) – Where necessary to ensure valid results, measuring equipment
shall
b) be adjusted or re-adjusted as necessary;
This phase comes after a verification that has concluded that a piece of
equipment is beyond permissible error limits. It makes it possible to restore
conformity to this equipment by using its fitting devices, if it is equipped with any.
It is to be noted that after any fitting (and therefore any adjustment), a new
calibration and a new verification must take place which will make it possible to
confirm that the equipment can be used (and is back within “maximum permissible
errors”).
Section 7.6 (continued) – Where necessary to ensure valid results, measuring equipment
shall
c) be identified to enable the calibration status to be determined; …
Identification consists of providing the user with information about the extent to
which the equipment can be used in relation to its suitability or its possible
restrictions of use. For example, a multimeter is limited to one type of quantity (“use
only on ohmmeter function”), or some ranges of a measurement (“use only between
100 V and 500 V”), or the verification of some values of “product” tolerance.
When the calibration status is being considered, the point is to determine the
appropriateness of the equipment to be used and the degree of criticity which is
associated with it. “Best before …” says the inscription printed on the pot of
yoghurt; likewise a calibration value may still be used beyond the date that ends its
242 Metrology in Industry
effectiveness, but there is a risk that only the user can accept. He can decide whether
to take the risk from the follow-up of the corrections made between two successive
calibrations, what metrologists generally call the “drift”.
Section 7.6 (continued) – Where necessary to ensure valid results, measuring equipment
shall
d) be safeguarded from adjustments that would invalidate the measurement result; …
Section 7.6 (continued) – Where necessary to ensure valid results, measuring equipment
shall
e) be protected from damage and deterioration during handling, maintenance and
storage.
Section 7.6 (continued) – In addition, the organization shall assess and record the validity
of the previous measuring results when the equipment is found not to conform to
requirements. The organization shall take appropriate action on the equipment and any
product affected …
The metrologist makes use of his knowledge of the equipment and of the
consequences of the registered deviation through asking the following questions:
– Is the deviation significant in relation to the measurement and the use to be
made of it?
– What is the relation between the level of the measured non-conformity and the
uncertainty on the method of measurement?
– Does the deviation have an influence on the process regarding the accepted
tolerances? This technical information has been passed on to the firm which, thus
informed, makes a decision about the product that has been measured with the faulty
equipment.
This technical information is passed on to the firm which, thus informed, makes
a decision about the product that has been measured with the faulty equipment:
– recall of the doubtful products;
– dispensation, with or without informing the user (external or internal client);
– accepting products as they are, the deviation on the instrument having had no
impact on the quality of the product.
The equipment itself is subjected to specific action so that the fault does not
occur again:
– small verification intervals, which limits the consequences of non-conformity;
– modification of the permissible error limits set on the measurement if relevant;
– change of measurement method and/or of equipment.
Section 7.6 (continued) – Record of the results of calibration and verification shall be
maintained (see section 4.2.4).
Section 7.6 (continued) – When used in the monitoring and measurement of specified
requirements, the ability of computer software to satisfy the intended application shall be
confirmed. This shall be undertaken prior to initial use and reconfirmed as necessary.
This note allows the possibility of using the ISO 10012 standard ‘Measuring
equipment – meteorological confirmation’. The detail of the technical answers to be
implemented has been partly transferred to the ISO 10012 standard.
As this point is given in a “note”, it is not compulsory to put the
recommendations of these standards into practice. Nevertheless, they should be
known and complied with.
The organization shall apply suitable methods for monitoring and, where
applicable, measurement of the quality management system processes. These
methods shall demonstrate the ability of the processes to achieve planned results …
It is the section that connects the control of the process of measurement to the
need for measurement itself.
11.5. Conclusion
Putting the answers which have been proposed in this chapter into concrete form
makes it possible to satisfy the requirements of an audit of certification which relate
to the control of the processes of measurement.
The evolution of the norms relating to the control of quality systems in firms
leads one to ponder over the growing influence of the metrology function. How,
indeed, can one give meaning to a survey of clients’ satisfaction, or to an
investigation of performance, without looking into the influence factors which affect
the results and, therefore, into the uncertainties of measurement; they are an
important aspect of the competence expected from the person in charge of the
metrology function of a firm.
It is logical to think that the position of the metrology function, in the fullest
sense of the word, will be strategic for the management of firms in the years to
come. To reach this objective the metrologists will have to have much broadened
competences, far beyond the mere technical aspect.
Long-lasting specialized training courses in the field of metrology are most often
provided at the higher education level and they generally lead to management jobs.
The different professional categories (engineers, technicians, operators)
consequently get very different training. If engineers and technicians have been able
to benefit by specialized training courses, operators have entered the metrology
function thanks only to brief training courses within the framework of continuing
education.
The synthesis tables show which long-lasting courses are currently available in
France. The set of organizations given do not provide an exhaustive list of the
establishments likely to offer long-lasting training courses in metrology.
Metrology is very seldom taught in level IV and V (CAP, BEP, Bac) of initial
education. It is found mostly at a post-secondary education level and it delivers
engineer, technician or specialized operator diplomas.
It is a pity that there is no specific training for metrological operators at the level
of secondary education because firms frequently bemoan the lack of training of their
operators. The firms find it necessary to resort to short (less than three weeks)
continuing education sessions, which are generally too brief to master the different
aspects of measurement.
Schools for engineers turn out metrological engineers after five or six years of
training (Bac+ 5 or Bac+ 6). In France, the most comprehensive courses at this level
are provided by the Ecole Supérieure de Métrologie at Ecole des Mines of Douai,
the Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers (CNAM) and the Ecole Nationale
Supérieure des Ingénieurs du Mans.
Depending on the school, the training is provided either the traditional way, or
through continuing education. In the latter case it is a supplementary or an alternate
course.
Training for the Metrology Professions in France 251
The characteristics of these different schools are presented in the tables below.
The particularities of the CNAM’s course are worth noticing: it offers working
people the possibility of upgrading their training by attending evening classes; so do
those of the Ecole Supérieure de Métrologie which has an international vocation and
attracts many foreign students.
Higher level education in two years, Bac+ 2 (DUT or BTS), does not have any
specific module for metrology. It is dealt with, more in a way to make students
sensitive to it than as a specialized field of study. This has induced some lycées or
university institutes to open supplementary courses (one extra year, Bac+ 3),
equivalent to a professional degree or to a metrological technician diploma.
These courses are open at the Lycée Jules Richard, the IUT of Aix en Provence,
the University of Provence, the University of Toulon and the Var.
They are chiefly intended for young holders of diplomas who wish to go on with
their initial training, but they can be open in some cases to people who already have
professional experience.
Except for the Lycée Jules Richard, mechanical topics holds first place in these
training units.
There are no high schools that specifically train metrologists at the end of
secondary-education level. Metrology is on the syllabus of some of them, but in a
very limited way. In general, the main concern of the course is the control of
dimensional checking and metrology.
It has been said in Chapter 3 that some organizations that offer training courses
in the context of initial training also give some candidates the opportunity to enroll
for continuing education, personal training time-off and qualification contract.
252 Metrology in Industry
The personal training time-off can be used by employees who have been
working for their firm for several years. It makes it possible, if the organization that
gives the personal training time-off money agrees, to remunerate the candidate,
completely or partially, while he is away from his firm and to pay, completely or
partially, for the training costs.
The training course of the CETIM – AFPI Vallée de l’Oise is meant for
candidates at Bac level. Its position is such that it complements the different
diplomas and qualifications identified in France. It enables small- and medium-sized
businesses to depend on personnel that are versatile in dimensional metrology and
metrology function. Larger firms can rely on candidates with good basic knowledge
to specialize, if necessary, in production control or laboratory metrology.
The “Quality Metrologist” course at the ENSAM trains versatile technicians who
are capable of setting up a metrology function and managing it in a small- or
medium-sized firm, but also of assuming the care of the quality section in a small-
or medium-sized firm.
The choice of the organization is made along several criteria: its reputation in the
selected subject, how long the course lasts, where it will be, how much it will cost,
what teaching methods are used, how much theory and how much practice (it is
important that there should be a practical side as it helps the students to grasp the
theoretical concepts), the level of knowledge required to attend the course, and the
coursework to be submitted.
Specific training courses are experiencing a boom; they make it possible to aim
at precise objectives. A large enough number of trainees are necessary to enable a
company to amortize the cost of the course more easily.
The very small firms find it difficult to have their personnel trained because the
size of their staff is not large enough to make up for the absence of those people
who are away training. The development of training via the internet may become
one solution.
The information that appears in the following tables has been obtained from
well-known organizations. A “training” group of the French College of Metrology
has played a large part in the collection of the information.
The below-mentioned courses last more than eight months. They are opened to
very different education levels (from the Bac level to that of engineer).
254 Metrology in Industry
CNAM (PARIS)
292 rue Saint Martin - 75003 PARIS
Title Engineer in measuring instruments
Year of
unknown
setting up
Number of
Training available in the whole of France
trainees
Level at In 1st year: Bac+ 2
admission In 2nd year: after probationary cycle of the measuring instruments course
Duration of 3 years
course 1st year: 360 hours (part-time)
2nd year: 280 hours (part-time)
3rd year: 2,028 hours (full-time)
Economic and social management and communication: 240 hours (evening
classes)
The training is done in theoretical and practical modules outside working
hours
Level at end
Bac+ 5
of course
Financing Firm training scheme, or personal training time-off
Nature Engineer
Main items Measurement and instruments: physical principles of sensors, properties of
of the the instruments and acquisition of the signals
program Electrical and optical measurements
Options in the 2nd year: industrial checking (ground networks, supervision,
sensors and operators), quality metrology (signal, noise, quality, experiment
plans, metrology), optics (images, optical measurements)
Measurements and traceability
Laser measurements, dimensional measurements
Measurements of temperature and radiation
Control of discrete event systems
Management and economy of the firm
Human and social management
Communication, culture, expression
Knowledge of professional English
Contact Mr Himbert (33 1 40 27 27 73)
Notes There are two stages in the training course: the probationary cycle (1st
year) and the deepening cycle, outside working hours.
To defend the thesis and obtain the diploma of engineer in instruments-
measurement, you have to be at least 24; you have to obtain all the
scientific and technical modules and the management and communication
modules; you have to take the (BULAT) test (technical English) and also
meet the required conditions of professional experience (three years’
experience, two of which are in the specialty)
Training for the Metrology Professions in France 255
CNAM (PARIS)
292 rue Saint Martin - 75003 PARIS
Year of
2002
setting up
Number of
Maximum 12
trainees
Level at
Bac+ 2, or having worked for 3 to 5 years in a laboratory
admission
Duration of
10 months: one 30-hour-week per month, hence a total of 300 hours
course
Level at end
Bac+ 3
of course
ENSAM Bordeaux
Esplanade des Arts et Métiers
33400 TALENCE
Year of
2002
setting up
Number of
6 to 12
trainees
Duration of 248 hours over 9 months at the rate of 3 to 4 days every 3 weeks
course Assistance for a firm’s project possible (10 half-days)
Level at end
Bac+ 3
of course
Notes This course, based on the principle of alternation, enables some people in
charge of metrology to increase their knowledge with a possibility of
choosing modules. It also offers the trainee the opportunity to be assisted in
the accomplishment of a specific mission in his firm
Training for the Metrology Professions in France 259
ENSAM Bordeaux
Esplanade des Arts et Métiers
33400 TALENCE
Title Training of metrologists in charge of quality
Year of
1997
setting up
Number of
11 to 20
trainees
Level at Bac+ 2 post-diploma, or job-seeker or working person with acknowledged
admission Bac+ 2 level
Duration of 10 months (4 months (470 hours) in a laboratory, 6 months in a firm)
course The trainees do the 4 months in a laboratory, then the mission in a firm
Significant assistance in the firm is provided (4 to 6 visits of about half a day)
Moreover, the trainee can get in touch with his professional tutor at any
time to obtain advice about accomplishing his mission
Level at end
Bac+ 3
of course
Financing Contribution of the Ministry of Industry to help make the small- and
medium-sized firms responsive to metrology
A contribution is requested from firms
Nature Diploma at the end of the course
Main items Setting up of the metrology function
of the Stimulation of awareness of different quantities: dimensional metrology,
program electricity, mass, accelerometry, pressure, temperature, chemical
metrology, etc.
Dimensional and three-dimensional checking, geometrical permissibility
Checking of machine tools and other checkings connected with mechanical
manufacturing
Drafting of procedures, realization of audits
Determination of uncertainties of measurement and use of the Statistic
Process Control
Production management and self-checking in production
Communication
Contact Mr Le Roux (33 5 56 84 53 21)
Mr Larquier (33 5 56 34 20 63)
Notes
There are many prospects
In charge of the metrology function in small- or medium-sized firms
In charge of quality: client or supplier
In charge of quality in production
In charge of a laboratory
260 Metrology in Industry
Year of
1995
setting up
Number of
60 to 70
trainees
Level at 2-year post-Bac classes, plus success at competitive exam, or Bac+ 2, plus
admission school records.
Masters degree-holders in 2nd year
Duration of 3 years, including:
course 800 hours of practical work
300 hours of lectures and industrial projects
6 to 10 months of training
Level at end
Bac+ 5
of course
Nature Engineer diploma authorized since 1995 by the commission of engineer
titles
Main items General education in industrial instruments and measurements. General
of the education in physics, chemistry, electronics, data-processing, management;
program technological training in engineering, electronics, signal processing and
automatics
Measurements and sensors: organization of metrology, measurements of
temperature, pressure, flow, velocity, viscosity, volumic mass, force,
weight, acceleration, length, hygrometry, optics, colorimetry, polarimetry
Non-destructive control
Calculation of the uncertainties when using the different types of sensors
Use of experiment plans, management of quality
Organization of firms, techniques of job seeking
Contact Mr Breteau (33 2 43 83 39 51)
Notes The fields open to the trainees are those of research (integration of sensors,
vibratory analysis, digital modelization, etc.), production (manufacturing
processes, security systems, etc.), quality control (metrology, non-
destructive control, acoustic and vibratory control, etc.), and environment
At the end of the course, the trainees can prepare one of the DEAs which
are on the curriculum at the University of Maine (acoustics, engineering,
materials, user-machine interaction)
There are many opportunities for jobs and all the engineers find a job
within months of leaving the school
Training for the Metrology Professions in France 261
Year of
unknown
setting up
Number of
unknown
trainees
Level at end
Bac+ 3
of course
Notes The aim of the “instrument metrology” professional degree is to train some
foremen and higher-level technicians for the metrology function of firms to
be capable of implementing, in a statutory and lawful industrial setting,
technical and methodological abilities about instruments, measurements,
calculation of uncertainties, detection of sources of uncertainty,
automatisms and tests
The intended prospects are:
Being in charge of research or business in checking, measurement and
instruments
Being in charge of the metrology/quality services
Designer of measuring equipment
Being in charge of a quality metrology mission
Being in charge of maintaining process instruments
262 Metrology in Industry
The training courses specific to metrology are justified by the deficiencies in the
traditional school system. The teaching of basic notions of measurement control has
practically disappeared from the initial school years. The curriculum does not draw
enough attention to the importance of measure in daily life and to the problems
which arise when measurement should be controlled correctly. The user-friendliness
of data-processing means has dimmed the notions of observation, of meaning of
significant numbers, of doubting which goes with any measurement result.
It seems obvious that firms have a need for specialists in the sectors of
measurement at a time when they are determined to reach absolute faultlessness,
uppermost satisfaction from clients and the highest profitability. The hardest part for
training organizations is to find candidates for these jobs, as students are poorly
informed about them and the image of metrology professions is still austere.
Probably the appeal can be emphasized today; the big companies have to act as
catalysts to make the authorities, the Education Secretary, the agencies for the
employment of managerial and non-managerial staff conscious of the risks that can
be generated by badly-controlled measurements. Now, when the principle of
precaution is called to mind, and when environmental, food, chemical, medical
measuring grow more and more extensive, it is important not to make measurements
any way and to remember that the measurement is not imputable to the instrument,
but it is the outcome of a whole process in which the leading parts are played by the
operator, the methodist, and the expert in metrology. The need for this collective
awareness is essential so as not to run the risk of making irreparable errors.
266 Metrology in Industry
12.8. Bibliography
French College of Metrology, Metrology in the Firm: The Tool of Quality (1996 edition)
This book has been written by a working group of the Collège Français de
Métrologie. The following writters have taken part in the compilation of the book:
Pierre Barbier has led the working group and coordinated the compilation of the
book.
www.cfmetrologie.com
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Index