Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Environment: Financial and Non‐Financial Considerations
J. F. Patience, C. K. Jones and N. A. Gutierrez
Iowa State University
Ames, IA
“The pessimist sees difficulty in every opportunity. The optimist sees the opportunity in every difficulty.”
‐ Winston Churchill
Introduction
North America has traditionally been viewed as one of the low cost regions for livestock and poultry
production worldwide due to an abundance of inexpensive feed, aggressive adoption of new
technologies, and sound business models. While this may still be true, the past 5 years in Canada and
the past 3 years in the U.S. have seen an economic environment that is clearly not sustainable for the
pork and beef industries in Canada and the dairy, beef and pork industries in the U.S. This is not solely a
North American phenomenon. The pork industry has experienced losses on a near global basis;
exceptions include places like England and Australia, where massive reductions in sow numbers have
resulted in almost record‐setting profits.
While the problems of the livestock industry are multifaceted, feed is a very important piece of the
puzzle. The concept of cheap and abundant feed that once served as the cornerstone of our industry
may no longer apply because feed in North America over the past few years has been neither cheap nor,
in some years, abundant. Clearly, we must prepare for a future feed market that is more complex than it
has been in the past, but we must also caution against over‐reaction. History has shown us many
examples where overreaction to certain events resulted in more serious outcomes than those caused by
the initial underlying event.
The combination of rapidly rising prices and extreme volatility has made it extremely difficult for both
producers and the feed and crop sectors to achieve any reasonable degree of predictability. Most
critically, however, the market has changed vastly because of the influence of the biofuels sector. In
fact, many previous predictors of future prices have been weakened, making planning for the future
extremely difficult.
Global trends have certainly affected the feed ingredient marketplace. The most obvious example of this
has been the very rapid evolution of the biofuels industry, resulting in the diversion of large quantities of
feed grains from the feed market. However, competing with other markets for grains, oilseeds, and
pulse crops is not a new circumstance for the livestock and poultry feed sector. The human food sector
has long used various crops for sale as both processed (eg. high fructose corn syrup, tofu, etc.) and
unprocessed (eg. oat meal) human food products. The addition of the biofuels sector has upset the
balance between human food markets and livestock and poultry feed markets. A major factor in this
upset balance has been the quantity of demand for biofuels, but its speed of growth has been an
important factor, as well. There simply has not been enough time for the human food and livestock feed
markets, as well as the crop sector, to adjust.
It is quite clear that the diversion of large quantities of grain and crop‐based oil to industrial uses will
continue, if not expand. There could be even greater competition for feed ingredients; the biopolymer
sector is rapidly evolving and probably represents the next wave of competition for feed grains. On the
Presented to 30th Western Nutrition Conference in Winnipeg, MB on September 24, 2009
other hand, as new industries evolve, an increased array of co‐products could become available, and
thus represent an expansion of ingredient opportunities in the future.
A question that remains in our minds is the impact of hedge funds and other forms of commodity
investment on both the magnitude of change in feed market prices, and in the volatility of those
changes. This issue remains controversial, with no clear agreement coming forth from the financial
community.
For the Canadian livestock sector, the competitiveness of crop production will no doubt influence
producers’ competitiveness in the global meat marketplace. The data summarized in Figure 1 is,
therefore, troubling. It shows a relatively flat
yield over the past 16 years for wheat and Figure 1. Yield trends in common
barley in Canada but rising yields – in the range grain crops
of 25 to 30% ‐ for corn in the U.S. for the same Corn Wheat Barley
period. There are reasons for these trends, but 4.5
er 4.0
its continuation into the future would not be a c
ld /as 3.5
good thing for the (western) Canadian ieY en
n 3.0
o
livestock and poultry sectors. T
2.5
2.0
The situation is more encouraging for oilseed
1.5
production (Figure 2). Canola yields have 1.0
increased steadily over the past 16 years. It 0.5
would appear that increases have at least kept 0.0
pace with the yields in soybeans.
The important point is that a familiarity with Sou rces: USDA‐NASS, Canadian W heat Board
relevant trends beyond our own immediate industry is critically important in understanding future
challenges and opportunities. The above‐mentioned quote by Winston Churchill has particular
application in this regard.
The consumer marketplace is also a major determinant in the ingredient marketplace. Food safety
remains a high priority issue in the minds of most consumers. This has already had significant affects on
ingredient selection, with the best example being the restricted use of meat and bone meal. While
legislation allows some usage of these ingredients, a
Figure 2. Yield trends in oilseeds significant number of processors and retailers have
Soybeans Canola
1.2
opted to eliminate them from livestock or poultry
1.1 feed altogether. Certain foreign markets have also
rec imposed restrictions on the use of selected
ld
ei sne
/a 1.0
Y n 0.9 ingredients in commercial diets.
o
T
0.8
The significance of food safety is illustrated in a
0.7
0.6
British study, the results of which are presented in
0.5
Figure 3. Of the 11 considerations involved in food
0.4
purchasing decisions, safety represents 2 of the top
5. The ban of trans fatty acids in many jurisdictions
has created a significant shift in the restaurant
Sources: USDA‐NASS, Canola Council of Canada, Statisti cs Canada
2
Interest in “eating food that is healthy” has also
Figure 3. Top Considerations When Deciding What to
Buy to Eat at Home/Outside the Home
provided a new opportunity in food production, as
well. The development of meat and egg products
Eating food that is healthy
Price/value for money
enriched in omega‐3 fatty acids is but one example of
What I like/the family likes what will likely continue to be a potential area for
Locally grown
growth in the future.
Food Hygiene/Risk of food poisoning
Availability
Animal welfare
Like most aspects of food production, the process of
In season selecting ingredients for use in livestock and poultry
Convenience
diets has become increasingly complex. Traditional
Additives/E number
Indulgence
issues, such as price and availability remain most
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 important, but with increasing focus on the demands
%
Source: Food Standards Agency (UK ) Eat outside home Eat at home and expectations of the consumer, final carcass and
meat composition, and milk, and egg quality will play
an increasing role as well. The feed industry, as well as primary producers, will increasingly be required
to understand issues outside of traditional agriculture. New competing markets for ingredients will
continue to evolve. With tighter global supplies of feed ingredients, increased volatility could become a
common feature of the marketplace, at least until a new order of stability and predictability arises from
the changes seen over the past 5 years. And, of course, one can anticipate that domestic and
international politics will also affect the feed market.
Ingredient selection and management during these turbulent times is as vital as ever before. Producers
must evaluate a variety of factors in order to reap maximum benefit. These varying factors include, but
are not limited to, diversification of ingredients, the risk versus reward of alternative ingredient use, the
complication of defining nutrient contents, the increased costs of sufficient quality assurance, the
considerations of food and feed safety, the logistical application of new systems, and environmental
impacts. Prudent management of these ingredient selection factors within individual operations is
imperative to success in these unpredictable times.
Diversification
The most obvious reason for diversifying diet composition is to reduce costs. There are, however, other
good reasons to adopt a broader spectrum of ingredients in diet formulation. Increasing the number of
ingredients can reduce a mill or farm’s dependency on a limited number of suppliers. When availability
of ingredients tightens due to a poor crop year or competition from other sectors of the economy, this
can have a substantial benefit. Feed companies and farmers not familiar with diverse diets will inevitably
encounter a very steep learning curve with associated mistakes. Many of these can be avoided or
minimized by developing expertise in the acquisition, purchase, and utilization of “alternative”
ingredients.
In some respects, achieving consistent nutrient content in diets is easier when multiple ingredients are
used. All ingredients possess an inherent quantity of variation. The law of averages suggests that if the
nutritionist happens to overestimate the nutrients contributed by one ingredient, he/she is likely to
underestimate that of another ingredient. The more ingredients that are used, the greater is the
likelihood of consistently achieving minimum nutrient specifications week in and week out. Of course,
this only occurs when the nutrient information on all ingredients is as complete and accurate as
possible. However, this “statistical” approach cannot be a replacement for an effective and efficient
quality assurance program.
Nutritionists in the United States or central Canada who have traditionally used a simple corn‐soybean
meal diet are faced with a particularly daunting challenge. Corn and soybean meal tend to be relatively
3
consistent ingredients in terms of nutrient composition. Adopting one additional ingredient which is
highly variable, namely distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS), poses a particular challenge because
there are no other ingredients to “offset” the variability of DDGS. The “law of averages” approach is not
very effective when only one highly variable ingredient is added to the mix. As a result, ingredient
variation must be handled in a different manner in this scenario; namely, there must be a higher
investment in quality control activities and close, continuous monitoring of animal performance (see
below).
Diversifying diet composition has other advantages as well. It may also provide a means to achieve
improved relationships in local communities if an otherwise low value ingredient can be used for a
higher value purpose in feed. For example, liquid whey from a local milk or cheese processing plant was
often applied to land with very little inherent value being captured, or disposed of via the local water
treatment system with associated high costs of treatment. Incorporating liquid whey into pig diets was a
strategy that converted an almost waste product into one with high nutritional value in practical diets.
The adoption of new ingredients also has many associated costs, including a requirement for increased
storage and handling capacity, greater demands on quality assurance, and the potential for increased
logistical problems associated with more suppliers and often more complex trucking issues. All of this
adds up to increased risks of things going wrong, such as bridging of ingredients in the feed mill or on
the farm, incorrect nutrient composition information, delayed or missed deliveries, errors made in
invoicing and payment procedures, etc.
Clearly, then, increasing the number of ingredients in the diet has to be well planned, effectively
managed, and financially rewarding. Otherwise, all of the potential savings earned through reduced
ingredient cost can be lost through higher costs in feed mill and/or farm management.
Risk versus Reward
Most business decisions are fundamentally based on risk versus reward. Every decision assumes some
degree of risk in proceeding, but also concomitant reward. Construction of a new feed mill obviously
involves risk, but will not proceed if the reward does not outweigh these risks. The same applies to
formulation of pig diets and the associated selection of feed ingredients. Adopting a new or novel feed
ingredient involves risk, but also the prospect of reward. Although risks and rewards are predominantly
related to finances, there are important non‐financial considerations involved as well.
Different people or organizations will arrive at different conclusions on whether or not to proceed with
the adoption of a feed ingredient that is new to them. In some cases, the differing decision will be based
on differing information, resulting in one organization anticipating more risk than another, or one
anticipating more reward than another. Of course, some organizations are more risk tolerant or aversive
than others, so the risk:reward ratio that encourages adoption will differ among decision‐markers.
Figure 4 illustrates one of the key challenges in the risk versus reward discussion – what is true
risk/reward and what is simply perceived. A “real” risk/reward is one that exists in reality; it may or may
not be perceived to exist, but it is real. A “perceived” risk/reward is one that exists in the minds of the
farm or the feed company; it may be real or not real, but it is perceived to be real. Farmers and feed
companies will prefer to adopt ingredients when risks and rewards are both real and perceived (cell #1
in Figure 4). In other words, the risks/rewards that truly exist are known and understood. In this
situation, complete and accurate information is available, and as a consequence, informed business
decisions can be made.
There are other situations, however, which could pose serious problems. One occurs when risks or
rewards are not real, but are nonetheless perceived as being real (cell #2). This can lead to incorrect
4
decisions due to inaccurate information. For example, if one believes that a particular ingredient will not
flow through the existing milling system, when in fact it will, and the decision is consequently made to
not use the ingredient, a potentially profitable opportunity will be missed. On the other hand, if an
ingredient is believed to possess certain health promoting capabilities when it does not, the decision to
use the product may be made in error.
Risks or rewards which are real, but are not
Figure 4. Understanding risk and reward in the perceived, also represent a serious and undesirable
feed ingredient marketplace situation (cell #3) which arises from incomplete
information. In this case, an unknown and therefore
Real (Risk or Reward)
unexpected risk could create a problem when the
Yes No
decision is made to use of the product, resulting in
1. Real and 2. Perceived
(Risk or Reward)
Defining Nutrient Content
As ingredients become more expensive, more sophisticated tools are required to allow producers to
maintain animal or bird performance at the lowest possible input costs. Maximizing productivity as a
goal is being replaced by “maximizing profitability” or “minimizing losses.” We have finally learned the
important lesson that productivity and profitability do not necessarily go hand in hand, and that the
decision‐making process on the farm must consider animal performance and financial performance as
linked but distinct outcomes. It follows then, that achieving financial success requires the development
of feeding programs that support predictable, as opposed to maximal, performance. This is not an easy
objective because many variables affect performance, and feed composition is only one of them.
Nonetheless, as the industry moves forward in its search for predictable outcomes, nutritionists are
increasingly challenged to develop feeding programs that lead to mandated outcomes, such as meeting
targets for feed conversion, barn throughput, mortality, and net returns.
Nutrient systems are required to fill 2 roles. The first is to provide a standard for trading and pricing of
ingredients and complete feed. Ingredients or feeds containing high quantities of available energy,
amino acids, or phosphorus are logically more valuable, and thus command a higher price. The second
role is to quantify the requirement of the pig for that nutrient and allow diets to be formulated to meet
that requirement. Without effective energy, amino acid, or phosphorus systems, it would not be
possible to ensure that the diet contains adequate quantities of these components to achieve desired
performance levels.
Defining the nutrient composition of ingredients requires that the best and most effective system of
evaluation is being used. Based on the variety of energy systems used by the pork industry in Canada, it
is clear that no system has been accepted as superior to all others. As a result, we see that energy is
usually expressed as DE, ME, modified ME or NE. There appears to be a trend toward increased use of
the NE system and less use of the DE system in Canada. In the case of amino acids, we still see diets
formulated on the basis of “total” amino acids, although apparent ileal digestible and standardized ileal
5
digestible systems are the most common. Dietary levels of the third most expensive nutrient,
phosphorus, are based on one of three systems: total, available or digestible.
Thus, there is no universal agreement on which energy system, which amino acid system, and which
phosphorus system should be used in swine, and only limited agreement in the other species. It is our
belief that over the next 5 years, we will see a move towards adoption of fewer systems in pork
production as it becomes increasingly apparent that certain energy, amino acid and phosphorus systems
are superior to others. Economics will drive this change by minimizing cost of production and achieving
increased predictability of animal performance.
Energy systems
There are many references on energy systems available for use by the pork industry (Payne and Zijlstra,
2007; Patience et al., 2006, 2004; de Lange and Birkett, 2005; Patience and Beaulieu, 2005; Noblet,
2000; Whittemore, 1997). The energy systems most commonly used in North America today are
summarized in Figure 5. As one moves from GE to DE to ME and to NE, one can see the shift from
ingredient‐related factors to animal‐based factors.
Figure 5. Common energy systems used in swine nutrition
Thus, it is generally accepted that the NE system
100% GE Ingredient
addresses variables based on ingredient composition Energy in feces Factors
Energy in gases: CH + H
of ingredients, which represents the metabolic cost of 82% ME 4 2
weanling pig study that less than 30% of the gross 27% NEm NEg 29%
Animal
Factors
energy consumed by the pig is retained in the carcass, K l K p
fifteen percent was lost in the feces, 3% was lost in NEl NEp Adapted from Ewan, 2001
Adapted from Oresanya et al., 2005
the urine, and 26% was lost as heat increment. Thus,
heat increment represents more energy “lost” than fecal losses, but is ignored by the ME and DE
systems.
While the NE system is gaining favour in North America, it is not without criticism. Perhaps the greatest
concern lies in the manner in which the NE values of most ingredients have been determined. Arising
from extensive and impressive research in both The Netherlands and France, the NE values have been
derived from studies using indirect calorimetry with animals housed individually in metabolism crates
and fed a restricted level of intake. Commercially in North America, however, pigs are housed in groups
and fed ad libitum. This variation in environment may alter variables such as diet and nutrient
digestibility and maintenance requirement. It remains to be seen how significant these differences in
experimental circumstances are with respect to performance outcomes. As previously mentioned, it is
generally accepted that the NE system is clearly and definitively superior to DE or ME in the first role of
an energy system, namely supporting the most cost effective ingredient pricing mechanisms, because
DE and ME systems tend to overestimate the energy value of protein‐ and fiber‐rich feedstuffs and
underestimate the energy value of fat rich feedstuffs (Noblet et al., 1994). However, it may offer only
limited advantages in predicting pig performance. Our experience suggests that diets properly
formulated using one of the established NE systems support performance at least equal to those
formulated using the DE or ME system, but the advantage in terms of predictability only exists in carcass
fat accretion (Oresanya et al., 2008).
6
Amino acid systems
The widespread formulation of practical diets based on amino acids, as opposed to crude protein, is a
relatively new phenomenon. As recently as the late 1980’s, crude protein was still being used in swine
diet formulation. Change came quickly, as nutritionists began adopting first total amino acids (AA) in the
1970’s and then apparent ileal digestible (AID) amino acids in the late 1980’s and 1990’s. More recently,
further developments in research are shifting the industry towards the use of standardized ileal
digestible (SID) amino acids. While true ileal digestible (TID) amino acids would be preferable, there is
insufficient data available on sufficient numbers of ingredients under various conditions to allow
adoption of this further level of sophistication.
Formulating diets on the basis of total amino acids should now be a thing of the past; the only possible
exception could be early wean starter diets where information on both pig digestive function and
ingredient AID or SID content is somewhat lacking. The use of total amino acids ignores the well‐known
fact that all amino acids in the diet are not fully available to the pig, and that the degree of availability
varies widely among ingredients. Apparent ileal digestible amino acids corrects for the disappearance of
amino acids in the upper gut of the pig, but makes no adjustment for amino acids present in the gut of
non‐dietary origin (Stein et al., 2007). Amino acids present in the upper gut of the pig are derived from
three sources: the diet, endogenous secretions into the gut that occur irrespective of diet composition
(called diet independent endogenous secretions), and endogenous secretions that are specific to the
diet or ingredient being fed (called diet dependent endogenous secretions). Standardized ileal digestible
amino acids adjust for the diet independent secretions, but not the diet dependent secretions. Only
true ileal digestible amino acids account for secretions of all origins.
None of these methods quantifies the reduction in amino acid digestibility due to heat processing very
well (Batterham et al., 1992). Thus, nutritionists are cautious when using ingredients that may
experience heat damage due to the heat applied to the ingredient during processing or drying. While
the technology exists to characterize such losses (Hodgkinson et al., 2003), the cost and time required to
apply them impair their broader adoption by the industry.
Increasing Role of Quality Assurance
There is little doubt that the most effective selection of ingredients for use in livestock and poultry diets
requires an increasing role for quality assurance programs. Narrowing margins, or mounting losses,
demand that the nutritive value of ingredients must be well‐defined because over‐formulation is too
expensive to afford and under‐formulation results in impaired performance that lowers net income or
increases net losses.
Quality assurance is a costly endeavour, considering both finances and time. Financial costs need to be
controlled, meaning that carefully thought out programs are the only ones that can be adopted. The
most frustrating programs are those that generate data which is not used to its fullest possible extent;
this is a problem much more common than one would expect.
A common question related to the development of quality assurance programs is where to invest
available dollars – on characterizing ingredients coming into the feed mill or evaluating the quality of the
feed exiting the feed mill. The answer depends on many factors. The first factor to consider is the
quantity, quality, and consistency of information currently available on the ingredients in use. If
extensive and complete, it is sensible to direct a higher portion of the budget to the mixed diets in order
to ensure that nutrient targets are being met. Analyzing the mixed diets will not tell you where errors
are occurring, but will identify if errors are being made. This approach addresses the final outcome, and
is sensible if the nutritionist has confidence in assumptions made to formulate the diets.
7
Conversely, if the information on incoming ingredients is limited, or if the ingredients in use are
suspected of being highly variable, it makes sense to direct a higher portion of the budget to assaying
incoming ingredients. This approach helps to elevate the quality and quantity of information on
ingredients so that diet formulation can be undertaken with a higher degree of confidence. However,
some of the budget must still be directed to the assay of mixed diets in order to ensure that nutrient
specifications are correct and to ensure that the manufacturing process itself is effective and successful.
Quality assurance programs are also important for other reasons, such as protection against liability
claims. This issue was amply demonstrated during the BSE crisis in Canada. Feed will continue to be a
focus of food safety issues, and an effective quality assurance program is absolutely essential for any
feed manufacturer, whether they are on‐farm or otherwise, in the 21st century. Notably, commercial
feed manufacturers have and will continue to respond to the demands of an increasingly sophisticated
livestock and poultry industry, which expects a highly technical approach to the production of feed.
Assay methods
While wet chemistry remains the gold standard for ingredient and mixed feed analysis, there are
increasing demands for faster and less expensive alternatives. Two notable options are currently
available. Near infrared reflectance (NIR) spectroscopy has grown in application and sophistication in
the past two decades; this has resulted in much more widespread adoption for everything from the
crude protein content of cereal grains to energy concentration in mixed diets. It is used in many non‐
farming industrial sectors as well, assuring continued growth in technological quality. NIR is “black box”
technology, which relates reflectance of a sample across a range of wavelengths to a specific level of
nutrient or nutrients. The key to success is the development – and on‐going maintenance ‐ of an
accurate standard curve. The up‐front cost of implementing NIR capability is relatively high due to the
cost of the equipment and developing an accurate and precise standard curve. Once the equipment is in
place and the standard curve has been established, samples can be assayed rapidly and cost effectively.
However, the standard curve must be updated as samples change in nature and composition; this is a
cost that must be built into any application system.
Another technology that is rapidly evolving is the use of in vitro digestion systems (Regmi et al., 2009).
These are particularly popular for the estimation of digestibility, since they avoid the cost of expensive
metabolism experiments. The acceptance of this technology will depend on its accuracy and precision,
as well as cost.
We would be remiss if we did not identify the challenges our industry faces with respect to quantifying
the fibre content of ingredients and mixed feeds. It is increasingly apparent that none of the existing
fibre assays – crude fibre, acid detergent fibre, neutral detergent fibre and total dietary fibre –
adequately characterize the non‐starch polysaccharide content for swine and possibly poultry. A great
deal of work is required in this area, due to this technological limitation, a limitation made all the more
significant by the expectation that fibre will become an increasingly important component of pig diets in
the future.
Food and Feed Safety Considerations
Feed safety has always been an important issue as it relates to the selection of ingredients.
Antinutritional factors (ANF) is at the top of the list in this regard. To the uninitiated, one would think
that ingredients possessing ANF would be avoided altogether. In reality, many common feedstuffs
contain so‐called ANF but these are managed in such a manner as to avoid adverse affects on livestock
and poultry. For example, raw soybeans contain a trypsin inhibitor, but this is readily managed through
heat treatment that occurs during the processing or drying of the meal following solvent extraction.
Field peas contain a number of ANF, but in most varieties they are at such low levels that pigs can
8
tolerate the feedstuff at very high levels in the diet with no apparent adverse effects. Other crops have
successfully bred out ANF. The most notable example in Canada was the development of canola meal
from rapeseed that contained high levels of glucosinolates and erucic acid. Nonetheless, in order for an
ingredient to be selected and subsequently used to full advantage in livestock and poultry diets, a full
understanding of ANF must be available.
Because food safety is a critical consideration in agriculture, it must also be a factor in choosing
ingredients for use in livestock and poultry feed. Contamination of ingredients with compounds having
food safety‐related implications can occur both endogenously and exogenously. Endogenous
contamination, such as mycotoxins, is generally of more concern to the animals being fed than to the
safety of the food product; the most notable exception could be aflatoxin.
Exogenous contamination, which might occur during processing of co‐products or transportation, is of
great concern to the meat, milk, and egg consumer. A review of past occurrences indicates that
contamination of feed or ingredients can occur either inadvertently or intentionally. High profile events,
such as the use of melamine to illegally elevate the “crude” protein content of a pet food ingredient
resulting in the subsequent death of dogs, serves as a reminder to us all that we must remain vigilant for
unscrupulous actions on the part of a very small minority of people involved in the global feed industry.
The significance of the risk of intentional or unintentional feed contamination is underscored by the
identification of agriculture and food as one of 11 potential terrorist targets by the U.S. Department of
Homeland Security (Kosal and Anderson, 2004). Possibly the first widely reported instance of intentional
contamination of livestock feed occurred in Wisconsin in 1981, when a single bag of an
organophosphate‐based rootworm product was added to silage (Neher, 1999). In 1996, an individual
was charged with intentionally contaminating rendering plant material with chlordane; this feed was
subsequently distributed to more than 4,000 farms in 4 U.S. states. The cost of that recall alone was in
excess of a quarter of a million dollars. A few months later, the same individual contaminated poultry
feed with a fungicide (Neher, 1996).
A widely publicized case of unintentional contamination of feed occurred in the U.S. when a
polybrominated biphenyl was mistakenly labeled as magnesium oxide. Over a 2‐year period, 1.5 million
chickens, 30,000 cattle, 5,900 pigs and 1,470 sheep were slaughtered (Carter, 1976). Perhaps the
highest profile instance occurred in Belgium in 1999 and 2000 when dioxin contaminated animal fat
destined for the feed industry. It was estimated that this incident cost in excess of $1.5 billion, and, as a
consequence of this event, 3 cabinet ministers in Belgium and Holland resigned. The event is believed to
have contributed to the lost re‐election bid by the Belgian premier at that time (Neher, 2004; Bernard et
al., 1999).
Logistical Considerations
The operation of a large swine or poultry farm, or commercial feed mill, requires the implementation of
a logistics system that functions as seamlessly as possible throughout the year. It is simply too costly to
have to deal with intermittent or longer‐term delays in ingredient delivery, or to adjust feed production
systems to accommodate constantly changing needs of materials handling.
Therefore, one of the chief criteria involved in selecting new ingredients relates to logistics. If a
producer or feed company goes to the trouble of including a new ingredient in their formulation matrix,
will it be available in sufficient quantity and still be priced competitively into the foreseeable future? Will
the product flow in my mill, and at what level can it be used in mixed feeds without handling problems
occurring during trucking or while in the barn? Will the supplier remain committed to offering the same
level of service in the future that has been provided to initiate the first sale? These are some of the
9
more significant questions surrounding the whole topic of logistics, but they are by no means the only
ones.
Other Considerations
The environment
Environmental implications of feeding program development have become increasingly important in
Canada. It is clear that nitrogen and phosphorus, as well as other nutrients, should be applied on the
land via manure in a manner that ensures long‐term sustainability. Interestingly, this has implications for
the selection and use of ingredients to be used in livestock and poultry feed. For example, the level of
inclusion of corn DDGS can be established using a variety of criterion. The levels of standard ‐ as
opposed to high protein ‐ DDGS, for example, in a swine finisher diet that maximize growth rate, feed
efficiency or carcass quality, or minimize manure phosphorus levels will differ. Higher levels of DDGS will
be used to lower feed efficiency than might be used to maximize growth rate. Lower levels might be
required in late stage finisher diets to avoid carcass quality problems associated with soft fat/elevated
iodine values. Lower levels still might be required to minimize phosphorus levels in the manure.
In this instance, the environment might establish a limit of inclusion that is lower than other
considerations. Because sustainable application of manure on the land is a function of both nutrient
concentration and available land base, higher levels of DDGS can be used. This results in elevated levels
of phosphorus in the manure, which require a larger land base for its application.
There are other examples of environmental implications in ingredient selection. For example, there is
growing concern about the application of manure rich in heavy metals on cropland; this is likely to
become an issue with a greater profile in the future.
Conclusions: A Holistic Approach
From the above, it is clear that increased volatility exists in the area of ingredient purchasing. However,
this volatility is not restricted to price, because quality assurance, environmental considerations and
consumer attitudes and expectations are constantly changing. Canada faces a number of structural
dilemmas, such a flat yields of key diet ingredients like wheat and barley as compared to U.S. corn, and
of course, the global attitude towards the adoption of GMO crops will affect everyone involved in meat,
milk and egg production. Diversifying practical diets by using more ingredients offers the opportunity for
improved economics, but poses the potential for logistical challenges as well. Quality assurance
programs have already grown in the past, and are likely to continue to do so in the future. In the face of
all this change, it will be imperative to adopt safe, simple and effective strategies to take advantage of
market opportunities for the purchase of a diversity of ingredients. At the same time, it will be equally
important to avoid over‐reacting to a problem, resulting in solutions being more costly than the original
problem being solved.
References
Batterham, E. S. 1992. Availability and utilization of AA for growing. pigs. Nutr. Res. Rev. 5:1–18.
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