AN INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

A Training Report
Submitted in Partial fulfillment for the award of
Bachelor of Engineering in Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Submitted to

RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKE VISHWAVIDYALAYA

BHOPAL (M.P)

MAJOR TRAINING REPORT

Submitted By
GOURAV JAIN (0157EX071010)

Under the Supervision of ( 14)

NAME OF THE GUIDE (14)

D EPA RT M EN T O F E LECT RICA L & ELE CTRO N ICS EN G IN EERIN G

LAKSHMI NARAIN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE
BHOPAL (M.P.)

SESSION - 2010-11

AN INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

IN

POWER TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION

HELD AT

220/132 KV & 132/33 KV SUB STATION

MP POWER TRANSMISSION COMPANY LTD.
GOVINDPURA BHOPAL (M.P.)

Submitted By
GOURAV JAIN (0157EX071010)
 D EPA RT M EN T O F E LECT RICA L & ELE CTRO N ICS EN G IN EERIN G
LAKSHMI NARAIN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE
BHOPAL (M.P.)
 LAKSHMI NARAIN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY, & SCIENCE
BHOPAL (M.P.)

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the work embodied in this premilary entitled "INDUSTRIAL
TRAINING" has been satisfactorily completed by GOURAV JAIN (0157EX071010 ), It
is a bonafide piece of work, carried out under our /my guidance in the Department of
electrical & electronicsl, Lakshmi Narain College of Technology, & Science Bhopal
for the partial fulfillment of the Bachelor of Engineering during the academic
year 2010.……

Name of Guide

Approved By

Prof. & Head

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Forwarded by

Principal

Lakshmi Narain College of Technology, & SCIENCE Bhopal

LAKSHMI NARAIN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY, & SCIENCE
BHOPAL

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

DECLARATION

1. GOURAV JAIN, a student of Bachelor of Engineering, Electrical &

Electronics Engineering , Lakshmi Narain College of Technology, & Science
Bhopal hereby declare that the work presented in this Dissertation
INDUSTRIAL TRAINING is outcome of my own work, is bonafide, correct
to the best of my knowledge and this work has been carried out taking care of
Engineering Ethics. The work presented does not infringe any patented work
and has not been submitted to any University for die award of any degree or
any professional diploma.

(GOURAV JAIN)
Enrollment No. 0157EX071010
Date: XX-12-2010

---------------------------------------------xxxxxxxxxxxxxx-----------------------------------------------
 INDEX

1.INTRODUCTION
2.ABOUT SUBSTATION
3.TRANSFORMER
4.CIRCUIT BREAKERS
5.ISOLATORS
6.INSULATOR
7.RELAYS
8.LIGHTENING ARREST0RS
9.POWER LINE CARRIER COMM.
10. BATTERY CHARGERS
11. CONTROL ROOM
12. SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM
13. CONCLUSION

INTRODUCTION
A Substation forms a important part of transmission & distribution system
of electric power utility. It may be defined as the assembly of apparatus,
which transform the characteristic of electrical energy from one to
another. It provides the point for controlling the power at different voltage
level along with different roots by means of various equipments, such as
transformers, circuit breakers, isolator etc. the AC electrical energy is
generated at low voltage (11 kv) but to transmission of voltage is stepped
up & for distribution the voltage is step down. The stepping up & stepping
down of voltage is done in substation.
An electrical substation is a subsidiary station of
an electricity generation, transmission and distribution system
where voltage is transformed from high to low or the reverse
using transformers. Electric power may flow through several substations
between generating plant and consumer, and may be changed in voltage
in several steps.
A substation that has a step-up transformer increases the voltage while
decreasing the current, while a step-down transformer decreases the
voltage while increasing the current for domestic and commercial
distribution. The word substation comes from the days before the
distribution system became a grid. The first substations were connected
to only one power station where the generator was housed, and were
subsidiaries of that power station.
Substations usually contain transformers in order to change voltage
levels; they are connected to a "bus" via a circuit breaker.
Specifically, substations are used for some or all of the following
purposes: connection of generators, transmission or distribution
lines, and loads to each other; transformation of power from one
voltage level to another; interconnection of alternate sources of
power; switching for alternate connections and isolation of failed or
overloaded lines and equipment; controlling system voltage and
power flow; reactive power compensation; suppression of
overvoltage; and detection of faults, monitoring, recording of
information, power measurements, and remote
communications.Minor distribution or transmission equipment
installation is not referred to as a substation.
The electricity power production at generating station is quite away from
the consumer. For transmission & distribution we need several substation.
The following categories of substation are covered in the transmission &
distribution system network.
 400 kv /220 kv
 220 kv /132 kv
 132 kv /33 kv
 33 kv /11 kv
 11 kv /440 v

ABOUT SUBSTATION

The assembly of apparatus used to change some characteristics (e.g.

voltage al to de freq. p.f. etc) of electric suppy is called subststion….
 Contents

 Elements of a substation
 Transmission substation
 Distribution substation
 Collector substation
 Stations with change of current type
 Switching substation
 Outdoor substation
 Indoor substation
 Under ground substation
 Design
 Layout
 Switching function
 Railways
 See also
 References and furtherreading
Elements of a substation
Substations generally have switching, protection and control equipment
and one or more transformers. In a large substation,circuit breakers are
used to interrupt any short-circuits or overload currents that may occur on
the network. Smaller distribution stations may use recloser circuit
breakers or fuses for protection of distribution circuits. Substations do not
usually have generators, although a power plant may have a substation
nearby. Other devices such as capacitors and voltage regulators may
also be located at a substation.
Substations may be on the surface in fenced enclosures, underground, or
located in special-purpose buildings. High-rise buildings may have several
indoor substations. Indoor substations are usually found in urban areas to
reduce the noise from the transformers, for reasons of appearance, or to
protect switchgear from extreme climate or pollution conditions.
Where a substation has a metallic fence, it must be
properly grounded (UK: earthed) to protect people from high voltages that
may occur during a fault in the network. Earth faults at a substation can
cause a ground potential rise. Currents flowing in the Earth's surface
during a fault can cause metal objects to have a significantly different
voltage than the ground under a person's feet; this touch
potential presents a hazard of electrocution.

Transmission substation
A transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines.
The simplest case is where all transmission lines have the same voltage.
In such cases, the substation contains high-voltage switches that allow
lines to be connected or isolated for fault clearance or maintenance. A
transmission station may have transformers to convert between two
transmission voltages, voltage control/power factor correction devices
such as capacitors, reactors or static VAr compensators and equipment
such as phase shifting transformers to control power flow between two
adjacent power systems.
Transmission substations can range from simple to complex. A small
"switching station" may be little more than a bus plus some circuit
breakers. The largest transmission substations can cover a large area
(several acres/hectares) with multiple voltage levels, many circuit
breakers and a large amount of protection and control equipment (voltage
and currenttransformers, relays and SCADA systems). Modern
substations may be implemented using International Standards such
as IEC61850.

Distribution substation
A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system
to the distribution system of an area. It is uneconomical to directly connect
electricity consumers to the high-voltage main transmission network,
unless they use large amounts of power, so the distribution station
reduces voltage to a value suitable for local distribution.
The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two transmission
or subtransmission lines. Input voltage may be, for example, 115 kV, or
whatever is common in the area. The output is a number of feeders.
Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage, between 2.4 and 33 kV
depending on the size of the area served and the practices of the local
utility.
The feeders will then run overhead, along streets (or under streets, in a
city) and eventually power the distribution transformers at or near the
customer premises.
Besides changing the voltage, the job of the distribution substation is to
isolate faults in either the transmission or distribution systems. Distribution
substations may also be the points of voltage regulation, although on long
distribution circuits (several km/miles), voltage regulation equipment may
also be installed along the line.
Complicated distribution substations can be found in the downtown areas
of large cities, with high-voltage switching, and switching and backup
systems on the low-voltage side. More typical distribution substations
have a switch, one transformer, and minimal facilities on the low-voltage
side.

Collector substation
In distributed generation projects such as a wind farm, a collector
substation may be required. It somewhat resembles a distribution
substation although power flow is in the opposite direction, from
many wind turbines up into the transmission grid. Usually for economy of
construction the collector system operates around 35 kV, and the
collector substation steps up voltage to a transmission voltage for the
grid. The collector substation can also provide power factor correction if it
is needed, metering and control of the wind farm. In some special cases a
collector substation can also contain an HVDC static inverter plant.
Collector substations also exist where multiple thermal or hydroelectric
power plants of comparable output power are in proximity. Examples for
such substations are Brauweiler in Germany and Hradec in the Czech
Republic, where power of lignite fired power plants nearby is collected. if
no transformers are installed for increase of voltage to transmission level,
the substation is a switching station.
Stations with change of current type
Substations may be found in association with HVDC converter plants or,
formerly, where rotary converters changed frequency or interconnected
non
Switching substation
A switching substation is a substation which does not contain
transformers and operates only at a single voltage level. Switching
substations are sometimes used as collector and distribution stations.
Sometimes they are used for switching the current to back-up lines or for
paralellizing circuits in case of failure. Example herefore are the switching
stations atHVDC Inga-Shaba.

Outdoor Sub-Station

For voltage beyond 66KV, equipment is invariably installed

outdoor.It is because for such Voltage the clearances between

conductor and the spacerequired for switches, C.B. and other

equipment becomes so great that it is noteconomical to installed the

equipment indoor.

Indoor Sub-station
For voltage upto 11KV, the equipment of the s/s is installed indoor
because of economic consideration.However, when the atmosphere
iscontaminated with impurities, these sub-stations can be erected for
voltage upto 66KV.

Under ground sub-station

In thickly populated areas, the space available for equipment

andbuilding is limited and the cost of the land is high.Under such

situations, the sub-station is created underground

Design
The main issues facing a power engineer are reliability and cost. A good
design attempts to strike a balance between these two, to achieve
sufficient reliability without excessive cost. The design should also allow
easy expansion of the station, if required.
Selection of the location of a substation must consider many factors.
Sufficient land area is required for installation of equipment with
necessary clearances for electrical safety, and for access to maintain
large apparatus such as transformers. Where land is costly, such as in
urban areas, gas insulated switchgear may save money overall. The site
must have room for expansion due to load growth or planned
transmission additions. Environmental effects of the substation must be
considered, such as drainage, noise and road traffic effects. Grounding
(earthing) and ground potential rise must be calculated to protect passers-
by during a short-circuit in the transmission system. And of course, the
substation site must be reasonably central to the distribution area to be
served.

Layout
The first step in planning a substation layout is the preparation of a one-
line diagram which shows in simplified form the switching and protection
arrangement required, as well as the incoming supply lines and outgoing
feeders or transmission lines. It is a usual practice by many electrical
utilities to prepare one-line diagrams with principal elements (lines,
switches, circuit breakers, transformers) arranged on the page similarly to
the way the apparatus would be laid out in the actual station.
Incoming lines will almost always have a disconnect switch and a circuit
breaker. In some cases, the lines will not have both; with either a switch
or a circuit breaker being all that is considered necessary. A disconnect
switch is used to provide isolation, since it cannot interrupt load current. A
circuit breaker is used as a protection device to interrupt fault currents
automatically, and may be used to switch loads on and off. When a large
fault current flows through the circuit breaker, this may be detected
through the use of current transformers. The magnitude of the current
transformer outputs may be used to 'trip' the circuit breaker resulting in a
disconnection of the load supplied by the circuit break from the feeding
point. This seeks to isolate the fault point from the rest of the system, and
allow the rest of the system to continue operating with minimal impact.
Both switches and circuit breakers may be operated locally (within the
substation) or remotely from a supervisory control center.
Once past the switching components, the lines of a given voltage connect
to one or more buses. These are sets of bus bars, usually in multiples of
three, since three-phase electrical power distribution is largely universal
around the world.
The arrangement of switches, circuit breakers and buses used affects the
cost and reliability of the substation. For important substations a ring
bus, double bus, or so-called "breaker and a half" setup can be used, so
that the failure of any one circuit breaker does not interrupt power to
branch circuits for more than a brief time, and so that parts of the
substation may be de-energized for maintenance and repairs. Substations
feeding only a single industrial load may have minimal switching
provisions, especially for small installations.
Once having established buses for the various voltage levels,
transformers may be connected between the voltage levels. These will
again have a circuit breaker, much like transmission lines, in case a
transformer has a fault (commonly called a 'short circuit').
Along with this, a substation always has control circuitry needed to
command the various breakers to open in case of the failure of some
component.

Switching function
An important function performed by a substation is switching, which is the
connecting and disconnecting of transmission lines or other components
to and from the system. Switching events may be "planned" or
"unplanned".
A transmission line or other component may need to be deenergized for
maintenance or for new construction; for example, adding or removing a
transmission line or a transformer.
To maintain reliability of supply, no company ever brings down its whole
system for maintenance. All work to be performed, from routine testing to
adding entirely new substations, must be done while keeping the whole
system running.
Perhaps more importantly, a fault may develop in a transmission line or
any other component. Some examples of this: a line is hit by lightning and
develops an arc, or a tower is blown down by a high wind. The function of
the substation is to isolate the faulted portion of the system in the shortest
possible time.
There are two main reasons: a fault tends to cause equipment damage;
and it tends to destabilize the whole system. For example, a transmission
line left in a faulted condition will eventually burn down, and similarly, a
transformer left in a faulted condition will eventually blow up. While these
are happening, the power drain makes the system more
unstable.Disconnecting the faulted component, quickly, tends to minimize
both of these problems.

Railways
Main article: Traction substation
Electrified railways also use substations, often distribution
substations. In some cases a conversion of the current type
takes place, commonly with rectifiers for DC trains, or rotary
converters for trains using AC other than that of the public grid.
Sometimes they are also transmission substations or collector
substations if the railway network also operates its own grid and
generators.
See also
 Insulator (electrical)
 Power station
 Electricity pylon
 Transformer
 Static VAR compensator
 Vehicle-to-grid
 Power line carrier communication
 IEC61850
 Static inverter plant
 Traction substation

References and further reading

 Overview of substation design and layout
 US Department of Agriculture engineering design manual for rural
substations
 IEEE Green Book - Recommended Practice for Grounding of
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
 V.k.mehata
 Pic of yard

rd
 CONCLUSION
In this way I concluded that my seminar report on Sub-

Station alsowe understand what is mean by Sub-Station,

classification of Sub-Station,comparison between outdoor & indoor

Sub-Station & various components &instrument used in Sub-Station.

TRANSFORMER
Electrical transformers are used to "transform" voltage from one level to
another, usually from a higher voltage to a lower voltage. They do this by
applying the principle of magnetic induction between coils to convert
voltage and/or current levels.

In this way, electrical transformers are a passive device which transforms

alternating current (otherwise known as "AC") electric energy from one
circuit into another through electromagnetic induction. An electrical
transformer normally consists of a ferromagnetic core and two or more
coils called "windings". A changing current in the primary winding creates
an alternating magnetic field in the core. In turn, the core multiplies this
field and couples the most of the flux through the secondary tranformer
windings. This in turn induces alternating voltage (or emf) in each of the
secondary coils.

Electrical transformers can be configured as either a single-phase or a

three-phase configuration. There are several important specifications to
specify when searching for electrical transformers. These include:
maximum secondary voltage rating, maximum secondary current rating,
maximum power rating, and output type. An electrical transformer may
provide more than one secondary voltage value. The Rated Power is the
sum of the VA (Volts x Amps) for all of the secondary windings. Output
choices include AC or DC. For Alternating Current waveform output,
voltage the values are typically given in RMS values. Consult
manufacturer for waveform options. For direct current secondary voltage
output, consult manufacturer for type of rectification.

A transformer is based on a very simple fact about electricity: when a

fluctuating electric current flows through a wire, it generates a magnetic
field (an invisible pattern of magnetism) or "magnetic flux" all around it.
The strength of the magnetism (which has the rather technical name
of magnetic flux density) is directly related to the size of the electric
current. So the bigger the current, the stronger the magnetic field. Now
there's another interesting fact about electricity too. When a magnetic field
fluctuates around a piece of wire, it generates an electric current in the
wire. So if we put a second coil of wire next to the first one, and send a
fluctuating electric current into the first coil, we will create an electric
current in the second wire. The current in the first coil is usually called
the primary current and the current in the second wire is (surprise,
surprise) the secondary current. What we've done here is pass an
electric current through empty space from one coil of wire to another. This
is called electromagnetic induction because the current in the first coil
causes (or "induces") a current in the second coil. We can make electrical
energy pass more efficiently from one coil to the other by wrapping them
around a soft iron bar (sometimes called a core):

To make a coil of wire, we simply curl the wire round into loops or ("turns"
as physicists like to call them). If the second coil has the same number of
turns as the first coil, the electric current in the second coil will be virtually
the same size as the one in the first coil. But (and here's the clever part) if
we have more or fewer turns in the second coil, we can make the
secondary current and voltage bigger or smaller than the primary current
and voltage.

One important thing to note is that this trick works only if the electric
current is fluctuating in some way. In other words, you have to use a type
of constantly reversing electricity called alternating current (AC) with a
transformer. Transformers do not work with direct current (DC), where
the current constantly flows in the same direction.
Step-down transformers
If the first coil has more turns that the second coil, the secondary voltage
is smaller than the primary voltage:
This is called a step-down transformer. If the second coil has half as
many turns as the first coil, the secondary voltage will be half the size of
the primary voltage; if the second coil has one tenth as many turns, it has
one tenth the voltage. In general:

Secondary voltage ÷ Primary voltage = Number of turns in secondary ÷

Number of turns in primary

The current is transformed the opposite way—increased in size—in a

step-down transformer:

Secondary current ÷ Primary current = Number of turns in primary ÷

Number of turns in secondary

Step-up transformers
Reversing the situation, we can make a step-up transformer that
boosts a low voltage into a high one:

This time, we have more turns on the secondary coil than the primary. It's
still true that:

Secondary voltage ÷ Primary voltage = Number of turns in secondary ÷

Number of turns in primary

and
Secondary current ÷ Primary current = Number of turns in primary ÷
Number of turns in secondary

In a step-up transformer, we use more turns in the secondary than in the

primary to get a bigger secondary voltage and a smaller secondary
current.

Losses
An ideal transformer would have no losses, and would therefore be 100%
efficient. In practice energy is dissipated due both to the resistance of the
windings (known as copper loss), and to magnetic effects primarily
attributable to the core (known as iron loss). Transformers are in general
highly efficient, and large power transformers (around 100 MVA and
larger) may attain an efficiency as high as 99.75%. Small transformers
such as a plug-in "power brick" used to power small consumer electronics
may be less than 85% efficient.

Autotransformer
An autotransformer has a single winding with two end terminals, and
one or more terminals at intermediate tap points. The primary
voltage is applied across two of the terminals, and the
secondary voltage taken from two terminals, almost always
having one terminal in common with the primary voltage. The
primary and secondary circuits therefore have a number of
windings turns in common.[46] Since the volts-per-turn is the
same in both windings, each develops a voltage in proportion
to its number of turns. In an autotransformer part of the current
flows directly from the input to the output, and only part is
transferred inductively, allowing a smaller, lighter, cheaper
core to be used as well as requiring only a single winding[47].
However, a transformer with separate windings isolates the
primary from the secondary, which is safer when using mains
voltages.
Instrument transformer
Instrument transformers are used for measuring voltage and current in
electrical power systems, and for power system protection and control.
Where a voltage or current is too large to be conveniently used by an
instrument, it can be scaled down to a standardized, low value.
Instrument transformers isolate measurement, protection and control
circuitry from the high currents or voltages present on the circuits being
measured or controlled.

Current transformers, designed for placing around conductors

A current transformer is a transformer designed to provide a current in its
secondary coil proportional to the current flowing in its primary coil.[54]
Voltage transformers (VTs), also referred to as "potential transformers"
(PTs), are designed to have an accurately known transformation ratio in
both magnitude and phase, over a range of measuring circuit
impedances. A voltage transformer is intended to present a negligible
load to the supply being measured. The low secondary voltage allows
protective relay equipment and measuring instruments to be operated at a
lower voltages.[55]
Both current and voltage instrument transformers are
designed to have predictable characteristics on overloads.
Proper operation of over-currentprotective relays requires
that current transformers provide a predictable
transformation ratio even during a short-circuit.
Pic of ct &pt
3 phase power transformer
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed
to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload orshort
circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting
continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike afuse, which
operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset
(either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit
breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an
individual household appliance up to large switchgeardesigned to protect
high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.

Origins
An early form of circuit breaker was described by Thomas Edison in an
1879 patent application, although his commercial power distribution
system used fuses.[1] Its purpose was to protect lighting circuit wiring from
accidental short-circuits and overloads.

[edit]Operation

All circuit breakers have common features in their operation, although

details vary substantially depending on the voltage class, current rating
and type of the circuit breaker.
The circuit breaker must detect a fault condition; in low-voltage circuit
breakers this is usually done within the breaker enclosure. Circuit
breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually arranged with pilot
devices to sense a fault current and to operate the trip opening
mechanism. The trip solenoid that releases the latch is usually energized
by a separate battery, although some high-voltage circuit breakers are
self-contained with current transformers, protection relays, and an internal
control power source.
Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to
interrupt the circuit; some mechanically-stored energy (using something
such as springs or compressed air) contained within the breaker is used
to separate the contacts, although some of the energy required may be
obtained from the fault current itself. Small circuit breakers may be
manually operated; larger units have solenoids to trip the mechanism, and
electric motors to restore energy to the springs.
Types of circuit breaker
• Low voltage circuit breakers
• Magnetic circuit breaker
• Thermal magnetic circuit breaker
• Common trip breakers
• Medium-voltage circuit breakers
• High-voltage circuit breakers
• Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) high-voltage circuit-breaker

Low voltage circuit breakers

Low voltage (less than 1000 VAC) types are common in domestic,
commercial and industrial application, include:

 MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)—rated current not more than 100

A. Trip characteristics normally not adjustable. Thermal or thermal-
magnetic operation. Breakers illustrated above are in this category.

 MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)—rated current up to 2500 A.

Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Trip current may be adjustable
in larger ratings.

 Low voltage power circuit breakers can be mounted in multi-tiers in

LV switchboards or switchgear cabinets.

The characteristics of LV circuit breakers are given by international

standards such as IEC 947. These circuit breakers are often installed in
draw-out enclosures that allow removal and interchange without
dismantling the switchgea
Magnetic circuit breaker
Magnetic circuit breakers use a solenoid (electromagnet) whose pulling
force increases with the current. Certain designs utilize electromagnetic
forces in addition to those of the solenoid. The circuit breaker contacts are
held closed by a latch. As the current in the solenoid increases beyond
the rating of the circuit breaker, the solenoid's pull releases the latch
which then allows the contacts to open by spring action. Some types of
magnetic breakers incorporate a hydraulic time delay feature using a
viscous fluid.
Thermal magnetic circuit breaker
Thermal magnetic circuit breakers, which are the type found in
most distribution boards, incorporate both techniques with the
electromagnet responding instantaneously to large surges in current
(short circuits) and the bimetallic strip responding to less extreme but
longer-term over-current condition
Common trip breakers

Three pole common trip breaker for supplying a three-phase device. This breaker has
a 2 A rating
When supplying a branch circuit with more than one live conductor, each
live conductor must be protected by a breaker pole. To ensure that all live
conductors are interrupted when any pole trips, a "common trip" breaker
must be used. These may either contain two or three tripping
mechanisms within one case, or for small breakers, may externally tie the
poles together via their operating handles. Two pole common trip
breakers are common on 120/240 volt systems where 240 volt loads
(including major appliances or further distribution boards) span the two
live wires. Three-pole common trip breakers are typically used to
supply three-phase electric power to large motors or further distribution
board
Medium-voltage circuit breakers
Medium-voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72 kV may be
assembled into metal-enclosed switchgear line ups for indoor use, or may
be individual components installed outdoors in a substation

 Vacuum circuit breaker—With rated current up to 3000 A, these

breakers interrupt the current by creating and extinguishing the arc in a
 vacuum container. These are generally applied for voltages up to
about 35,000 V,[4] which corresponds roughly to the medium-voltage
range of power systems. Vacuum circuit breakers tend to have longer
life expectancies between overhaul than do air circuit breakers.

 Air circuit breaker—Rated current up to 10,000 A. Trip

characteristics are often fully adjustable including configurable trip
thresholds and delays. Usually electronically controlled, though some
models are microprocessor controlled via an integral electronic trip
unit. Often used for main power distribution in large industrial plant,
where the breakers are arranged in draw-out enclosures for ease of
maintenance.

 SF6 circuit breakers extinguish the arc in a chamber filled with sulfur
hexafluoride gas

High-voltage circuit breakers

Main article: High-voltage switchgear

400 kV SF6 live tank circuit breakers

115 kV bulk oil circuit breaker
Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by
high-voltage breakers. The definition of high voltage varies but in power
transmission work is usually thought to be 72.5 kV or higher, according to
a recent definition by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
High-voltage breakers are nearly always solenoid-operated, with current
sensing protective relaysoperated through current transformers.
In substations the protective relay scheme can be complex, protecting
equipment and busses from various types of overload or ground/earth
fault.
High-voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to
extinguish the arc.

 Bulk oil
 Minimum oil
 Air blast
 Vacuum
 SF6

Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) high-voltage circuit-

breakers
Main article: Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker
A sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker uses contacts surrounded by sulfur
hexafluoride gas to quench the arc. They are most often used for
transmission-level voltages and may be incorporated into compact gas-
insulated switchgear. In cold climates, supplemental heating or de-rating
of the circuit breakers may be required due to liquefaction of the SF6 gas.
Minimum oil circuit breakers

Vacuum circuit breakers

Minimum oil ckt breaker

Working on circuit breakers

 ISOLATORS

Disconnector
In electrical engineering, a disconnector or isolator switch is used to make
sure that an electrical circuit can be completely de-energized for service or
maintenance. Such switches are often found in electrical
distribution and industrial applications where machinery must have its source
of driving power removed for adjustment or repair. High-voltage isolation
switches are used in electrical substations to allow isolation of apparatus
such as circuit breakers and transformers, and transmission lines, for
maintenance. Isolating switches are commonly fitted to domestic extractor
fans when used in bathrooms in the UK. Often the isolation switch is not
intended for normal control of the circuit and is only used for isolation.
Isolator switches have provisions for a padlock so that inadvertent operation
is not possible (see: Lock and tag). In high voltage or complex systems,
these padlocks may be part of atrapped-key interlock system to ensure
proper sequence of operation. In some designs the isolator switch has the
additional ability to earth the isolated circuit thereby providing additional
safety. Such an arrangement would apply to circuits which inter-connect
power distribution systems where both end of the circuit need to be isolated.
The major difference between an isolator and a circuit breaker is that an
isolator is an off-load device intended to be opened only after current has
been interrupted by some other control device. Safety regulations of the
utility must prevent any attempt to open the disconnector while it supplies a
circuit.
Standards in some countries for safety may require either local motor
isolators or lockable overloads (which can be padlocked
Electric isolation

Planar (top) and silicone

dome (bottom) layouts -
cross-section through a
standarddual in-line
package.[note 2]
Electronic equipment
and signal and power
transmission lines can
be subjected to

voltage surges induced by lightning, electrostatic discharge,radio

frequency transmissions, switching pulses (spikes) and perturbations in
power supply.[9] Remote lightning strikes can induce surges up to 10 kV,
one thousand times more than the voltage limits of many electronic
components.[10] A circuit can also incorporate high voltages by design, in
which case it needs safe, reliable means of interfacing its high-voltage
components with low-voltage ones.[11]
The main function of an opto-isolator is to block such high voltages and
voltage transients, so that a surge in one part of the system will not
disrupt or destroy the other parts.[2] Or, according to the authors of The
Art of Electronics, "in a nutshell, opto-couplers let you send digital(and
sometimes analog) signals between circuits with separate
grounds."[12] Historically, this function was delegated to isolation
transformers, which use inductive coupling between galvanically
isolated input and output sides. Transformers and opto-isolators are the
only two classes of electronic devices that offer reinforced protection —
they protect both the equipment and the human user operating this
equipment.[13] They contain a single physical isolation barrier, but provide
protection equivalent to double isolation.[13] Safety, testing and approval of
opto-couplers are regulated by national and international
standards: IEC 60747-5-2, EN (CENELEC) 60747-5-
2, UL 1577, CSA Component Acceptance Notice #5, etc.[14] Opto-isolator
specifications published by manufacturers always follow at least one of
these regulatory framework
 INSULATOR
An insulator, also called a dielectric, is a material that resists the flow
of electric charge. In insulating materials valence electrons are tightly
bonded to their atoms. These materials are used in electrical equipment
as insulators or insulation. Their function is to support or separate
electrical conductors without allowing current through themselves. The
term also refers to insulating supports that attach electric power
transmission wires to utility poles or pylons.
Some materials such as glass, paper or Teflon are very good electrical
insulators. Even though they may have lower bulk resistivity, a much
larger class of materials are still "good enough" to insulate electrical
wiring and cables. Examples include rubber-like polymers and most
plastics. Such materials can serve as practical and safe insulators for low
to moderate voltages (hundreds, or even thousands, ofvolts).

Uses
Insulators are commonly used as a flexible coating on electric wire and
cable. Since air is an insulator, no other substance is needed to keep
power where it should be. High-voltage power lines commonly use just
air, since a solid (e.g., plastic) coating would be impractical. However,
wires which touch each other will produce cross connections, short
circuits, and fire hazards. In coaxial cable the center conductor must be
supported exactly in the middle of the hollow shield in order to prevent EM
wave reflections. And any wires which present voltages higher than 60V
can cause human shock and electrocution hazards. Insulating coatings
helps to prevent all of these problems.
Some wires have a mechanical covering which has no voltage rating; e.g:
service-drop, welding, doorbell, thermostat.
An insulated wire or cable has a voltage rating and a maximum conductor
temperature rating. It does not have an ampacity rating, since such is
dependent upon the wire or cables environment where installed.

Telegraph and power transmission insulators

10 kV ceramic insulator, showing sheds

Suspended glass disk insulator unit used in high voltage transmission lines
Suspended wires for electric power transmission are bare, except when
connecting to houses, and are insulated by the surrounding air. Insulators
are required at the points at which they are supported by utility
poles or pylons. Insulators are also required where the wire enters
buildings or electrical devices, such as transformers or circuit breakers, to
insulate the wire from the case. These hollow insulators with a conductor
inside them are called bushings.
[edit]Material
Insulators used for high-voltage power transmission are made
from glass, porcelain, orcomposite polymer materials. Porcelain insulators
are made from clay, quartz or aluminaand feldspar, and are covered with
a smooth glaze to shed water. Insulators made from porcelain rich in
alumina are used where high mechanical strength is a criterion. Porcelain
has a dielectric strength of about 4–10 kV/mm.[1] Glass has a higher
dielectric strength, but it attracts condensation and the thick irregular
shapes needed for insulators are difficult to cast without internal strains.
[2]
Some insulator manufacturers stopped making glass insulators in the
late 1960s
]Cap and pin insulators
Higher voltage transmission lines use modular cap and pin insulator
designs (see picture above). The wires are suspended from a 'string' of
identical disk-shaped insulators which attach to each other with
metal clevis pin or ball and socket links. The advantage of this design is
that insulator strings with different breakdown voltages, for use with
different line voltages, can be constructed by using different numbers of
the basic units. Also, if one of the insulator units in the string breaks, it
can be replaced without discarding the entire string.
Each unit is constructed of a ceramic or glass disk with a metal cap and
pin cemented to opposite sides. In order to make defective units obvious,
glass units are designed with Class B construction, so that an overvoltage
causes a puncture arc through the glass instead of a flashover. The glass
is heat-treated so it will shatter, making the damaged unit visible.
However the mechanical strength of the unit is unchanged, so the
insulator string will stay together.
Standard disk insulator units are 10 inches (25 cm) in diameter and 53⁄4 in
(15 cm) long, can support a load of 80-120 kN (18-27 klbf), have a dry
flashover voltage of about 72 kV, and are rated at an operating voltage of
10-12 kV.[4] However, the flashover voltage of a string is less than the sum
of its component disks, because the electric field is not distributed evenly
across the string but is strongest at the disk nearest to the conductor,
which will flashover first. Metal grading rings are sometimes added
around the lowest disk, to reduce the electric field across that disk and
improve flashover voltage.
Cap and pin insulator string (the vertical string of discs) on a 275 kV suspension pylon.

A recent photo of an open wire telegraph pole route with traditional porcelain
insulators.Quidenham, Norfolk, United Kingdom.

Ceramic Insulators on a power line in Poland

[

RELAYS
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an
electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other
operating principles are also used. Relays are used where it is necessary
to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation
between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be
controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance
telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-
transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in telephone
exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.
A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly drive an
electric motor is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power
circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to
perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and
sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits
from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions
are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".

TYPES OF RELAYS
• .Latching relay
• Reed relay
• Polarized relay
• Machine tool relay
• Contactor relay
• Solid-state relay
• Solid state contactor relay
• Buchholz relay
• Forced-guided contacts relay
 • Overload protection rela

Latching relay

Latching relay, dust cover removed, showing pawl and ratchet mechanism. The
ratchet operates a cam, which raises and lowers the moving contact arm, seen edge-
on just below it. The moving and fixed contacts are visible at the left side of the image.
A latching relay has two relaxed states (bistable). These are also called
"impulse", "keep", or "stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the
relay remains in its last state. This is achieved with a solenoid operating a
ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing coils with an
over-center spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and
contacts in position while the coil is relaxed, or with a remanent core. In
the ratchet and cam example, the first pulse to the coil turns the relay on
and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil example, a pulse to one
coil turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay off.
This type of relay has the advantage that it consumes power only for an
instant, while it is being switched, and it retains its last setting across a
power outage. A remanent core latching relay requires a current pulse of
opposite polarity to make it change state.
[edit]Reed relay
A reed relay is a reed switch enclosed in a solenoid. The switch has a set
of contacts inside an evacuated or inert gas-filled glass tube which
protects the contacts against atmospheric corrosion; the contacts are
made of magnetic material that makes them move under the influence of
the field of the enclosing solenoid. Reed relays can switch faster than
larger relays, require only little power from the control circuit, but have low
switching current and voltage ratings.
Top, middle: reed switches, bottom: reed relay
[edit]Mercury-wetted relay
A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the
contacts are wetted with mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-
voltage signals (one volt or less) where the mercury reduces the contact
resistance and associated voltage drop, for low-current signals where
surface contamination may make for a poor contact, or for high-speed
applications where the mercury eliminates contact bounce. Mercury
wetted relays are position-sensitive and must be mounted vertically to
work properly. Because of the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury,
these relays are now rarely used. See also mercury switch.
[edit]Polarized relay
A polarized relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent
magnet to increase sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th
Century telephone exchanges to detect faint pulses and correct
telegraphic distortion. The poles were on screws, so a technician could
first adjust them for maximum sensitivity and then apply a bias spring to
set the critical current that would operate the relay.
[edit]Machine tool relay
A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of
machine tools, transfer machines, and other sequential control. They are
characterized by a large number of contacts (sometimes extendable in
the field) which are easily converted from normally-open to normally-
closed status, easily replaceable coils, and aform factor that allows
compactly installing many relays in a control panel. Although such relays
once were the backbone of automation in such industries as automobile
assembly, theprogrammable logic controller (PLC) mostly displaced the
machine tool relay from sequential control applications.
[edit]Contactor relay
A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric
motors and lighting loads, although contactors are not generally called
relays. Continuous current ratings for common contactors range from 10
amps to several hundred amps. High-current contacts are made with
alloys containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the contacts to
oxidize; however,silver oxide is still a good conductor.[2] Such devices are
often used for motor starters. A motor starter is a contactor with overload
protection devices attached. The overload sensing devices are a form of
heat operated relay where a coil heats a bi-metal strip, or where a solder
pot melts, releasing a spring to operate auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary
contacts are in series with the coil. If the overload senses excess current
in the load, the coil is de-energized. Contactor relays can be extremely
loud to operate, making them unfit for use where noise is a chief concern.
[edit]Solid-state relay

Solid state relay, which has no moving parts

25 A or 40 A solid state contactors

A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that
provides a similar function to an electromechanical relay but does not
have any moving components, increasing long-term reliability. With early
SSR's, the tradeoff came from the fact that every transistor has a small
voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited the amount of current a
given SSR could handle. As transistors improved, higher current SSR's,
able to handle 100 to 1,200 Amperes, have become commercially
available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they may be falsely
triggered by transients.
[edit]Solid state contactor relay
A solid state contactor is a heavy-duty solid state relay, including the
necessary heat sink, used for switching electric heaters, small electric
motors and lighting loads; where frequent on/off cycles are required.
There are no moving parts to wear out and there is no contact bounce
due to vibration. They are activated by AC control signals or DC control
signals from Programmable logic controller (PLCs), PCs, Transistor-
transistor logic (TTL) sources, or other microprocessor and
microcontroller controls.
[edit]Buchholz relay
A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in
large oil-filled transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas
or shut down the transformer if gas is produced rapidly in the transformer
oil.
[edit]Forced-guided contacts relay
A forced-guided contacts relay has relay contacts that are mechanically
linked together, so that when the relay coil is energized or de-energized,
all of the linked contacts move together. If one set of contacts in the relay
becomes immobilized, no other contact of the same relay will be able to
move. The function of forced-guided contacts is to enable the safety
circuit to check the status of the relay. Forced-guided contacts are also
known as "positive-guided contacts", "captive contacts", "locked
contacts", or "safety relays".
[edit]Overload protection relay
Electric motors need overcurrent protection to prevent damage from over-
loading the motor, or to protect against short circuits in connecting cables
or internal faults in the motor windings.[3] One type of electric
motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating element in series
with the electric motor. The heat generated by the motor current heats
a bimetallic strip or melts solder, releasing a spring to operate contacts.
Where the overload relay is exposed to the same environment as the
motor, a useful though crude compensation for motor ambient
temperature is provided.
LIGHTENING ARRSTOR
A lightning arrester is a device used on electrical power systems to
protect the insulation on the system from the damaging effect
of lightning. Metal oxide varistors (MOVs) have been used for power
system protection since the mid 1970s. The typical lightning arrester also
known as surge arrester has a high voltage terminal and a ground
terminal. When a lightning surge or switching surge travels down the
power system to the arrester, the current from the surge is diverted
around the protected insulation in most cases to earth
Lightning, is a form of visible discharge of electricity between rain clouds
or between a rain cloud and the earth. The electric discharge is seen in
the form of a brilliant arc, sometimes several kilometres long, stretching
between the discharge points. How thunderclouds become charged is not
fully understood, but most thunderclouds are negatively charged at the
base and positively charged at the top. However formed, the negative
charge at the base of the cloud induces a positive charge on the earth
beneath it, which acts as the second plate of a huge capacitor.

When the electrical potential between two clouds or between a cloud and
the earth reaches a sufficiently high value (about 10,000 V per cm or
about 25,000 V per in), the air becomes ionized along a narrow path and
a lightning flash results.

Many meteorologists believe that this is how a negative charge is carried

to the ground and the total negative charge of the surface of the Earth is
maintained.

The possibility of discharge is high on tall trees and buildings rather than
to ground. Buildings are protected from lightning by metallic lightning rods
extending to the ground from a point above the highest part of the roof.
The conductor has a pointed edge on one side and the other side is
connected to a long thick copper strip which runs down the building. The
lower end of the strip is properly earthed. When lightning strikes it hits the
rod and current flows down through the copper strip. These rods form a
low-resistance path for the lightning discharge and prevent it from
travelling through the structure itself. — The Hindu S & T Desk

1.What is lightning?
Lightning is a high-energy luminous electrical discharge from a
thundercloud to the ground accompanied by thunder. In our atmosphere,
three types of discharges take place: one within a thundercloud (intra-
cloud), the second from one cloud to another (inter-cloud) and the third,
from cloud to ground (CG).

2. What Causes lightning?

The largest of all types of clouds, namely the Cumulonimbus (Cb) cloud is
responsible for lightning. Mainly two types of processes lead to formation
of such clouds. Based on the type of formation they are classified as
Frontal or Convective thundercloud. Frontal thunderclouds form by the
interaction of cold and warm air masses and so such clouds can form at
any time of the day or night. The convective Cb cloud formation
commences in the forenoon with the onset of convective cycle initiated
due to heating by the solar radiation. Usually they mature by the
afternoon. Majority of the lightning strikes from this type occur in the
afternoon hours. In Kerala, most of the thunderclouds are of the
convective type and are formed mostly during the northeast monsoon.
(October to December) and during the premonsoon (March to May). The
present year has been an exception with frontal thunder clouds causing
lightning at almost all times of the day. Charging mechanisms of the
cloud, the number of charged cells formed and the regional meteorology
decide the thundercloud formation in a region. Therefore, the Cb cloud
behaviour varies over regions of the globe. A typical cumulonimbus cloud
grows up to tropopause (15 to 18 km in tropics).

PRECAUTIONS AND GUIDELINES

Many aspects of escaping a lightning accident are presented here. One of
the most important things to be remembered is that a thunder cloud or
lightning will be active in an area only for about one hour. So, observing
what is given below for an hour may save one from a serious injury.

1.Locations which provide Protection

(A) Locations with good protection:

Locations, surrounded partially or fully by unbroken metallic
surfaces or nets do not allow lightning to penetrate to the interior
and hence a person is safe inside.
(B) Locations Offering at Least a Minimum of Protection:

2. Locations and situations to be avoided during thunderstorms:

Lightning prefers to strike the tallest of all objects in the location of strike.
Also it prefers metal objects; the larger the metal more is the preference.

3. Recommended Precautions when Surprised by a Thunderstorm:

a. Avoid close proximity to metal objects like umbrellas, scythes, knives
and golf clubs; especially if they project above your body. Danger is acute
if you see or hear St. Elmo's Fire (corona discharge).
b. Crouch on the floor with both feet and knees pressing each other and
hands circling the knees with the chin pressing on the knees. The position
is shown in figure.

III. LIGHTNING PROTECTION

There are many locations and buildings, which have to be protected from
lightning damage.Storage location of inflammable material is an example.
High rise buildings and structures housing equipment etc. also have to be
protected as precautions taken for personnel safety is of little use in such
places. A device which gives a good amount of protection and which has
been in use is the Lightning Conductor.
1. The Lightning Conductor:
2. Earthing:
3. Cone of Protection:
 4. A Special Case for Kerala Region:

5. The Lightning Arrester:

POWER LINE CARRIER COMM.

Power line carrier communication (PLCC) is mainly used

for telecommunication, tele-protection and tele-monitoring
between electrical substations through power lines at high voltages, such
as 110 kV, 220 kV, 400 kV. PLCC integrates the transmission of
communication signal and 50/60 Hz power signal through the same
electric power cable. The major benefit is the union of two important
applications in a single system.
In a PLCC system the communication is established through the power
line. The audio frequency is carried by a carrier frequency and the range
of carrier frequency is from 50 kHz to 500 kHz. The modulation generally
used in these system is amplitude modulation. The carrier frequency
range is allocated to include the audio signal, protection and the pilot
frequency. The pilot frequency is a signal in the audio range that is
transmitted continuously for failure detection.
The voice signal is converted/compressed into the 300 Hz to 4000 Hz
range, and this audio frequency is mixed with the carrier frequency. The
carrier frequency is again filtered, amplified and transmitted. The
transmission of these HF carrier frequencies will be in the range of 0 to
+32db. This range is set according to the distance between substations.
PLCC can be used for interconnecting PBXs. The electricity board in India
have an internal network PLCC between PBXs

Line trap
It is also called "Wave trap". It is connected in series with the power
(transmission) line. It blocks the high frequency carrier waves (24 kHz to
500 kHz) and let power waves (50 Hz - 60 Hz) to pass through. It is
basically an inductor of rating in milli henry.

[edit]Coupling capacitor
It provides low impedance path for carrier energy to HV line and blocks
the power frequency circuit by being a high impedance path.

[edit]Line matching unit

LMU is a composite unit consisting of Drain Coil, Isolation transformer
with Lightning Arrester on its both the sides, a Tuning Device and an
earth switch. Tuning Device is the combination of R-L-C circuits which act
as filter circuit. LMU is also known as Coupling Device. Together with
coupling capaitor, LMU serves the purpose of connecting effectively the
Audio/Radio frequency signals to either transmission line or PLC terminal
and protection of the PLCC unit from the overvoltages caused due to
transients on power system.

[edit]Digital power line carrier

A power line carrier using a power line as transmission media needs to
change its transmission system from analog to digital to address rapid
diffusion of IP devices and digital telecommunication devices. With this
view, digital power line carrier (DPLC) was developed featuring several
technological measures which enable digital transmission via power lines
and performed a field evaluation test. As a result, DPLC has the required
quality of bit error rate characteristics and transmission ability such as
transmitting information from monitored electric-supply stations and
images.

BATTERY CHARGERS
All but the smallest substations include auxiliary power supplies. AC
power is required for substation building small power, lighting, heating
and ventilation, some communications equipment, switchgear operating
mechanisms, anticondensation heaters and motors. DC power is used to
feed essential services such as circuit breaker trip coils and associated
relays, supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) and
communications equipment. This chapter describes how these auxiliary
supplies are derived and explains how to specify such equipment.

Battery and charger configurations

 Capital cost and reliability objectives must first be considered before
defining the battery and battery charger combination to be used for a
specific installation. The comparison given in Table 4.1 describes the
advantages and disadvantages of three such combinations.
Figure 4.1 details the main electrical features associated with these
battery and charger combinations. Charger units are used to supply either
just a battery to provide an autonomous DC supply or a battery/inverter
combination to provide an autonomous AC supply. The level of
‘autonomy’ is usually defined in terms of the number of hours or minutes
the equipment will enable a specified load to function correctly after loss
of input mains AC supply. The capacity of the charger must also be such
that after a severe discharge it has the capacity to supply the full DC
system load current and the full charging current

Type Advantages Disadvantages

1. Single 100% battery Low capital cost No standby DC

and 100% charger System outage for
maintenance
Need to isolate
battery/
charger
combination from
load under
boost charge
conditions1 in
order to
prevent high boost
voltages
appearing on DC
distribution
system2

2. Semi-duplicate Medium capital cost 50% capacity

on loss of
2 _ 50% batteries and Standby DC provided which one battery
during AC
2 _ 100% chargers is 100% capacity on loss source
failure

of one charger
Each battery or charger can
be maintained in turn.
Each battery can be isolated
 and boost charged in turn
without affecting DC
output voltage

3. Fully duplicate Full 100% standby DC High

capital cost
2 _ 100% batteries and capacity provided under all Greater space
requirement
2 _ 100% chargers AC source conditions and Increased
maintenance
single component (charger cost
or battery) failure

simultaneously. The technique used for battery charging is called ‘float’

charging and involves the battery being permanently connected to the
load (possibly via an inverter) in parallel with a charger. Therefore the
charger must satisfy the requirements of both the battery and the load.
The exact charger functional requirements will depend upon the type of
battery (lead acid, nickel cadmium – NiCad, sealed recombination, etc.)

CONTROL ROOM
a protection and control specialist, the emirate’s Water and Electricity
Department was considering introducing control systems in its
transmission substations. Substation control systems were in an early
stage of application in the world, so officials in the department requested
a study of their effectiveness.

Our team prepared the study, in which we demonstrated the economic

and technical advantages of implementing such a system and replacing
some of the conventional control equipment, as noted above. These
advantages included:

• Reduction of control room size

• Simplified requirements on installation, wiring and testing
• Increased reliability of control
• User friendly person-system communication.

Success of Initial Implementations

The first applications of the substation control and monitoring systems
were in substations E8 132/11 kV (Figure 1), Mussafah 220/33 kV,
Sweihan 220/33 kV and Madinat Khalifa 132/11 kV, which were
successively commissioned by 1999. The redundant architecture of
each substation control system provided uninterrupted operation in the
case of any single point failure. The systems basically included redundant
operator workstations, dual optical loop based local network, numerical
bay control units, and dual modems for communication to load dispatch
centre (Figure 2).