European civilization between the fifth century and the

thirteenth
The first centuries of the Middle Ages, the main features of their cultural life is the
decline of ancient culture, spreading cultural elements of the Germanic peoples established in the
former Roman Empire and the genesis of early medieval culture. As a result of the interaction of
socio-economic, political, cultural and religious culture in the early Middle Ages of Western
Europe represents a synthesis of Roman cultural heritage and cultural contribution of migrants,
especially those of Germanic society achieved in terms of genesis generalization feudal and
Christianization in the Roman rite church, conditions which gave distinct characters. Pagan
traditions are difficult to assess, because the basic elements spread by oral culture and peoples on
the move, save for the most part our knowledge, but clear that ancient footprint allows
weakening since the fifth century and VI, the revival of indigenous cultures - especially of Celtic
culture - similar to those of new entrants. The clash of cultures and the impact of invasions,
occurring in various folk traditions, heroes and themes of future high Middle Ages epic cycles,
the cycle times of Arthurian prozelor Nibelungilor and narrative (saga) Scandinavian.
For its part, as the strengthening of its socio-political positions and ideologies in society,
the Christian church became more cautious to ancient pagan culture. Expressing the official
position of the church from ancient cultural heritage, Pope Gregory the Great, a priest accused in
601 letters dealing with worldly, that does not fit one and the same mouth praise Christ with
Jupiter. In terms of age and cultural regression establishment spiritual supremacy of the clergy,
the main centers of culture were some scattered oases: some episcopal residences and some
monasteries, the royal court and the creators and bearers of culture came almost exclusively from
the ranks of the clergy with greater cultural training sound, so the term lettered clergy and
became synonymous. Monastic libraries included not only religious works but also profane,
between that and saved from destruction of ancient works, examples of such libraries have the
vivarium, Monte Casino, St. Gallen, Fulda, etc. Lindisfarne.
In the VI-VIII centuries, cultural concerns were directed more on the knowledge
enciclodice, theology, philosophy, historiography and Belletristic to peace and less on natural
sciences. Level LTOs any significant problems hold time is reflected in the vast encyclopedic
reference works etymologies, due to Isadora of Seville. In the field of historiography, in Gaul,
Gregory of Tours (cca.538-594), French historian wrote, stating the history of Frankish Gaul,
and especially the legendary beginnings until the end of the Merovingian dynasty of the sixth
century. In England the most common chronic belongs to the Venerable Bede, author of The
Ecclesiastical History of England people, showing the history of Britain in the coming year,
Christianity is the religion of those who profess faith in Jesus Christ and the bearer of a universal
message of salvation preached by the apostles. The phrase "Son of God" should be understood
here as they gave the Christians, because it is old, preceding Christianity. Thus, the Roman
emperor Augustus is said to be the Son of God because he was adopted son of Julius Caesar
deified by the Roman emperor. Scholars Mircea Eliade and Ioan Petru Culianu doubt that Jesus
gave the words ("Son of God") also understand that later Christians would give him. This is her
religion and belief in continuity with the first-century Judaism, claiming the fulfillment of God's
covenant with the people of Israel. For contemporary theologians, Jesus was an street preacher
(itinerant) in the first century AD Palestine, which according to biblical witness miracles
happened wherever passed. The Roman Empire at the time, this was going to be trivial and
nothing alien atmosphere time and place, and cynical about Stoic masters of the time it said the
same thing. Many workers of miracles Hebrew can be compared with Jesus. Therefore, the
Talmud's different reports about miracles performed by rabbis such as Rabbi Honi ha-Meaggel,
who lived in the first century BC, or the famous Rabbi Hanina ben DOSA, a contemporary of
Jesus. On account of this rabbi who lived in the same time Jesus is made, moreover, a miracle-a
striking resemblance to one of the miracles that puts the Christian sacred text on behalf of Christ,
the son of a servant that is healing in Capernaum (John 4: 43-54); Hanina ben DOSA claims to
be healed the son of a rabbi, namely the Gamaliel II. Judaism, like other ancient religions,
believe that miracles are the order of things. The Old Testament contains many stories of God's
intervention in favor of people who believed in him, but in Hebrew Bible and find the miracles
performed by holy men, as the prophet Elijah and Elisha, a number of miraculous stories of the
New Testament influenced by these stories the Old Testament.
Christianity, therefore, stems from what the Christian faithful is the event and the
mystery of Christ (ie, life, words, passion, death on the cross, his resurrection from the dead,
ascension to heaven and send the Comforter on the day of Pentecost). It is characterized by its
monotheism, as, in fact, the Hebrew original matrix, despite the fact that yet another array of the
same religion, namely Islam, Christianity perceives as a form of polytheism (Sirk), historians of
religion and Christianity lies in a unique position compared with the purely monotheistic
religions (absolute) and Islam and Judaism, specifically because of the Christian Trinity concept,
ie "three persons of a single substance, which ranks alongside Christianity in category
monoteismelor pluriform primitive religions, the expression a pluriform monotheism (many gods
are believed to be manifestations of a single god) tries to answer the same problems as
Trinitarian dogma, namely the coexistence of divine unity and divine pluriformităţii (multiplicity
of its manifestations), an example being adored spirit Nilotic pastoralists' nuer. The dual nature
of one of the manifestations of the Christian God, namely Jesus, divine and human, not only to
complicate further the situation of Christianity in terms of systematics history of religion.
Moreover, the Christian Bible, both Old and New Testament, Trinity does not contain allegations
or speculation, it appeared only in the liturgical triadic formula.
The fundamental core of the Christian faith is the affirmation of God - creator of the
universe (and therefore human), being the loving and caring parents (indeed, the Christian creed
states: "I believe in one God, the Father Almighty , Maker of heaven and earth, of all things
visible and invisible "), established three distinct persons in relationship, but equal in nature.
Jesus Christ is recognized in a double nature: divine and human, each complete. Christian faith
that after his death on the cross Jesus Christ rose from the dead, they are in Christian theology as
evidence that dual nature. Historically, the question of the nature of Jesus Christ was a major
reason for disputes among his followers since the very beginnings of Christianity and focused on
crises and disputes the history of the religion until today.
Most Christian denominations asserts his fidelity to the primordial essence of Christianity,
despite the changed shape.

The three confessions of faith (beliefs) of Christians are:

• The Apostles' Creed (50);

• niceeano-Constantinopolitan symbol established by the ecumenical councils of Nicaea (325)
and Constantinople (381)
• Athanasian symbol (IV-VIII?), which explains in detail the basic Christian tenets, common
trends and most Christian denominations.
From the preaching of Jesus (ie the gospel - "good news" that God fulfilled his promises
cf. Lk 2, 35u.) according to Christianity, the word stems not only final salvation of man and the
universe, but also the dynamics of personal commitment countersigned moral of love and a life
lived close to the personal relationship with God.
The Bible says that God was in Christ reconciling the world with Himself (2 Cor.
5:19,20). For some Christians, the Logos is the second person of the Trinity (One God-between -
a term that is not in Scripture), which embodies, while becoming Jesus Christ / Jesus Christ /
Jesus Christ, true man and is making while remaining true God.
For Christians, the man saves himself through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ.
The foundations of theology, Jesus died on the cross to pay the repurchase price for the sins of
the Father of humanity, then rise, all men will be raised at the end of history. According,
however, liberal theology, man is only by adhering to Christ saves.
In Christianity, the basic reference is the community dimension: indeed, those who believe in
Jesus Christ are called to participate directly in community life.
Christianity can be defined as the "religion card" of the importance of sacred texts and reference
texts of revelation to those gathered in the Bible, but this label ("religion card") was made by
representatives of Islam, Christianity is the religion of Christ, Risen.
However you characterize the essential doctrinal content have been developed over the centuries
and led to the emergence of many religious denominations, which - in different ways - their
relationship expresses this common heritage doctrine.

Over time, major differences occurred:

• in relation to the true nature of Jesus Christ;
• in relation to the degree of human freedom within the divine plan of salvation;
• on how the institutional organization of the Christian community;
• about the relationship of Christianity to political power.
Background on these issues occurred, moreover, differences between Christians and about:
• correct interpretation of the texts revealed
• the sacraments
• the liturgy and rites
• the codification of morality.
First Christian communities of Hebrew origin arising as a result of the preaching of Jesus
Christ and his apostles were soon joined communities born of pagan origin (especially) the
apostolate of Saul of Tarsus, who has held Christianity inserted into a wider context, both
geographically and culturally. This phenomenon did not hesitate to provoke conflicts between
different communities within the delicate, conflicts about which even Acts and Paul's letters.
Specific early Christianity is therefore the extent of diversity of opinions and beliefs in
many theological issues, which initially caused the oral nature of transmission of the message of
Christ, and then scale the number of writings which were fixed words, exhortations and beliefs.
This fact, which did not hesitate to cause disputes among bowel movement, has highlighted the
need to clarify doctrinal (agreement on the Creed), establishing a set of books inspired
(appearance of the biblical canon) and physiognomy institution designed to ensure the
preservation of common values (church setting).
 So, spreading throughout the Mediterranean basin, the century, early Christianity was
originally a predominantly urban physiognomy: the most important centers were: Antioch,
Corinth, Ephesus, Alexandria and Rome.
This spread in the Mediterranean geographical area favored the possibility of transmitting
the Christian message both in Greek and Latin.
In the first three centuries of the Christian era (ec), despite internal crises (doctrinal
themes: Gnosticism, marcionismul, Manichaeism, Docetism, Nestorianism, Montanism,
Pelagianism, etc.), crises that led to the emergence of character Churches independently,
Christianity continued to spread both in and outside his empire. This spread was not stopped
even persecution unleashed by some Roman emperors, prompted by the refusal to recognize
Christians worship the emperor, although proclaiming their fidelity to the civil law (for example,
is representative of martyrs Acta Sicillitarum).
Among the main ones have been persecuted under the reign of Nero (64-67), Decius
(249-251), Valerian (257-258) and Diocletian (303-311).
From the second half of II century, the pagan culture of the elite critics, philosophers in
particular, has blossomed apologetics - that is, self-defense of Christianity on the cultural and
moral (eg. philosopher Justin Martyr and Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria , Origen, Eusebius of
Caesarea, etc.).
With the "Edict of Milan (313), Emperor Constantine the Great (306-337), and the" Edict
of Thessalonica (380), Theodosius (346-395), Christianity finally becoming a reality first
tolerated, then constitutive of the Roman Empire. Tradition has managed to împământenească
even secular culture the idea that the Edict of Milan Constantine and Licinius proclaimed is the
document that establishes tolerance to Christian worship, historical monographs, but states that
Galerius issued an edict of tolerance in 311. Once joined in the gears of power, Christianity will
quickly turn into a cruel persecutor of other denominations and religions, and philosophy of time,
which will materialize in the prohibition of practicing any religion other than Christianity but
also with school closures philosophy so highly valued by the classical world. In this process
there were, of course, and numerous human casualties, the clergy and ordinary members of
various religious believers "pagan" by philosophers.
Kings have been recognized ever more extensive areas of intervention in the life of the Church,
including ecumenical councils convened, which in those centuries had to face various
controversies which have the Trinitarian and Christological heresies finally . Following these
controversies Christianity came to rigorous formulations of truths of faith (dogma), contained in
the Nicene Creed (also called the Apostles' Creed) and later in the Symbol (Creed) Nicene-
Constantinople (fourth century). History which were decanted but this is not a dogmatic
formulations peaceful camps often conflict between theologians and their supporters reached
extreme forms, physical and psychological violence, even in times and spaces where they held
some councils (councils) ecumenical. In this context, emperors, as representatives of secular
power and guarantors of public order, therefore, felt it their duty to intervene by imposing a
camp position, and by massing troops in towns where the councils were held, and where in this
issue camps of supporters of the various theological viewpoints confrontation on the street brawl.
Christianity feature of this period was the development of doctrinal reflection led by theologians
weather - and then called Church Fathers - (Augustine of Hippo, Ambrose of Milan, Athanasius
of Alexandria, John Chrysostom, John Damascene, Basil the Great, Gregory Nyssa, Gregory
Nazianzen, etc.).
 În sec. al V-lea, Bisericile popoarelor armean, asirian, copt și alte câteva Biserici locale
n-au primit deciziile dogmatice cu privire la natura lui Christos, definită în Conciliul din Efes
(431) și cel din Calcedon (451) și rămânând legate de nestorianism sau de monofizism au dat
naștere acelor comunități creștine cunoscute astăzi cu numele de „Bisericii antice”.
In the fifth century Armenian churches Peoples, Assyrian, Coptic, and several other local
churches have not been dogmatic decisions about the nature of Christ, as defined in the Council
of Ephesus (431) and of Chalcedon (451) and remain connected with Nestorianism
Monophysitism or Christian communities gave rise to those known today as the "Ancient
Church. "
• March Thoma Church, no ecumenical council;
• Assyrian Church, the two ecumenical councils;
• Churches of the three Councils;

Integration between Christianity and imperial power is interrupted in the West with the
barbarian invasions of nations, but in the Byzantine Empire survived in forms and contents
which shows trends of increasing sacred king figure, holding political and religious power.
Even "barbarians" people who have invaded the West, were already Christian, but as an
Aryan. Hence the intense effort of the Roman Church - which, in lack of power caused by the
fall of the empire, acquiring a high relevance progress and civilian - to convert these people to
the Trinitarian orthodoxy.
In these circumstances, Christianity has taken Roman barbarian kingdoms, the political.
He supported the establishment of the monarchy for a long time kept a close contact and thus a
new pole of development creştinismului.Între th. III and IV and has appeared monasticism (the
desert fathers: Hermit Antony, Pachomius, Basil the Great, John Cassian, etc.), which
crystallized in the th monk. fifth in the West monasticism Benedictin.Pe extension fund
economic and political failures caused by the barbarian invasions in the late Middle Ages
monasteries became centers only radiation not only spiritual and cultural tradition of the West,
have provided economic structure of medieval stable populations in the surrounding farms and
contributed to the work of progressive deforestation and land cultivation agricole.Reîntoarcerea
Constantinian model of collaboration between state and church, checked the Carolingian era,
things did not change substantially.
But more important was the change in the Mediterranean century. seventh century, when
the Arab conquest and Islamization of North Africa final. Therefore, the other half of the Roman
Empire, although it will still survive for a while, and she would see substantially reduced area,
population and economic power, which will only serve to facilitate future losses produced by
Eastern Christianity before Islam, losses will culminate in 1453 with the abolition of the
Orthodox empire. Historians recall that among the causes weakening of Byzantium and the long
struggles of Christianity ("fight heresies"), ie it points to the fact that part of the population in the
Eastern, Asian and North African empire, which show a Christianity considered "heretic "by the
central power, was always subject to pressures from them, and sometimes was the target killings,
which ended by the mass of citizens dissociated state interests. Probably under the influence of
new religions Semitic, iconoclastic controversy sparked in the very ranks of the Orthodox but
also presents an obvious ethnic fault line between the European population, the Greek empire,
open (at least from th. II en) to plastic expression (artistic ) and the masses of religious feeling on
the part of Asian Semitic origin, incarcerated in a aniconism without compromise, it will lead to
further fatalities. At about the same time were Christian and Slavic peoples, to whom he directed
the missionary work of Cyril and Methodius Byzantine in the second half of the th. Ninth, which
will later be savior to Eastern Christianity, when Russia will be the protector of the Orthodox
faith .
The Church Dividing
Different historical development of the empire of the East, West (Roman-barbarian), over
time, have accelerated a process of increasing differentiation between the two Christian
communities. These differences reached both doctrinal issues, especially how the liturgical
formulas and criteria interne.O disciplinary power manifests itself already in crisis-century
iconoclast. VIII, caused by the refusal of worship sacred downloaded (icons) of the so-called
"areas of Byzantine Christianity" (iconoclasm), and then checked the schism between Pope
Nicholas I and the patriarch of Constantinople, Photius (ninth century century ). final break came
in 1054, with two mutual excommunication of the Church of Rome and Byzantium. From now
on Byzantine Christianity (known as Orthodox) will develop or organization emphasizing the
conciliar and "autocephalous" (full autonomy of each national churches, ethnic), but in a
common doctrinal and liturgical (eg. Orthodox Church Russian, etc.). However in the East
remained in communion with Rome and the churches, or churches that have come back to this
community as a result of organic relationship with the eternal city (ie, those called Uniate
Eastern Churches: Armenian, Coptic, Chaldea , Ukrainian).
The Roman Catholic Church, unlike the Byzantine, characterized by an increasing
emphasis on the figure of the pope and the state political institutions of the Holy See (Papal
State), challenging movements were repeated throughout the Middle Ages, the movement that
led Subsequent to lift off, lower compared to the so-called "Great Schism" Oriental, but not
unimportant. They are noted in the gradual assertion (the West) theocratic ideals, which
coincided with absolute Christinization attempt (by force) of the company and asserting the
primacy of the pope's temporal power, even compared with the power of the king.
Resistance to these developments (of power and primacy) and the progressive
degradation of moral habits of the clergy have been guided by various movements within The
Church both novels (eg, new religious orders: Franciscans, Dominicans, etc..) and the outside the
church by the schismatics and / or heretics, against whom they have missed the bloody
repercussions (of the eleventh century by th. XIII: albingenzii, mules, etc. ).
Growing mixture between Catholic Church and political power (called "decular arm of
the church") was the origin of traumatic ulterioarelor facts, such as ex. Holy Land Crusades for
issuing the proclamation, transfer the papal seat in Avignon, Western Schism of 1378-1417.
Rupture most important and serious consequences for the whole of Christendom occurred but th.
XVI, with the affirmation of the Protestant Reformation, caused by the poor state of religious
and moral decay of the See of Rome and the courts favored renewing the Christian humanism
present (eg Erasmus of Rotterdam, Thomas More), in addition to many other attempts to reform
return to the purity of Catholic faith and the founding of new religious Order or renew existing
ones (eg Francis of Paolo).
Found in the work of the Protestant Reformation of Martin Luther and his immediate
origins of the special German situation, but this reform has involved very quickly throughout
central and northern Europe, even if that involvement was the specific characteristic of the
different national conditions (eg formation of The Church England, John Calvin's preaching, that
of Henrich Zwingli, etc.).
The process of division of Western Christianity has reached all levels: on the theological,
the controversial interpretation of human freedom in the grace and conviction (the so-called
"controversy on predestination"), the plan liturgico-sacramental controversy over the sacraments,
especially the Eucharist and Christ's real presence under the species of bread and wine, the
hierarchical and disciplinary plan, the relationship between the Magisterium and the free
interpretation of scripture, the structure of bishops, ecclesiastical celibacy issue, throughout the
organization's refusal to recognize the (until then incontrovertible) of the pope.
Faced with a crisis so serious, the Catholic Church finally reacted to the movement later known
by the name of "Counter" and, especially, work the Council of Trent (1545-1563), a very big role
(as some historians say: casting) had on this side of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), founded by SF.
Ignatius of Loyola, in 1534.
With the fall of Constantinople under Turkish domination (1453), the standard has passed
into the hands of the Orthodox Christian The Church of Moscow Patriarchate to rank high in
1589, became the first allied countries Russia. Has started the process of national identification
between church and state and resumption of the Byzantine cezaropapismului. While the Church
and the Czar is presented (and to some extent were) protectors of the Orthodox Churches in
particular has fallen under Ottoman rule in the Balkans, has developed the idea of Moscow as
"Third Rome"called to revitalize all Christendom.
During this time the company has grown, the way of government and religion. In 1066,
William the Conqueror introduced feudalism, which developed reaching the maximum. Under
this system, however, individuals were obliged to serve, to obey a superior. King was the
highest, then the nobles, barons, lords and knights beneath him. Under Charlemangne,
Christianity has developed all over Europe. Now is the The Church and separation. Deasemnea
an important part of medieval history and is the Crusades. After the schism, the expansion of
Christianity, the Crusades were launched to defend Christianity from Islam. Thousands of
Europeans have gone to Jerusalem to fight against Islamic forces in order to regain the holy land.
They took more than 200 years. While many died in battle, new technologies and trade routes
appeared. Population explosion caused the poor sanitary conditions that led to the black death,
plague, which is why almost half of Europe's population died. Much light could be found in the
church, although a lot of corruption also had its place there in the name of justice. Inquisition
was also a black spot in the history of The Church, when the hunting blind against heretics, many
innocent people were tortured and executed in the name of Christianity.
In the modern period, following the medieval period, changes were much larger. This
period ended with the century of enlightenment, the eighteenth century through the industrial
revolution in England, the revolutionary period. Modern Age was a significant development in
areas such as science, politics, war and technology. It was an era of discovery and globalization.
Meanwhile, the European powers and their colonies have begun a political settlement, economic
and cultural lumii.Era rest is associated with the development of modern individualism,
capitalism, urbanization, and a faith in technological progress and political.
With these perspectives we can make some statements. With respect to both periods, we
can say that these events had an important role in time perception, and how it was seen.
Regarding the discussion about the medieval time, identify some important issues. First time the
problem was the subject of speculation in the rigorous traditions of Western philosophers since
the time of church fathers and can not be understood in isolation from pre-Christian philosophy.
Then, the discussion about time is directly linked and must be seen in cosmological terms, which
include creation, God and eternity. Thirdly, because the main contributors in this discussion have
pointed out the views of his predecessors, the debate on the nature of time becomes very
complex and deals with the problem in a very varied. During his Boetius, philosophers and
theologians could refer to explain pitagoriene, Platonic, Aristotelian and Christian neoplatonine
on time, they could charge during mathematical, astronomical, metaphysical or psychological,
and they often use more than one approach time to explain anomalies.
We can enumerate some of the major human perceptions about the medieval time,
without, however, claim to be exhaustive. Therefore we can speak that time is seen as beginning
with creation, recorded in Genesis 1, and then following a linear process, from creation, through
the Old and New Testament so far and will end on the last day that crowns the second coming of
Christ. At that point, time and history will give way to eternity. From the start all they are and
God is held here. Which means to say that the beginning is related to eternity. Time, God's
creation, beginning with the created world and it will end with it. God learned, made him as
something belonging nceapa creation. For modern culture, that of positive science, the end is
death means total extinction, it means nothing. This is because science uses time as something
linear fagmentat past, present and future, and lengths measured. Lapse of time steps mean
extinction time for science.
Seen through the eyes of medieval history becomes the history of human salvation. Time
is fleeting in this world only imperfect reflection of eternal life. Time is regarded as having
objective reality. Time as being tied to a extratemporală.Timpul existence is a reality that is
consumed in another, higher. Time takes it beyond the inherently transient, ie eternity. At this
level support and guidance of the spirit eternal and supplies everything in time, ie the same date
as Bernea say that time can not be understood without human existence, as eternity can not be
understood without the existence of God. God exists beyond time, rather there is simply no
requirement, which is tantamount to eternity.
For such a man, God is the principle and the sense of the changing and unchanging,
because of all those things and time. God is considered to be beyond age, beyond the grave;
And even if he has a vague notion of time, medieval man and the world knows this dimension of
life, a full lives, but in a way different from ours, knowing lived during the time quality. He
knows that all things have their time and that the subordination of human activity over time is a
necessity. You can not do anything randomly, without anything to support and have a reference
point. Medieval man did not know his age, time, and knows that all things have a time. In this
sense the wisdom of Solomon Bible testimony is relevant:
"All of them have their time, and every activity under heaven has its clock has its
lui.Nasterea its time, and his death has its season, a time for planting, and planted, a time for
pulling out of her. Killing them has its time and a time to cure them; its demolition has its time,
its time and has its creation, a time for tears and laughter, a time, a time for wailing, and his
playing time has his throwing stones, a time for them, and a time to gather stones them, has its
îmbrãþisarea its time, and away from his embrace has its time, a time to search them, and a time
to attaint them, keeping a time to them, and denying them a time to, love or has its season and a
time for sewing, a time to silence her, and her speech has its time, a time for her boyfriend, and
the Ugly, a time for war has its time, and peace, a time for them. "
This festival is regarded as a sacred time, time dedicated to God, which is different from
those for men. While talking about the Romanian peasant, Ernest Bernea said that, unlike
modern man lives in a while, past or future, fragmented lives. Medieval man, transforms into an
entity when, in an abstract notion into a living reality, with its own characteristics and purpose.
Time is a gift from God, therefore it can not be sold. Taboo that time put in the way of the
Middle Ages, the merchant is removed in the early Renaissance. Time, which not only belong to
God, is now man's property. A sign of the transition from medieval to modern period was the
gradual introduction of the bell work. There eventful time, or feast of the cataclysm was now the
obvious but at the newspaper, network chronological handcuff urban life. - The process of
secularization in which church bells monopoly on measuring the disappearance of time is indeed
a vital sign.
For a long time yet, the time related to natural rhythms, the work of agricultural, religious
practice, remains the crucial time. People Renaissance-although that is not like-continue to live
in a time inaccurate. Jacques Le Goff you mention Gustav Bilfinger, who observed that history
can not explain the techniques alone during the transition from medieval to modern time.
Also specifies that it is not voba the transition from ancient time to modern time, but
moving from one division to allocate time ecclesiastical secular. The clock will make it more
obvious demarcation. Therefore time it is first necessary that for the merchant but it is a sign of
organized labor, while defining a dynamic attitude on life and profession. Therefore, the
monopoly disappears Church over time, now being made that great pass time at theological
technology. Therefore, while the rate of religious Christian calendar, the sequence announced by
ringing a bell indicating the period of the day, which corresponds to a particular activity, is
replaced during the secular time efficiency.
Charging time is very complex issue and requires thorough study. Each generation has
approached the subject in question time to discuss their problems and wisdom gained in the past.

Anghel Elena Anca

A.P.I.E. Anul I