The Geometry of Surface Vessels

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THE GEOMETRY OF SURFACE VESSELS

1
MODULE

References & Extracts from: Lewis, E.V. (Editor)

Principles of Naval Architecture
S.N.A.M.E., Jersey City 1988

1 The Lines Drawing (or Lines Plan)

The complex curvature of a vessel’s hull surface is defined by the lines plan or lines drawing.
Precise and unambiguous means are needed to describe the surface as the vessel’s form must be
configured to accommodate all internals and provide all desired buoyancy, stability, resistance
and seakeeping characteristics. Additionally, the hull surface must be technically feasible in as
much as it can be constructed readily without the incursion of impractical costs.

The lines plan consists of orthographic projections of the intersections of the hull form with 3
mutually perpendicular sets of planes drawn to an appropriate scale. Figure 1.1 shows a lines
plan for a twin-screw vessel.

The profile shows the hull form intersected by the centreplane (a vertical plane on the vessel’s
centreline) and by buttock planes which are parallel to the centre plane and spaced for convenient
definition of the hull shape and identified by their distance from the centreplane. The
centreplane shows the profile of the bow and stern.

The waterlines plan displays the intersection of the hull form with planes parallel to the
horizontal base plane which is referred to as the base line. All such parallel planes are termed the
waterplanes. It is convenient to space most waterplanes equally by an integral number of metres
but a closer spacing is often used near the base line in the vicinity of the bilge where the shape of
the hull changes rapidly. In Figure 1.1 the full hull is shown, however, it is common and only
necessary to display one half-breadth due to the symmetry of the hull form.

The body plan shows the shapes of sections determined by the intersection of the hull form with
planes perpendicular to the buttock and waterplanes. Planes defining the body plan are known as
body plan stations or simply sections. These are usually spaced equally such that there are 10
spaces − or multiples thereof − over the waterline length, however extra stations may be
employed near the bow and stern at 50% or 25% of the normal spacing. Due to the symmetry of
the hull the body plan is often depicted as a combination of bow and stern half sections as shown
in Figure 1.1. By convention the forward (bow) sections are shown on the right-hand side of the
body plan and the aft (stern) sections are shown on the left-hand side.

Note:

By convention the bow of the vessel is shown to the right. In most countries the stations are
numbered from 0 (zero) to 10 from left to right, with the notable exception of the USA where
stations are numbered from right to left.

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0 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9.5 10

5.0 5.0 m

4.0 4.0 m

DWL DWL

2.0 2.0 m

1.0 1.0 m
0.5 0.5 m
BL BL
0 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9.5 10
MS

PROFILE

0 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9.5 10

IV IV

III III

II II

I I

C.L. C.L.

I I

II II

III III

IV IV

0 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9.5 10
MS

WATERLINES PLAN

IV III II I CL I II III IV

5.0 5.0 m

4.0 4.0 m

DWL DWL

2.0 2.0 m

1.0 1.0 m
0.5 0.5 m
BL BL
IV III II I CL I II III IV

BODY PLAN

Figure 1.1 Lines Plan for a twin-screw monohull vessel.

In order to simplify the calculation of underwater form characteristics it is customary to divide

the length (LBP or LWL − whichever is being used) into 10 or 20 (or even 40) equal intervals by
the body plan sections. These sections are known as stations. If, for example, 10 intervals were
used then 11 stations would result (including those at the extremities of the length), and would be
numbered from 0 to 10. If intermediate stations are used near the ends of the hull, these would
be numbered accordingly, such as 0.5 for an intermediate station between 0 and 1, and 9.5 for an
intermediate station between 9 and 10. (Refer to Figure 1.1.)

2 Hull Dimensions

The lines depicted on a lines plan represent the moulded surface of the vessel, a surface formed
by the inside of the hull shell or ‘skin’ (i.e., the outer edges of hull frames) in vessels of steel or
aluminium construction. In the case of vessels of composite construction (e.g. fibre-reinforced
plastic) the moulded surface is the outside of the hull. Dimensions used to describe the geometry
of a vessel’s hull are given in the following:

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2.1 Length Over All (LOA)

The length over all of a vessel is the extreme length of the hull measured along the vessel’s
centreline at its uppermost deck level. LOA does not normally include projections beyond the
ends of the hull formed by bulwarks, helicopter flight decks, stern A-frames, etc.

2.1 Length Between Perpendiculars (LBP)

.1 Forward Perpendicular (FP)

A vertical line in the profile view of a lines plan is drawn at the intersection of the design
waterline (DWL) and the forward side of the stem plating. This is known as the forward
perpendicular (FP). A slight inconsistency is therefore introduced by this definition, as the
forward side of the stem is on a surface external to the moulded surface shown in a lines plan.

.2 Aft Perpendicular (AP)

Within a hydrostatics context the location of the aft perpendicular (AP) for a vessel with
rudder(s) or azimuth thruster(s) is at the intersection of the DWL and the centreline of the rudder
stock or azimuth thruster axis (vertical shaft). In the design of naval vessels the AP may be
defined as the aft end of the DWL. This should also be the case for vessels propelled by
waterjets and surface drives. The length between perpendiculars (LBP) is the distance between
the forward and aft perpendiculars measured along the centreline.

2.2 (Design) Waterline Length (LWL)

Many consultancies will use the LBP as the basis for hydrostatic calculations, however it may be
argued that for both hydrostatic and hydrodynamic analyses it may be more accurate to use the
length of the design waterline (measured along the centreline). This may be the case when there
is significant waterline length aft of the AP if the AP is taken as the rudderstock centreline. If the
AP is defined as the aft end of the DWL then, of course, the LWL and the LBP are identical.

LENGTH OVER ALL (LOA)

DWL

LENGTH BETWEEN PERPENDICULARS (LBP)

AP FP

DESIGN WATERLINE LENGTH (LWL)

Figure 1.2 Definition of lengths.

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2.3 Effective Length (LEFF)

The effective length cannot be derived directly from the lines plan but may be employed in
hydrodynamic analyses particularly when a vessel’s hull possesses significant immersed volumes
beyond either or both perpendiculars, such as in the case of a bulbous bow. The effective length
is determined from a sectional area curve on which the ordinates represent the underwater cross-
sectional area of the vessel up to the DWL at a series of stations along its length. The effective
length is usually considered as the overall length of the baseline of the sectional area curve,
however, if the curve is concave at either end, a straight line can be projected from the midship
section ordinate and tangential to the curve to intersect the baseline. The intersections of the
tangent lines with the baseline are then taken as the extremities of the effective length.

100

90

80
70
immersed 60
CSA
50

(m2) 40

30
20

10
0

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8.5 9 9.5 10

EFFECTIVE LENGTH (LEFF)

Figure 1.3 Derivation of effective length from the sectional area curve.

3 Significant Datum, Dimensions & Features of Form

3.1 Moulded Base Line

The moulded base line shown in the profile and body plan is shown as a straight horizontal line
and is an important reference datum, both for design and construction purposes, representing a
plane in space from which many vertical dimensions are referenced. It also represents the
bottom of the vessel’s moulded surface and so is coincident with the upper surface of the keel
plating. In the case of a vessel having a raked keel, the moulded baseline is shown parallel to the
DWL and may represent the bottom of the moulded surface amidships or at the AP.

3.2 Moulded Depth (DM)

The moulded depth of a vessel is the vertical distance from the moulded baseline to the underside
of the deck plating, measured at the vessel’s side.

3.3 Moulded Breadth (BM)

The moulded breadth is defined as the breadth of the hull, measured from the inside of the side
plating at the broadest part of the vessel.

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3.4 Moulded Draft (dM)

The moulded draft is defined as the vertical distance from the top of the keel plating to the
waterline; i.e., it excludes the bottom plating thickness.

3.5 Extreme Draft (dEXT , dUSK)

The extreme draft is the draft with which the vessel operator is most concerned and is the vertical
distance from the lowest point of the keel to the waterline. The extreme draft is also known by
the nomenclature dUSK where the subscript (USK) refers to the underside of the keel.

EXTREME BREADTH

MOULDED BREADTH

DECK CAMBER
ROUNDED
SHEERSTRAKE

DWL

DM DM

dEXT dM
BILGE RADIUS

MOULDED BASELINE

FLAT
OF RISE OF
KEEL FLOOR
(DEADRISE)

Figure 1.4 Significant dimensions and features of form.

3.6 Camber

Camber is the term given to transverse curvature of the weather deck (main deck). Camber is
useful for a deck where drainage is essential, but it additionally permits transverse structural
members to possess greater depth (and hence strength) at their midspan where the greatest
bending stress may occur. Furthermore, camber contributes to longitudinal stiffness of the deck
as a whole. Camber is quoted as the vertical distance between the underside of the deck plating
on the centreline and that at the hull side.

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3.7 Extreme Breadth (BEXT)

This is the maximum breadth of the hull.

3.8 Rise of Floor (or Deadrise)

This is the term used for the vertical rise (if employed) in the bottom plating between the keel
plate and the bilge strake. In small craft and in particular planing craft the term used is deadrise
and is quoted in degrees.

3.9 Bilge Radius

The bilge radius refers to the curved transition between the bottom plating and the ship’s side
plating. In smaller vessels, (especially planing craft) the bilge radius may be replaced by a sharp
transition, known as a chine.

3.10 Tumble-home

Tumble-home is the inward curvature of the hull above the waterline and is essentially an
obsolete feature rarely employed in modern design except in bulwarks. Tumble-home delays the
immersion of the deck-edge on vessels at large angles of heel.

3.11 Sheer

Sheer is the upward longitudinal curvature of the main deck sometimes employed to increase
bow height, reduce deck wetness, and to increase reserve buoyancy. It is measured as the
vertical distance between the deck height amidships and that at the respective perpendicular.

3.12 Flare

This is the outward transverse curvature of the hull above the waterline and is always present in
the bow section (of a conventional bow) to avoid shipping water and to provide increased reserve
buoyancy. Excessive flare if featured in vessels operating in certain high sea states may however
result in high slamming stresses and structural damage.

SHEER (mm)

DWL

AP FP

Figure 1.5 The measurement of sheer.

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4 Displacement & Weight Relationships

4.1 Archimedes’ Principle

The fundamental physical law controlling the static behaviour of a body completely or partially
immersed in a fluid is known as Archimedes’ Principle which states that a body immersed in a
fluid is buoyed by a force that equals the weight of the displaced fluid. Thus the weight is
considered to be a downward force that is proportional to the body’s mass; the equal buoyant
force is proportional to the mass of the displaced fluid.

If a rigid body is afloat in a fluid in static equilibrium, pressure forces act normal to the surface
of the body. Such pressure forces are proportional to the depth of fluid at any point and may be
quantified by:

P = ρ gh (1.1)

where: P = pressure (Pa or N/m2)

ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
h = depth (or head) of fluid (m)

For the body to be in equilibrium, the integration of the upward components of these hydrostatic
pressures over the wetted surface area (S) of the body is the buoyant force (or simply buoyancy),
and must be exactly balanced by the gravitational force of the body’s mass directed downwards,
i.e., its weight. The mass of the fluid displaced by the body is equal to the product of its volume
and its density. Therefore the mass of a vessel and its contents is equal to the mass of displaced
water, i.e., its displacement (or mass displacement).

∆ = ∇ρ (1.2)

where: ∆ = mass displacement (kg or tonnes)

∇ = volume of displacement (m3)
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3 or tonnes/m3)

Note:
The standard values of mass density for sea and fresh (pure) waters are:

ρ SW = 1025 kg/m3 or 1.025 tonnes/m3

ρ FW = 1000 kg/m3 or 1.000 tonnes/m3

It is evident that a fully immersed rigid body, such as a submarine, also experiences an upward
buoyant force equal and opposite to the weight of water it displaces. A totally submerged body
may weigh either more or less than the displaced water. For the body to be in equilibrium in its

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submerged position it would have to receive, in the first case, and additional upward force, and in
the second case, an additional downward force.

WATERLINE

Figure 1.6 Buoyant forces on a floating body showing the net resultant vertical force
acting at the volumetric centroid (centre of buoyancy, B).
[Principles of Naval Architecture, Vol. 1, Chapter 1, 1988]

4.2 Displacement & Centre of Buoyancy (B)

.1 Volumetric Displacement (∇)

The volume of the underwater portion of a vessel may be calculated using integration methods.
The result is known as the volumetric displacement at the waterline (draft) at which the vessel is
floating. The symbol used to denote volumetric displacement is ∇, (the Greek letter nabla) and
the units used are cubic metres (m3).

.2 Mass Displacement (∆)

The mass of a fluid is the product of its volume and mass density (ρ), therefore the mass of the
fluid (water) displaced by a vessel is equal to the product of its volumetric displacement and the
density of the water in which it is floating. The symbol used to denote mass displacement is ∆,
(the Greek letter delta) and the units used are tonnes. In common usage the term mass
displacement is often abbreviated to simply displacement.

.3 Centre of Buoyancy (B)

The centroid of the underwater portion of a vessel may be calculated by the principle of
moments, (using methods outlined later). This volumetric centroid is referred to as the centre of

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buoyancy and represents a point through which the vertical buoyancy vector is considered to
pass. The centre of buoyancy is given the symbol B.

4.3 Fluid Medium Density Effects

A decrease in the density of the fluid in which a vessel floats requires an increase in the volume
of displacement, ∇, in order to satisfy static equilibrium requirements. Therefore a vessel
moving from saltwater to fresh water, for example, experiences an increase in draft. The
centroid of the underwater volume will shift (both vertically and longitudinally) as a result of the
altered draft and consequent change in volumetric displacement. For example, an increase in
draft resulting from a decrease in fluid density causes a vertical rise in B with respect to the keel
as a result of the increased displacement volume, ∇. The mass of the vessel will not have
changed and hence the mass displacement, ∆, remains unaltered.

5 Coefficients of Form

In comparing hull forms, displacements and dimensions, a number of coefficients are used in
naval architecture. The coefficients of form are useful in power estimates and in expressing the
fullness (or conversely, fineness) of a vessel’s overall form and those of the waterplanes and
body plan sections.

5.1 Waterplane Area Coefficient (CW)

The waterplane coefficient is the ratio of the area of the waterplane area, AW, to the product of
the waterline length (or LBP) and moulded breadth of the vessel.

AW
CW = (1.3)
LWL × BM

WATERPLANE AREA (AW )

BM
(WATERLINE)

LWL (or LBP)

Figure 1.7

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5.2 Midship Section Coefficient (CM)

The midship section coefficient is the ratio of the immersed midship cross-sectional area (AMS)
to the product of the moulded breadth and the moulded draft.

AMS ⎡ AMAX ⎤
CM = ⎢ or: (refer below)⎥ (1.4)
BM × d M ⎢⎣ BM MAX × d M ⎥⎦

If the maximum immersed cross-sectional area, AMAX occurs at some point other than midships
then the maximum area should be used for the calculation of CM and also for CP (see 5.4).

IMMERSED AREA OF
MIDSHIP SECTION
( AMS )
WATERLINE

dM

BM (WATERLINE)

Figure 1.8

5.3 Block Coefficient (CB)

The block coefficient (CB) is defined as the ratio of the volume of displacement to the volume of
a rectangular prism formed by the product of the LWL (or LBP), maximum moulded breadth and
mean moulded draft. [Refer to Figure 1.9.]

∇
CB = (1.5)
LWL × BM MAX × d M

Values of CB at design displacement vary from about 0.35 for a very fine high-speed vessel to
about 0.85 for a very full low-speed bulk-carrier. For a given displacement and installed power,
the lower the CB the higher the speed.

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10
WATERLINE
9

LWL 6
10
(or LBP)
5
9
4
8
3
7
2
6
1
5 IMMERSED VOLUME
0 (∇)
4

dM
2

1
BM
0
(WATERLINE)

Figure 1.9 Ratio of volumes for block coefficient, CB .

5.4 Prismatic Coefficient (CP)

The prismatic coefficient (CP) is defined as the ratio of the volume of displacement to a prism
formed by the product of the LWL (or LBP) and the immersed midship cross-sectional area, AMS (or
the maximum immersed cross-sectional area, AMAX .

∇ ⎡ ∇ ⎤
CP = ⎢ or: ⎥ (1.6)
LWL × AM ⎣ LWL × AMAX ⎦

and since ∇ = CB × LWL × BM × dM (1.7)

and AM = CM × BM × dM

C B × LWL × BM × d M
then CP =
LWL × CM × BM × d M

CB
= (1.8)
CM

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10
WATERLINE
9

LWL 6 10
(or LBP)
5 9
IMMERSED VOLUME
(∇) 4 8

3 7

2 6

1 5
IMMERSED MIDSHIP
0 4
SECTION AREA ( A MS )
3
or

dM 2 MAXIMUM IMMERSED
SECTION AREA (A MAX)
1

Figure 1.10 Ratio of volumes for prismatic coefficient, CP .

Note:

In view of the confusion which can arise when different definitions of dimensions − especially
length − are used by different designers in determining these coefficients of form, it has been
suggested that LBP on single-screw vessels be used in their calculation, and LWL in the case of
twin-screw vessels. The editor’s preference, however, is to use LWL exclusively (i.e. in all cases).

Form coefficients should always be stated with respect to the draft (DWL or quoted in metres)
and length (LWL or LBP) employed in their calculation.

6 Bonjean Curves

Bonjean curves (named after a 19th-century French naval designer) are curves of immersed
cross-sectional areas calculated at regular draft intervals for all body plan stations and
superimposed on a profile of the hull. Such curves permit the calculation of buoyancy
distribution (volume of displacement) of the vessel at any draft, trimmed waterline or for any
wave profile.

Bonjean curves are usually plotted against a common scale of draft with the cross-sectional areas
for stations plotted to the right of the vertical axis and employing a separate horizontal scale of
cross-sectional area (refer Figure 1.11). This method of displaying Bonjean curves is particularly
convenient for locating trimmed waterlines, especially so in manual damage stability
calculations.

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0 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10

7 7

6 6

5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2

1 1
0 0

DRAFT 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 DRAFT

(m) (m)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

2
AREA SCALE (m )

Figure 1.11 Bonjean curves superimposed on a hull profile.

A single Bonjean curve generated for any one station displays the cumulative immersed cross-
sectional area for that station between the moulded baseline and the selected maximum draft
(usually taken as the moulded depth of the hull at that station) or to any intermediate draft
between zero and moulded depth. Generating Bonjean curves for the full moulded depth, rather
than only to a maximum design draft, facilitates calculations of buoyancy distribution for wave
profiles and for severe conditions of trim which may result in the vessel’s damaged (flooded)
condition. Trimmed waterlines and wave profiles may be superimposed on the set of curves and
immersed sectional areas simply read from the points of intersection with the station verticals.

DRAFT DRAFT
(m) (m)

8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
BM (m) CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA (m2 )

BODY PLAN SECTION BONJEAN CURVE

Figure 1.12 A Bonjean curve (right) generated from a body plan section (left).

Figure 1.13 illustrates a trimmed waterline (damaged condition) superimposed on Bonjean

curves and example immersed cross-sectional areas at stations 5, 6 and 7 are illustrated in Figure
1.14.

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0 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10

7 7

6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3

2 2
1 1
0 0

DRAFT 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 DRAFT

(m) (m)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

AREA SCALE (m2 )

Figure 1.13 A trimmed waterline (damaged condition) superimposed on Bonjean curves

enabling volumetric displacement to be determined for this condition.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

WATERLINE

5 6 7

Figure 1.14 Determination of immersed cross-sectional areas at stations 5, 6 and 7

for a trimmed waterline using Bonjean curves.

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