NUTRITION

 Nutrition is the entire process by

which organisms obtain energy from
food for growth, maintenance and
repair of damaged tissues
Types of nutrition

Organisms

Autotrophs Heterotrophs
 Autotrophs

Photoautotroph chemoautotrph
 Autotrophs – organisms that
synthesise complex organic
compounds from raw, simple
inorganic substances by using light
or chemical energy
 Photoautotroph – organisms that
produce organic molecules from
carbon dioxide and water using
sunlight as a source of energy
- plants
 Chemoautotroph – synthesis organic
compounds by oxidising inorganic
substances such as sulphide and
ammonia
- bacteria
 Heterotroph – organism that cannot
synthesise their own nutrients but
obtain nutrients from other
organisms
 heterotroph

holozoic saprophytism Parasitism

 Holozoic nutrition – the organisms
feed by ingesting solid organic
matter which is digested and
absorbed into their bodies
- humans, herbivores, carnivores,
carnivorous plants
 Saphrophytism – organisms that feed
on dead and decaying organic matter
- bacteria, fungi
 Parasitism – organisms that obtains
nutrient by living on or in the body of
another living organisms
- parasite absorbed readily digested
food from its host
- bacteria, worms
 Balanced diet
 Nutrients provide the body with its
basic needs :
1. source of energy
2. chemical building block
3. metabolic reactions
 A balanced diet should contain :
1. carbohydrates
2. proteins
3. lipids
4. vitamins
5. mineral
6. water
7. roughage
 Nutreints must be taken in the
correct proportion to meet the daily
requirement
 A balanced diet will be able to meet
the daily energy requirement
 The sum of all chemical reactions in
the body is called metabolism
 Basal metabolic rate – the energy
consumed by the body in a day while
carrying out all the basic processes
such as breathing, excretion,
maintaining body temperature
 Energy content of food
 The energy content of a food can be
measured by burning a known mass
of the food completely in the
presence of oxygen in a bomb
calorimeter
 The amount of heat generated from
the combustion of one gram of food
is known as the energy value of the
food
 Unit – Jg-1
 1 cal = 4.2 J
Food class Energy value (kJg-1)

Carbohydrates 16.7
Proteins 22.2

Fats 37.6
 When food is burn, it releases energy
mainly in the form of heat
 Respiration releases the same
amount of energy as combustion
 Energy value of food :
4.2 x mass of water (g) x increase in
temperature (0 C)
_______________________________
mass of food sample (g) x 1000
 Energy requirement

Age Size or body weight Occupation

 Experiment
 Determining the energy value in food
sample
 Vitamins
 Vitamins are a group of complex
organic compounds which are
needed in relatively small quantities
by living organisms
 Our body cannot synthesise vitamins
 Essential for maintenance of good
health and efficient metabolism
 Vitamins

Fat soluble vitamins Water soluble vitamins

A,D,E,K B,C
Stored in body fat Supplied in the daily diet
 Daily vitamin requirement is
relatively low
 Vitamin cannot be manufactured in
the body, supplied from diet
 Assignment
 Find out examples of vitamins, its
sources, functions and effect
 Minerals
 Simple inorganic nutrients which
must be obtained through diet
 Major mineral ( macrominerals ) –
required in large quantities ( > 100
mg/day)
- Ca, Mg, P
plants animals
 Micromineral – required in trace
amounts (< 20 mg/day)
- Co, Mn, Zn, Mo
 Assignment
 Find out the examples of minerals,
sources, and effects of minerals
deficiency
 Dietary fibre
 Consist mainly of cellulose
 Not being absorbed and assimilated
into the body
 Functions :
1. provides bulk to the intestinal
content – high water holding
capacity
2. aids in peristalsis
3. aids in bowel movement – prevent
the build up of toxic in the rectum
4. lower the cholesterol, level in the
blood
 Deficiency – caused constipation
- too much water is absorbed from
the faeces – difficult to move
 Water
 The medium for all cellular biochemical
reactions
 Medium of transportation for respiratory
gases and nutrients
 Regulates body temperature
 Removes excretory waste – lactic acid,
urea
 Maintains osmotic pressure in the tissue
fluid and blood plasma
 Aids peristaltic movement
 Dissolves chemical substances
 Enables hydrolysis of food
substances during digestion
 Normal adult need – 2-2.5 litres daily
 Water lost from :
- perspiration
- breathing
- urine
 Water lost can cause dehydration
 Balanced diet
 Vary according to :
- age
- lifestyle
- health condition
- specific need
 Pregnant mothers
 Need diet rich in calcium and
phosphorus for the formation of
strong bones in foetus
 Calcium and phosphorus can be
found in milk and dairy products
 Folic acid and ferum for formation of
red blood cells
folic acid – liver, cabbage, orange
juice
 - ferum – liver, eggs, meat
 Proteins is needed for the formation
of new tissues
 Fibre – to prevent constipation
 Fats, sugar, caffeinated drinks should
be avoided
 Infants and children
 Infants – protein, carbohydrates,
lipids, vitamins, minerals
 Ca, P – formation of bones and teeth
 Children – proteins, vitamin,
minerals, carbohydrates, lipid
- Protein – building new tissues
 Teenagers
 Needs protein, vitamin,
carbohydrates
 Avoid fat and oily food – avoid
pimples
 Female – food rich in ferum to
synthesise more haemoglobin after
menstruation
 Vegetarian
 Need to consume plant proteins
 Plant protein lack some essential
amino acids
 Need to vary their diets to obtain all
the essential amino acids
 Need ferum, calcium, zinc, vitamin B12
 Athletes
 Depend on the types of sport
 Weight lifting – high protein
 Runner – proteins, vitamins, mineral,
carbohydrates
 Avoid fatty food – gain weight
 Calcium, sodium, potassium –
prevent muscle cramps
 The aged
 Need proteins, vitamins, minerals
( Ca, P – prevent osteoporosis)
 Reduce salt, carbohydrates, fats –
reduce risk of high blood pressure,
diabetes, heart disease
 Malnutrition
 Result from unbalanced diet
 Nutrients are deficient and in the
wrong proportions
Protein deficiency
- Kwashiorkor ( flaky skin, thin muscle,
thin hair, swelling body –abdomen )
- marasmus (child becomes very thin,
wrinkled skin)
- Mental and physical development is
severely impaired
 Calcium, phosphorus, vitamin
D deficiencies
 Osteoporosis
- bones become brittle, porous,
crack easily
- backbone shorten and bent
- take more calcium & phosphorous,
exercise
 Osteomalacia
- soft bones – in pregnant woman
 To reduce the risk - take food rich in
Ca, P and Vitamin D
 vitamin D help the absorption of
calcium in the digested food
 Effects of excessive intake of
nutrients
 Food rich in carbohydrates lead to :
- diabetes mellitus
- obesity
- dental caries
 Obese people :
- cardiovascular disease
- high blood pressure
- atherosclerosis
- stroke
- brain hemorrhages
-diabetes mellitus ( body does not produce
enough insulin to convert glucose to
glycogen)
 Excessive intake of lipids
 Excess lipid are converted into body
fat and stored in adipose tissue
 Atherosclerosis (hardening of
arteries) – deposits of plaques
develop on the internal lining of
blood vessels
- arteries loose their elasticity
- raises the blood pressure by
narrowing the lumen of blood vessels
Excessive intake of minerals
 Cause an imbalance in the osmotic
pressure
 Sodium – lead to heart disease and
stroke
 Excessive salt and lack of water –
formation of kidney stone
- stones are made of calcium and
oxalate (found in nuts, leafy greens,
chocolates, vitamin C)
 Lack of exercise – kidney work hard
to remove excessive salt
 Excess calcium increase the risk of
kidney stone formation
 Excess ferum – liver and kidney
damage, kidney toxicity and death
 Excessive intake of protein
 Increase the uric acid content
 Uric acid forms crystal at the soft
tissues of the joint – gout
 Causing the formation of stone in the
kidney
 Avoid foods high in nucleic acids –
liver, kidneys and sardines
 Food Digestion

Digestion –the process that break

down complex food substances into
simpler, soluble molecules that are
small enough for the body to absorb
 Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids
are broken down into their
monomers through hydrolysis by
digestive enzymes
 Carbohydrates – glucose molecules
 Proteins – amino acids
 Lipid – glycerol, fatty acids
 Digestion of carbohydrates,
proteins and lipids
 Food digestion occur in the
alimentary canal
- mouth, oral cavity, pharynx,
oesophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, anus
 Digestive juices – aid the process of
digestion
 Digestive glands – secrete digestive
juices
 As the food passes through the
alimentary canal, it is broken down
until the digestible material is
dissolved and absorbed
 Digestion – physical process
- chemical process
 Physical process –the breaking up of
large pieces of food into smaller
pieces by mechanical means
( chewing by teeth)
- smaller pieces – increase the
surface area of food available for
chemical digestion
 Chemical digestion – digestive
enzymes break down complex food
into soluble molecules which enter
the bloodstream to be transported to
the whole body
- involves hydrolysis reactions
 Digestion in the oral cavity
 Chewing break the food into smaller
pieces
 Secretion of saliva by salivary glands
 The tongue manipulates the food to
mixed it well with saliva
 Saliva contains salivary amylase
enzymes which hydrolysis starch to
maltose
 Chewed food is rolled into a bolus
 When swallowing, epiglottis
temporarily closed the airway to
prevent food from entering the
trachea
 Bolus enters the esophagus ( lined
with epithelium and mucous gland )
 Mucus lubricates the bolus, and its
move along esophagus by peristalsis
 Peristalsis – a series of wave like
muscular contractions along the
esophageal wall
 Digestion in stomach
 The epithelial lining of the stomach
contains gastric glands that secrete
gastric juice
 Food is thoroughly churned and
mixed with gastric juices by
peristalsis contractions of the
stomach wall
 The contents of stomach become a
semi fluid called chyme
 Relaxation of pyloric sphincter allows
chyme to enter the duodenum.
 Digestive juice in stomach :
- hydrochloric acid
- mucus
- enzymes
- hydrochloric acid – creates acidic
condition (1.5-2.0) – optimal for the
action of enzymes
- stop activity of salivary amylase
- kill bacteria in food
 Digestive enzymes :
pepsin

Proteins + water Polypeptides

rennin
Caseinogen + casein
water
 Pepsin hydrolyze large protein
molecules into smaller chain –
polypeptides
 Rennin coagulates milk by converting
soluble milk protein (caseinogens) –
into insoluble casein
Digestion in small intestine
 Consist of duodenum, jejunum, ileum
 Duodenum receives chyme from
stomach and secretions from the gall
bladder and pancreas
 Bile duct

liver

stomach

pancreas

Gall Pancreatic duct

bladder
Small intestine

duodenum
 Liver :
- secretes bile and stored in the gall
bladder
- bile creates an alkaline environment
(pH 7.6-8.6) for the enzyme action in
the duodenum
 Duodenum Liver

bile

Gall bladder
Pancreas

Pancreatic
Juices
- bile help to reduce the acidity of the
chyme and optimizes the pH for
enzyme action
 Bile salts emulsify lipids,
transforming lipid into tiny droplets,
providing a greater surface area for
digestion by enzymes
 Pancreas :
- secretes pancreatic juice which
contains pancreatic amylase, trypsin,
lipase
- optimum pH required is between
7.1-8.2
 Duodenum
 The digestion of starch, proteins and
lipids take place in the duodenum
 Pancreatic
amylase Maltose
Starch +
water

trypsin
Polypeptides + Peptides
water
 Lipase
Lipid droplets + Glycerol + fatty
water acids
 Bile enters the duodenum through
the bile duct
 Pancreatic juice is secreted into the
duodenum through the pancreatic
duct
 Chewing break the food into smaller pieces
mouth
Secretion of saliva by salivary glands

stomach duodenum
The digestion of starch,
- hydrochloric acid Bile proteins and lipids take
- mucus Pancreatic juices place in the duodenum
- enzymes

ileum
Glands in the wall of ileum secrete
intestinal juice, contains digestive
enzymes for digestion of peptides
and disaccharides

carbohydrates are digested into

monosaccharide – glucose, fructose,
galactose
Proteins – digested into amino acids
Lipids – digested into fatty acids, glycerol
Protein digestion

Carbohydrate
digestion
 ileum
 Glands in the wall of ileum secrete
intestinal juice, contains digestive
enzymes for digestion of peptides
and disaccharides
 erepsin

Peptides + Amino acids

water

Maltase

Maltose + water Glucose

 sucrase
Sucrose + water Glucose + fructose

lactase
Lactose + water Glucose +
galactose
 The end of digestion process,
carbohydrates are digested into
monosacharides – glucose, fructose,
galactose
 Proteins – digested into amino acids
 Lipids – digested into fatty acids,
glycerol
 Dietary fiber cannot be digested
because there is no enzyme cellulase
in the human alimentary canal
 Digestion of cellulose in
ruminants and rodents
Ruminants
 Feed on plants which contain high

percentage of cellulose
 The breakdowns of cellulose requires

the enzymes cellulase

 Ruminants – cows, goats
 Stomach are divided into 4
chambers:
1. rumen
2. reticulum
3. omasum
4. abomasum
Rumen
- Partially chewed food is passed into
the rumen
- Cellulose is broken down by enzyme
cellulase produced by microorganism
(bacteria & protozoa)
- parts of the breakdown product are
absorbed by bacteria
Reticulum
 Cellulose are hydrolyze
 The content of reticulum (cud),
transfer bit by bit into the mouth to
be chewed again
- Its soften the cellulose, more
accessible to further microbial action
in other parts of the stomach
Omasum
 The cud is reswallowed into the
omasum.
 Large particles of food are broken
down into smaller pieces by
peristalsis
 Water is removed from the cud
Abomasum
 The true stomach
 Gastric juices containing digestive
enzymes complete the digestion of
proteins and other substances
- The food then passed into small
intestine to be digested and
absorbed
Rodents
 Rats, rabbit
 Caecum and appendix are enlarged
to store cellulase producing bacteria
- The breakdown products pass
through the alimentary canal twice
- Faeces are produced at night ( soft
and watery )
Soft faeces are Soft faeces produced
Eaten again At night are eaten again
 Faeces are eaten again to absorb the
products of bacterial breakdown as
they pass through the alimentary
canal again
 Second batch of faeces are drier and
harder
Food Stomach Small caecum
intestine

Large
intestine

rectum
 Problem associated with food
digestion
1. Incomplete digestion of food
- pain in abdomen, nausea,
vomiting
- cause by too much food, too much
oily food, eating too fast
2. Reduced production of specific
digestive enzymes
- adult difficult to digest lactose
compared to baby
- damage to pancreas – reduced
production of digestive enzymes
3. Gallstone preventing the flow of bile
- eat too much fatty food encourage
the formation of gallstones in the bile
duct and gall bladder
- when gallstone is blocked, the lipids
cannot be emulsified, difficult to
digest
- symptoms – fever, vomiting, jaundice
 Usually occur in obese people
Absorption and assimilation of
digested food
 To enter the body cells, nutrients in
the lumen of the small intestine must
be transported across the intestinal
lining into the bloodstream
 Ileum – major sites of nutrient
absorption
 Adaptive characteristics of
digestive system
 The wall of the small intestine is
covered with epithelial cells that are
specialized to complete the digestive
process and absorbed the resulting
nutrients molecules
 Small intestine – 6 m
 Intestinal lining is highly folded,
covered by villi ( finger like
projections )
 Villi have a microscopic projections
called microvilli
Absorption of digested food
 Involves diffusion and active
transport
 Glucose, amino acids, water soluble
vitamins, minerals diffuse into the
epithelial cells
 Fatty acids and glycerol enter the
epithelial cells and recombine to
form tiny droplets of lipids
 The nutrients and minerals then
absorbed directly into the blood
through the blood capillaries in the
villi
 Lipids droplets move into the lacteals
 Fats soluble vitamins are absorbed
into the lacteals
 Lacteal converge into the lymphatic
system
 Assimilation of digested
food
 Some products of digestion are
brought to the liver
 Liver controls the amount of
nutrients released into the blood
circulatory system
 Assimilation takes place in the cell
 Nutrients are used to form complex
compound or structural compound
 liver Liver synthesis
plasma proteins
from amino acids
Blood capillary

Excess amino acids Short of glucose and

cannot be stored in glycogen liver convert
Vilus the body and are amino acids into
broken down in the glucose
liver – deamination

Amino acids
Urea is produced and
transport to the kidney
Blood capillary liver
Excess
glucose is
converted
into glycogen
and stored in
Vilus the liver

Too much glycogen

in the liver, excess
glucose is converted
Small intestine into lipids

Glucose
 Assimilation in the cells
 Amino acids
- synthesis new protoplasm
- repair damaged tissues
- building block for enzymes and
hormones
- synthesis protein for plasma
membranes
 Glucose
- oxidised for energy in cellular
respiration
- excess glucose is stored as
glycogen in the muscle
 Lipids
- major components of plasma
membranes
- stored around an organ as cushion
that protects organs from injuries
-excess fats stored in adipose tissues
under the skin
 Formation of faeces and
defaecation
 After the absorption of nutrients in
small intestine, the intestinal
contents enter the colon
 The intestinal content consist of a
mixture of water, undigested food
substances, dead cells, dead
bacteria, fibre
 The movement of intestinal content
is helped by peristalsis
 Reabsorption of water and mineral
takes place in the colon
Colon
- Reabsorb almost 90% of water and
minerals into the bloodstream
- Result in the formation faeces
 The wall of colon secretes mucus
which help to bid the faeces and
lubricates the movement of faeces
along the colon
Rectum
 After 12 -24 hours – faeces moves to
the rectum
 Faeces accumulate in the rectum –
pressure increase
The process of defaecation
 The elimination of faeces
 Controlled by muscle around the
anus
 Rectum full – muscle of rectal wall
contract – faeces ejected through
anus
Microorganisms in the colon
 Escherichia coli
- lives symbiotically in the intestines
- digest organic substances in the
colon
- synthesis vitamins B and K
E. coli
 The importance of microorganisms
- secrete antibiotics
- maintains a stable environment in
the alimentary canal
 Problems related to
defaecation
 Constipation – faeces moving too
slow in the colon
 A great amount of water is
reabsorbed – faeces becomes hard
 Avoid defaecation
– drinks a lot of water
- eat more fibre – soften when
absorbed with water
- increase bulk
- stimulate peristalsis
 Chronic constipation :
- haemorrhoids
- abnormally swollen veins in rectum
and anus
- painful and bleed
- colon cancer
- tumor growth from the inner wall of
the large intestine
- caused by high fats diet
 Good eating habits
 Taking meal at the appropriate times
 Avoid over eating
 Eat variety of food according to
nutrients requirements
- Eat sufficient amount of fibre
- Drinks 2 – 3 litre a day
- Avoid fatty food and rich with sugar
and salt
 Assignment
 Write a notes about health problems
related to eating habits :
a. gastritis
b. obesity
c. anorexia nervosa
d. bulimia
 The importance of
macronutrients an
micronutrients in plants
 Macronutrients – elements required
by plants in relatively large amount
 C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S

From soil

From atmosphere
and soil
 Micronutrients – elements that are
required by plants in small quantities
- B, Cu, Fe
 Knop’s solution – complete culture
solution
- to determine which elements are
required for normal growth
Calcium nitrate 0.8g

Potassium nitrate 0.2g

Potassium 0.2g
dihydrogen
phosphate
Magnesium sulphate 0.2g

Ferum (III) phosphate Trace

Distilled water 1000 cm3

 Experiments can be carried out to
examine the effects of lack of certain
elements to the plant by eliminating
it from the solution
 Assignment
 Find out the functions and effects of
macronutrient and micronutrient
deficiency in plants
 Photosynthesis
 Leaves – main photosynthetic organs
 Adapted for photosynthesis:
1. The petiole holds leaves in the
best position to receive maximum
amount of sunlight
2. lamina – broad, flattened shape –
large surface to trap sunlight
- thin – light can penetrate
- allows diffusion of gases
efficiently
3. the vein contains xylem and
phloem to transport water and food
from photosynthesis
4. upper and lower surface are
covered with epidermis
5. leaf are arranged in mosaic –
shade of each leaf do not affect
others leave
 Adaptation of the structure of
the leaf for photosynthesis
1. Cuticle
- waxy covering
- waterproof – prevent excessive
loss of water
2. Upper epidermis
- single layer, has cuticle
- thin and transparent – allows light
to penetrate, reach the chloroplast
-
3. Palisade mesophyll
- palisade cells are packed tightly –
allows maximum amount of light
- have high density of chloroplast
- cell walls coated with thin film of
water – carbon dioxide can dissolve
and diffuse into the cells
4. Spongy mesophyll
- loosely arranged, have air space
between each of them – easy
diffusion
of water and carbon dioxide
- irregular shape – increases the
internal
surface area for gaseous exchange
- cell walls coated with a film of
water –
allows gaseous exchange
5. Vascular bundle
- consist of xylem and phloem
- transport water, minerals and
product of photosynthesis
6. Lower epidermis
- does not have chloroplast
- have more stoma than upper
epidermis – allow the exchange of
gases between leaf and surrounding
- have guard cells – controls the
opening and closing of stoma
- Stomata support photosynthesis by
allowing the exchanges of gases
 Exercise
 Light and carbon dioxide are needed by
plants to carry out photosynthesis. The
arrangement, shape and structure of the
plant’s leave are adapted to obtain the
maximum sunlight and carbon dioxide
(a) What is meant by photosynthesis (2m)
(b) Explain using a simple diagram the roles
by the different parts of the leaves in
photosynthesis (8 marks)
 Adaptations of plants from
different habitats to carry out
photsynthesis
 Habitat – tropical area
distribution of stomata :
- large number in lower epidermis,
prevent excessive evaporation
chloroplast :
- mostly in palisade mesophyll and
spongy
mesophyll cells
- maximum sunlight absorption
 Habitat – surface of water
stomata :
- mostly on upper epidermis
epidermis :
- covered with cuticle
- has air filled internal cavities
chloroplast :
- in upper epidermis, maximize
sunlight
absorption
 Desert plant
stomata :
- very few stomata, prevent
excessive loss
of water
- stomata at the grooves along the
stem
- some have sunken stomata
- some open stoma at night
chloroplast :
- all over the plants – thorn, stem
 Aquatic plants
stoma :
- not found on the leaf
-cells can absorb water, nutrients
and dissolved gases from
surrounding
 air filled cavities extend throughout
the leaves and stems – gaseous
exchange can take place
leaves :
- thin, feathery, highly divided – large
space for absorption and
photosynthesis
chloroplast :
- in all surface of the plants,
maximize absorption of sunlight
 Photosynthesis
 2 stages in photosynthesis :
1. light reaction
– occur in the
present of light
- occur at grana
2. dark reaction
– during the day and
night
- occur in stroma
 Light reactions
 Chlorophyll captures light energy
which excites the electrons of
chlorophyll molecules to higher
energy levels
 Light

Photolysis of
chlorophyll water

24 electron
24H 2O 24H+ + 24 OH-

ATP

24H+ + 24e- 24H

24OH- 24OH + 24e-

12H2O + 6O2
 In the excites state, electrons leave
the chlorophyll molecules
 Light energy is used to split water
molecules into hydrogen ions (H+)
and hydroxyl ions (OH-)
- known as photolysis of water
 Hydrogen ions then combine with the
electrons released by chlorophyll to
form hydrogen atom
 Energy from the excited electrons is
used to form ATP
 Each hydroxyl ion loses an electron
to form a hydroxyl group
 Electron is received by chlorophyll
 Hydroxyl group combine to form
water and gaseous oxygen
 Oxygen is released into atmosphere
 ATP molecules provides energy
 Hydrogen atom provide reducing
power for dark reactions in the
stroma
 Dark reaction
 Known as Calvin cycle
 Hydrogen atoms are used to fix
carbon dioxide in a series of
reactions catalyzed by
photosynthetic enzymes
 Overall reactions – reduction of
carbon dioxide into glucose
 glucose
6CO2 + 24H 6(CH2O) + 6H2O

C6H12O6
glucose

6H20 + 6CO2 C6H1206 + 602

 Light
6H20 + 6CO2 C6H1206 + 602
chlorophyll
 Six unit of ( CH2O) combine to form
one molecule of glucose
 Glucose monomer undergo
condensation to form starch
LIGHT
 Factors affecting
photosynthesis
1. Light intensity
2. Concentration of carbon dioxide
3. Temperature
4. Water
Water
- Required in small quantity
- Rarely a limiting factor
Light intensity
- The rate of photosynthesis is directly
proportional to light intensity up to a
certain point
 Further increase of light intensity
does not increase the rate of
photosynthesis due to limiting factors
- concentration of carbon dioxide
- temperature
Concentration of carbon dioxide
- Concentration of CO2 in atmosphere
varies – 0.03% - 0.04%
 If there are no limiting factors, an
increase of concentration of CO2
result in increase in the rate of
photosynthesis
 The rate of photosynthesis levels off
at the saturation point
 Light intensity acts as the limiting
factor
Temperature
- The dark reaction is catalyzed by the
photosynthetic enzymes
 The changes in temperature will
affect the rate of photosynthesis
 Increase of 10 C, will double the rate
of photosynthesis
 Most plant – optimum temperature –
25 C – 30 C
 Temperature too high –
photosynthetic enzymes are
destroyed – photosynthesis stop
 Increasing the productivity of crops based
on the factors affecting the rate of
photosynthesis

 In countries which experience the

four seasons, light intensity and
temperature are not constant
 The changes of seasons will affect
the crop production
 To overcome this problem, plants are
grown in greenhouses
 In greenhouses – factors that affect
the rate of photosynthesis are
controlled artificially
 The productivity of crops can be
increased
 Greenhouse cultivation prevent :
- damage by wind, rain, storm
- pest
 Technology used in food
production
 Rapid increase in population imposes
a greater demand on food supply
 Encourage people to consume food
from diverse sources :
A. consuming vegetables salad
- pegaga, shoots of papaya, kacang
botor
- rich in mineral ions, vitamin, fibre
B. Consuming various sources of
protein
- rabbit – low fat & cholesterol, high
protein
- ostrich – nutritious, rich in protein,
low fat
- freshwater fish – low cholesterol
C. Consuming mushrooms
- high nutrient content
- boost body immunity
 Methods used to improve the quality
and quantity of food production

Direct seeding
- Seeds are sown directly into soil

using machine
- Does not involve the transplanting of

seedlings
- less damage to the roots of the
seedlings
- faster growth
- less water to irrigate fields
Hydroponics
- The roots of the plants are immersed
in a solution which contains all
nutrients in correct proportion
- culture solution is aerated for
sufficient oxygen
Aeroponics
- Modified technique of hydroponics
- The roots are sprayed with a mist of
nutrient solutions from spraying
nozzles
- plants growth faster because
culture solutions provide nutrients in
the form that can be readily
absorbed by the roots
Advantages of hydroponics and
aeroponics method
 Produce plants in areas that
unsuitable for normal productions
 Can provides exactly the types and
amounts of nutrients needed by the
plants
 Light intensity, temperature and pH
of the culture solution can be
controlled at optimum level
 Plants can be grown all year round
 Do not involve cultivation
- Produce twice the yield
- Irrigation and nutrient supply is
constant – plant growth is uniform
 Reduced plant getting infection –
sterile growing medium and nutrient
 Reduce labour cost – automation
 Do not require pesticide – growing
media is sterilized
Selective breeding
- Breeding of plants with certain
beneficial characteristics
- increased nutritional value
- higher yields
- greater resistance to disease
 Examples
 Oil palm – Tenera sp.
Dura sp. + Pisifera sp.

Mesocarp – thick, high

Mesocarp – thin, little oil
content
Endocarp – thick
Kernel – big, lot of oil
Size, number – big, numerous
Fruit – does not drop easily
oil content
Endocarp – thin
Kernel – small, little oil
Size, number – small, a
few
Fruit – drops easily
Dura sp Pisifera sp
 Tenera sp
- mesocarp – thick high oil content
- endocarp – thin, oil easily extracted
- kernel – big, lots of oil
- size, fruit –big, numerous
- fruit – does not drop easily
 Animal breeding
- selectively breed to enhance the
yields of milk, meat
 Example :
- Frisian + sahiwal  Mafriwal
(more milk, low
fat)
Tissue culture
- Increase agricultural yield – papaya,
pineapple, star fruits
Genetic engineering
- Changing the characteristics of
organism by changing the genetic
composition of the organism
- Examples :
- gene from plants can be inserted
into the DNA of animal cells
- genetically modified organisms –
transgenic organisms
Proper soil management
- Used organic and inorganic fertilizer
- Ploughing – aeration of soil
- Crop rotation – improve soil fertility
- prevent build up of pest
- Reduce soil erosion and leaching of
nutrient from the soil
Addition of organic matter
– humus formation
- improve soil structure
Biological control
- Used natural enemy of the pest
- Owl and snakes - control rat
population in oil palm plantations
- Reduce problems of chemicals
 Technological development in
food processing
 To overcome the factors that cause
food spoilage
- action of microorganisms
- bacteria and fungi act on
carbohydrates and protein to
produce carbon dioxide, water,
ammonia and hydrogen sulphide
- oxidation of food
- oxygen react with enzymes and
chemicals released by the cells in
the food
- food becomes rancid, different
smell and taste
 Food have to be processed :
1.Extend their lifespan
2.Avoid wastage
3.Prevent spread of disease due to
food contamination
4.Ensure continuous supply
5. Prevent bacterial and fungal decay
6. Withstand long period of
transportation and storage
7. Diversify the uses of food
substances
Method of food processing and
preserving
1. Cooking – high temperature kill
microorganisms
- denature enzymes that
cause breakdown in food
2. Fermentation
- yeast is added
- produce ethanol – stop bacteria
activity
- tapai
3. Drying
- removes water from food
- prevent microorganisms growth
- enzyme activity stop
- fish, meat
4. Pickling food
- soaked in acidic solution (vinegar)
- most organisms cannot live in low
pH
- chilies, ginger
 Exercise
1.With the help of a labelled diagram,
explain how the parts of a leaf are
adapted to carry out optimal
photosynthesis
2. Explain the mechanism of
photosynthesis in a leaf
 Treating with salt and sugar
- soaked in concentrated salt
solution or boiled with sugar
- microorganisms lose water through
osmosis
- meat, vegetables
5. Pasteurization
- preservation of milk
- milk is heated 63 C , 30 minutes or
72 C
for 15 seconds
- rapidly cool below 10 C
 Purpose – kill most microorganisms
- maintain the nutrient content
and natural flavour
- have to shelf in refrigerator to
prevent microorganism from
becomes active
6. Canning
- Heat sterilisation
- Food is packed in cans and steamed
at high temperature and pressure to
drive out all the air
 Airtight container / vacuum – prevent
growth of microorganisms
 pathogen & bacteria are destroyed
 Enzymes in the food inactivate
 Shelf life is longer
 Needs to be thoroughly cooked to
prevent contaminations by spores of
Clostridium botulinum
7. Refrigeration
-extreme low temperature prevent
growth
of microorganisms or germination of
spores
8. Radiation
9. sterilization