• Final Exam Review

• The final exam will be held on Wednesday, December 15 from 4 – 6 p.m.

Note that the exam will take no longer than two hours, not three hours as
scheduled by the university.

• The exam will be held in Trani 155.

• All students must bring their VCU identification cards, #2 pencils, and know
their “V” number to record on the Scantron sheet.

• There will be no early or makeup exams.

• The exam will have 100 multiple choice questions, 60 questions on the new
material and 40 questions on the old material. About 12 questions in the
chapter.

• Chapter 1

• Identify the different levels of organization. (From simple to complex)

• Chemical Level: Atom/Molecule

• Cellular Level: Cells

• Tissue Level: Epithelial tissue

• Organ Level: Small intestine

• Organ System Level: Digestive system

• Organismal Level: Human Being

• Describe the body in anatomical position.

• An individual stands upright with the feet parallel and flat on the floor.
The head is level, and the yes look forward towards the observer. The
arms are at either side of the body with the palms facing forward and
the thumbs pointing away from the body.

• Define standardized terms of direction, regional terms and planes of the

body.

• Directional: Once the body is in anatomic position, we can precisely

describe the relative position of various structures by using specific
directional terms:

• Relative to the front/back

• Anterior, Posterior, Dorsal, Ventral

 • Relative to the head/tail

• Superior, Inferior, Caudal, Cranial

• Relative to the midline/center

• Medial, Lateral, Deep, Superficial

• Relative to the point of attachment of appendance

• Proximal, Distal

• Regional: Human body is partitioned into two main regions

• Axial: Includes the head, neck and trunk; it forms the main
vertical axis of the body

• Appendicular: Our limbs, or appendages, attach to the body’s

axis and make up the appendicular region

• Planes: Imaginary “slices” of the body.

• Coronal Plane: also called the frontal plane. Is a vertical plane

that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts. Contains
the chest (anterior) and back (posterior).

• Transverse Plane: also called the cross-sectional plane or

horizontal plane. Cuts perpendiculary along the long axis of the
body. The body is separated into superior (upper) and inferior
(lower)

• Midsagittal Plane: also called a median plane. Extends

through the body or organ vertically and divides the structure
into right and left halves. A plane that is parallel to the
midsagittal but to either left or right is referred to as the sagittal
plane.

• Compare the dorsal body cavity with ventral body cavity.

• Dorsal Body Cavity

• Has 2 enclosed cavities. A Cranial Cavity is formed by the

cranium and houses the brain. A Vertebral Canal is formed by
the individual bones of the vertebral column and contains the
spinal cord.

• Ventral Body Cavity

• Arises from a space called the coelom that forms during

embryonic development. Eventually parts into a superior
thoracic cavity and inferior abdominopelvic cavity. The
 formation of the thoracic diaphragm partitions between these
cavities.

• Both cavities are lined with thin serous membranes which are
composed of 2 layers: Parietal layer lines the internal surface of the
body wall and a visceral layer covers the external surface of the
organs. Between these layers of serous membrane is a thin serous
cavity that is “potential space”. This contains serous fluid (lubricant)

• Compare and contract each of the serous cavities: pericardial, pleural and
peritoneal.

• Pericardial Cavity: is potential space between the parietal and

visceral pericardia; it contains serous fluid.

• Pleural Cavity: is the narrow, moist potential space between the

parietal and visceral layers external to the lungs, but internal to the
thoracic cavity. It also contains serous fluid.

• Peritoneal Cavity: is the potential space between the serous

membrane layers lining the abdominopelvic cavity. The peritoneum is
a two-layered serous membrane: parietal and visceral. The space
between these two is the peritoneal cavity.

• Describe the organization of the abdominopelvic cavity into regions and

quadrants.

• 9 compartments: 3 rows (superior, middle, and inferior), 3 columns

( left, middle, right)

• Epigastric: Superior, middle. Contains part of liver, part of

stomach, the duodenum, part of the pancreas, and both the
adrenal glands.

• Umbilical: Middle, Middle. Contains the transverse colon, part

of the small intestine, and the brances of the blood vessels to
the lower limbs.

• Hypogastric: Inferior, middle. Contains part of the small

intestine, the urinary bladder, and the sigmoid colon.

• R/L hypochondriac: Superior, lateral to Epigastric. Contains

part of liver, gallbladder, and R/L Kidney. The left hypochondriac
contains part of the stomach, spleen, left colic flexure of large
intestine, and L kidney.
 • R/L Iliac: Inferior, lateral to hypogastric region. R side contains
inferior end of cecum, the appendix, and part of the small
intestine.

• R/L Lumbar: middle regions lateral to the umbilical region. R

side contains ascending colon and the right colic flexure of the
large intestine, part of the small intestine, the L side contains
descending colon, part of left kidney, and part of small intestine.

• Chapter 4

• Distinguish between the four main types of tissue.

• Epithelial: Covers or lines everybody surface and all body cavities;

thus it forms both internal and external lining of many organs and it
constitutes the majority of glands. An epithelium is composed of one or
more layers of closely packed cells between two compartments having
different components. There is little to no extracellular matrix between
epithelium cells; additionally, no blood vessels penetrate an
epithelium.

• Connective: Most diverse, abundant, widely distributed, and

microscopically variable of the tissues. CT is designed to support,
protect, and bind organs. CT implies “glue” that binds body structures
together. CT includes fibrous tendons and legatments, body fat, the
cartilage that connects the ends of ribs to the sternum, the bones of
the skeleton, and the blood.

• Muscle Tissue: composed of specialized cells (fibers) that respond to

stimulation from the nervous system by undergoing internal changes
that cause them to shorten. As muscle tissue shortens, it exerts
physical forces on other tissues and organs to produce movement,
these movements include voluntary motion of body parts, blood
circulation, respiratory activites, propulsion of material through
digestive tract, and waste elimination.

• Nervous Tissue: sometimes referred to as neural tissue. Consists of

cells called neurons and a larger number of different types of glial
cells (supporting cells) that support, protect, and provide framework
for neurons.

• Describe the characteristics of epithelial tissue.

• Polarity: Every epithelium has an apical surface (free, top), which is

exposed either to external environment or to some internal body
space, and lateral surfaces having intercellular junctions. Additionally,
 each epithelium has a basal surface (bottom, fixed) where the
epithelium is attached to the underlying CT.

• A-vascular: All epithelial tissue lack blood vessels. They obtain

nutrients either directly across the apical surface or by diffusion across
the basal surface from the underlying CT.

• Innervated: Epithelia are richly innervated to detect changes in the

environment at a particular body or organ surface region.

• Regenerative ability: They are frequently damaged being exposed

to the external environment. They are replaced as fast as they are
lost. Continual replacement occurs through the mitotic division of the
deepest epithelial  Stem Cells: which are found @ the base of
epithelial cells.

• Attachment: @ the basal surface, is bound to a thin basement

membrane.

• Classification of Epithelial Tissue: Indicated by a two-part name.

1st part refers to the number of epithelial cell layers, and the
second part refers to the shape of the cells at the apical surface.

• Classification by Number of Cell Layers:

• Simple: One cell layer thing. All cells in direct contact

with basement membrane. Often covered by thin layer of
mucous to prevent desiccation and help protect from
friction and abrasion. Found in areas where stress in
minimal and where filtration. Absorption or secretion is
primary function. (Air sacs of lungs, intestines, and blood
vessels)

• Stratified: contains two or more layers. On the cells in

the deepest layer are in contact with the basement
membrane. Resembles a brick wall. This type of cell layer
make is strong and capable of resisting stress and
protecting underlying tissue. Found in areas subject to
abrasive activity and mechanical stress. (internal lining of
esophagus, or vagina). Cells in the basal layer continue to
regenerate as the cells in superficial layer are lost due to
abrasive activities.

• Psuedostratified: looks layered, but is not. Because

cells are distributed at different levels between apical and
basal surfaces. All are attached to basement surface, but
some of them do not reach apical surface. Those that do
not reach surface often have mucus on them (ciliated
psuedostratified) lines the nasal cavity and respiratory
passageways.

• Classification by Cell Shape

 • Squamous: are flat, wide, and somewhat irregular in
shape. Nucleus looks like a flattened disc. Cells are
arranged like irregular, flattened floor tiles.

• Cuboidal: Are about tall as they are wide. Nucleus is

spherical and located within center of cell.

• Columnar: slender and taller than they are wide. Look

like a group of hexagonal columns.

• Simple Squamous  Amnion

• Simple Cuboidal  Kidney Tubules

• Nonciliated Simple Columnar  Mucosa of small

intestine

• Ciliated Simple Columnar  Uterine Tube

• Stratified Cuboidal  Duct of sweat gland

• Stratified Columnar  Male Urethra

• Non-Keratinized(not dead) Stratified Squamous 

Vagina

• Keratinized(dead) Stratified Squamous  Epidermis

of Skin

• Pseudostratified Columnar  Nasal Cavity Lining

• Transitional  Urinary Bladder: Epithelial

appearance varies. Whether tissue is stretched or
relaxed.

• Glands: Epithelial tissues develop invaginations. Perform secretory

functions: Mucin, hormones, enzymes, and waste products.

Characterize the different types of connective tissue.

• The types of connective tissue are very diverse, all of them share 3
basic components: Cells, protein fibers, and ground substance.
Connective tissue is designed to support, protect, and bind organs.

Types: Connective Tissue proper, Supporting Connective tissue (cartilage,

bone) & Fluid Connective Tissue (blood)

• Connective Tissue Proper: Exhibit a mixture of both CT cell

types and extracellular protein fibers suspended within a ground
substance. The CT differ with respect to the types of cells and
 proportions of fibers and ground substance. Fibers include:
Collagen, Elastic, Reticular.

• Loose CT: Fewer fibers, more ground substance

1. Areolar

2. Adipose

3. Reticular

• Dense CT: More fibers, less ground substance

1. Dense Regular

2. Dense Irregular

3. Elastic

• CT Proper: Loose CT

 Areolar CT: Pappillary layer of dermis

 Adipise CT: Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis)

 Reticular CT: Stroma of Spleen

• CT Proper: Dense CT

 Dense Regular CT: Tendon

 Dense Irregular CT: Reticular layer of Dermis

 Elastic: Aorta wall

• Supporting Connective Tissue: Cartilage and bones are this type. Form a
strong framework.

o Cartilage: Semisolid Matrix

1. Hyaline

2. Fibrocartilage

3. Elastic

o Bone: Solid matrix

1. Compact

2. Spongy

• Fluid Connective Tissue:

 o Blood: contains Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. Extracellular
matrix is called plasma

Covering and Lining Membranes

• 2 Principle kinds of internal membranes are

o Mucous Membrane: also called mucosa, lines the body passageways

and compartments that eventually open to the external environment;
these include the digestive, respiratory, reproductive, and urinary
tracts. Provides lubrication, and traps bacteria and foreign particles to
prevent them from invading the body.

o Serous Membrane: also called serosa composed of simple squamous

epithelium. It produces a thin, watery layer of serous fluid. Serous
membrane is composed of two parts

 Parietal Layer: lines the body cavity

 Visceral layer: covers organs.

o Cutaneous Membrane: is the largest body membrane. Commonly

known as skin. Composed of keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium.

o Synovial Membrane: some joints of skeletal system are lined with this
membrane.

• Describe the three types of muscle tissue.

• Skelatal: Composed of long, cylindrical muscle cells called muscle

fibers. Skeletal muscles fibers are multi-nucleated. Striated and
voluntary. Exhibit bands: striations.

• Smooth: Lacks striations, cells are fusiform (spindle-shape) and short.

One centrally located nucleus. Involuntary

• Cardiac: Cells are short, bifurcated and striated, with one or two
centrally located nucleus. Intercalated discs between cells. Involuntary
contration.

• Explain the nature of nervous tissue.

• Sometimes referred to as neural tissue. It cosists of cells called

Neurons (nerve cells) and a larger number of Glial cells(supporting
cells) that support, protect, and provide framework for neurons.
 Chapter 5

• Identify the major layers of the epidermis and dermis

• Epidermis

• Stratum Basale – Most deep

• Stratum Spinosum

• Stratum Granulosum

• Stratum Lucidum

• Stratum Corneum – Most superficial

• Dermis

• Papillary Layer – Superficial

• Reticular Layer – Deep

Describe the structure of the hypodermis.

• Deep to the integument is the subcutaneous layer:

Hypodermis. Not considered a part of the integument. Layer consists
of both areolar CT and adipose CT. This layer pads and protects the
body and its parts, acts as an energy reservoir, and provides thermal
insulation.

• Characterize the specialized cells

• Keratinocytes: Most abundant cell type in epidermis. The stratum

basale is dominated by large keratinocyte stem cells, which divide to
provide both replacement stem cell and new kertainocytes that replace
the dead keratinocytes that shed from the surface.

• Melanocytes: have long branching cytoplasmic processes and are

scattered among the keratinocytes of the stratum basale. These
processes transfer pigment granules, called melanosomes into the
kertatinocytes. Darker skin tones develop because of this

• Tactile Cells: Few in number, but these cells are sensitive to touch

• Name the appendages of the skin

 • Nails: They are hard derivatives from the stratum corneum layer.
Cells that form the nails are densely packed and filled with parallel
fibers of hard keratin.

• Hair: Found almost everywhere but on the palms of the hands, side
and soles of feet, the lops, and the sides of fingers and toes, and
portions of the external genitalia. Hair protect, help with heat
retention, allow for facial expressions, sensory reception, visual
identification and chemical signal dispersal (attract opposite sex:
pheromones)

• Sebaceous Glands: Holocrine glands that discharge an oily waxy

secretion called sebum, usually into a hair follicle. Sebum acts as a
lubricant to keep the skin and hair from becoming dry, brittle, and
cracked. Sebum has bacterial killing properties.

• Sweat Glands

• Merocrine Sweat Glands: release their secretion onto the surface

of the skin. Controlled by the nervous system

• Apocrine Sweat Glands: release their secretion onto hair follicles

at the armpits, nipples, in the groin area and around the anus.

• Describe factors that contribute to skin color

• Normal skin color results from a combination of hemoglobin, melanin,

and carotene.

• Hemoglobin: Exhibits a bright red color, giving blood vessels in

the dermis a bright reddish tint that is most easily observed in
the skin of lightly pigmented individuals.

• Melanin: is a pigment produced and stored in melanocytes.

Occur is variations of yellow, reddish, tan, brown and black
shades. The keratinocytes that receive the melanin are
displaced towards the stratum corneum, thus giving color to the
epidermis.

• Carotene: Yellow-orange pigment that is acquired in the body

from eating yellow-orange vegetables—corn, carrots etc…

• Chapter 6

• List the three major types of cartilage tissue and where they are located in
the adult body
 • Hyaline: Most abundant type. Found in trachea, portions of the larynx,
the articular joint cartilage on bones, epiphyseal plates, coastal
cartilage, and in nose.

• Fibrocartilage: has thick collagen fibers that help resist stretching. Acts
as a shock absorber. Located where strength is required. Intervertebral
discs, pubic symphasis, Mensicus (knee joint) padding.

• Elastic: highly branched elastic fibers within the ECM. Found in regions
requiring a highly flexible form of support: auricle of ear, external
auditory canal, and the epiglottis.

• Describe how cartilage grows: appositional and interstitial growth

• Appositional Growth

1. Stem cells @ internal edge of perichondrium divide and form new

stem cells and committed cells.

2. Committed cells differentiate to chondroblasts

3. Chondroblasts located at the periphery of the old cartilage secrete

new cartilage matrix. As a result, they push apart and become
chondrocytes.

4. The new matrix has been produced peripherally, and appositional

growth has occurred.

• Interstitial Growth

1. Chrondrocytes housed in lacunae undergo mitotic division

2. After division, two new cells occupy a single lacunae

3. Cells begin to synthesize and secrete new cartilage matrix, they are pushed apart

4. New individual cells in their lacunae are called chrondrocytes.

New matrix has been produced internally.

• Describe the gross anatomy of a long bone and a flat bone

• Long Bone Anatomy

• Shaft/Diaphysis: Elongated, usually cylindrical diaphysis

• Epiphysis: @ the end of each diaphysis. Knobby region, enlarged

to strengthen the joint and provide added surface area for bone-
to-bone articulation/tendon-ligament attachement.
 • Metaohysis: region in a mature bone that is sandwiched
between diaphysis and epiphysis.

• Medullary Cavity: contains yellow bone marrow.

• Endosteum: incomplete layer of cells that covers all internal

surfaces of the bone

• Periosteum: Covers the outer surface of the bone, except areas

covered by articular cartilage.

• Flat Bone Anatomy: have a flat, thin surface. Composed of

roughly parallel surfaces of compact bone with a layer of internally
placed spongy bone. Provide extensive surfaces for muscle attachment
and protect underlying soft tissues. Flat bones form the roof of the
skull, the scapulae, sternum, and ribs.

• Describe differences between compact and spongy bone.

• Compact Bone: Solid, and relatively dense

• Central Canal, concentric lamellae, Osteocytes, Canaliculi

• Spongy Bone: appears more porous, like a sponge. Forms an open

lattice of narrow plates of bone: Trabeculae. Contains NO osteons
Trabeculae of spongy bone is composed of Parallel Lamellae.

• Describe the chemical composition of bone.

• The matrix of bone CT has both organic and inorganic

components. 1/3 of bone mass is composed of organic compounds:
cells, collagen fibers, and ground substance. The inorganic
components provide compresseional strength. Calcium phosphate
(CaPO4) accounts for most inorganic components of bone.

• Distinguish between intramembranous and endochondral ossification as

types of bone formation

• Intramembranous Ossification: “Bone growth within a membrane”.

Produces the flat bones of the skull, some of the facial bones, the
mandible, and the central part of the clavicle.

• Endochondral Ossification: Begins with a hyaline cartilage model

and produces most of the other bones of the skeleton. Those of the
upper and lower limbs, pelvis, vertebrae, and ends of clavicle.

• Chapter 9
• Be able to classify joints according to structure and well as function.

• Structure:

• Fibrous Joint: occurs where bone are held together by dense regular
CT

• Cartilaginous Joint: occurs where bones are joined by cartilage

• Synovial Joint: has a fluid-filled, joint cavity that separates the

articulating surfaces of the bones.

• Function:

• Synarthrosis: is an immobile joint

• Amphiarthrosis: slightly mobile joint

• Diarthrosis: freely mobile joint.

• Describe the general structure of fibrous joints, cartilaginous joints and

synovial joints. Give examples of each

• Fibrous Joints: Articulating bones are joined by dense regular CT in

fibrous joints. Fibrous joints have no joint cavity. 3 types of fibrous
joints

• Gomphoses: Roots of individual teeth with the sockets of the

mandible and maxilla.  Synarthorisis

• Sutures: found only between certain bones of the skull 

Synarthrosis

• Syndesmoses: in which articulating bones are joined by long

strands of dense irregular CT. Allows for slight mobility:
Radius/Ulna and Tibia/Fibula Amphiarthrosis

• Cartilaginous Joints: Joints are attached to each other by cartilage.

These joints lack a joint cavity. 2 types.

• Synchondroses: An articulation in which bones are joined by

hyaline cartilage. All are immobile  Synarthroses. Ex:
Costochondral Joints: joints between each body rib and its
respective costal cartilage.

• Symphyses: All are  amphiathroses (slightly mobile) Ex: pubic

symphysis, intervertrbral joints
 • Synovial Joints: Freely mobile articulations. Seperated by a joint
cavity  Diarthroses. Ex: glenohumeral, TMJ, elbow joint, knee joint

• Distinguish between gliding, angular, and rotation types of movement.

• Gliding: simple movement in which two opposing surface slide back

and forth or side to side. Angle between the bones does not change
and limited movement is possible in any direction. Gliding motion
typically occurs along plane joints.

• Angular: Either increases or decreases the angle between two bones.

Movements may occur at many of the synovial joints: flexion,
extension, hyperextension, lateral flexion, abduction and adduction
and circumduction.

• Rotation: Pivoting motion in which bone turns on its own longitudinal

axis: Lateral roation, medial rotation, pronation, supination.

• Distinguish between uniaxial, biaxial and multiaxial joints

• Uniaxial: If the bone moves in just one plane/axis.

• Biaxial: bone moves in two planes/axis.

• Multiaxial: bone moves in multiple planes/axis.

• Chapter 10

• Characterize skeletal muscle: location, cell shape and appearance,

connective tissue components

• Skeletal muscles are not the only place muscle tissue is found. Muscle
tissue is distributed all over the body

• Composed of long, cylindrical muscle cells called muscle fibers.

Skeletal muscles fibers are multi-nucleated. Striated and voluntary.
Exhibit bands: striations.

• Connective Tissue Components: 3 concentric layers of CT composed of

collagen and elastic fibers, encircle each muscle itself. 3 layers are:

• Endomysium: innermost CT

• Perimysium: surrounds the fascicles

• Epimysium: superficial, surrounds the whole skeletal muscle

• Explain the sliding filament theory of muscular contraction

 • According to the sliding filament theory, when muscle contracts, thick
and thin filaments past each other, and the sacromere shortens.

• The width of the A band remains constant, but the H zone

disappears.

• The Z discs in one sacromere move closer together.

• The sacromere narrows or shortens in length.

• The I bands narrow or shorten in length.

• Thick and think filaments maintain their same length, whether the
muscle is relaxed or contracted. However, during muscle fiber
contraction, the relative position between the thick and think filaments
within the sacromeres changes markedly. Thick filaments in
neighboring sacromeres move closer together, as do the thin filaments
on either end of one sacromere.

• Describe cardiac muscle tissue with its unique features: intercalated discs,
striations, and contractility

• Cardiac Muscle Tissue: Arranged in thick bundles within the heart wall.
Cells are striated like skeletal, but shorter and thicker. They have only
one or two nuclei. The cells for a “Y” shape branches @ junctions
called intercalated discs. The ANS controls the rate of contraction.
Cardiac muscle cells are autorythmic: individual cells can generate
muscle impulse without nervous stimulation.

• List the characteristics of smooth muscle tissue

• Composed of short muscle cells that have fusiform shape. Single,

centrally located nucleus. They are not precisely aligned, so no visible
striations are present. Z discs are absent. Contraction is slow, resistant
to fatigue.

• Chapter 22

• Describe the location of the heart in the thoracic cavity

Positioning of the Heart

Slightly left of midline
deep to the sternum
in the mediastinum
Median space within the thoracic cavity

Right side or right border

primarily formed by the right atrium and ventricle
is located more anteriorly
 Left side or left border
primarily formed by the left atrium and ventricle
is located more posteriorly

The posterosuperior surface of the heart

Formed primarily by the left atrium
Is called the base of the heart
The superior border is formed by
the great arterial vessels
Ascending aorta
Pulmonary trunk
the superior vena cava

The inferior conical end

is called the apex
The inferior border is formed by the right ventricle

• Explain the systemic, pulmonary and coronary circuits

Pulmonary
Comprised of the right side of the heart, the pulmonary arteries and
veins
Function: Conveys blood to the lungs and back to the left side of the
heart
Systemic
Comprised of the left side of the heart, arteries and veins
Function: Conveys blood to most body tissues and back to the right side
of the heart

• Distinguish between the following: Atrium and auricle, atrium and ventricle,
pectinate muscle and trabeculae carnae, bicuspid valve and tricuspid valve

Right Atrium
Right atrioventricular valve tricuspid valve
Separates the right atrium from the right ventricle
Deoxygenated venous blood flows from the right atrium to the right
ventricle through the right atrioventricular valve
The right atrioventricular valve is forced closed when the right ventricle
begins to contract, preventing blood backflow into the right atrium.

The heart also has four valves: 2 of which are:

Right atrioventricular
tricuspid
Left atrioventricular
bicuspid or mitral
 Right Ventricle
Receives deoxygenated venous blood from the right atrium
An interventricular septum
forms a thick wall between the right and left ventricles
Trabeculae carneae
Large, irregular muscular ridges located in the inner wall of each
ventricle

The anteroinferior borders of the atria form a muscular extension called

the auricle

• Pectinate Muscles: muscular ridges on the anterior wall of the atria

and auricle.

• Describe blood flow through the heart and include valves and heart sounds

• @ the beginning of the cardiac cycle  the L and R atria contract

simultaneously, When the atria contract (atrial systole), blood is forced
into the ventricles through the open AV valves. During this time, blood
is still returning from the SVC and IVC and coronary sinus. After atria
begin to relax (atrial diastole), L and R ventricular contractions
(ventricular systole) occurs. When the ventricles contract, AV openings
close as blood pushes against the cusps of the AV valve. The semilunar
valves are forced open, and blood enters the pulmonary trunk and the
aorta.

• SVC/IVC  RA  RAV(tricuspid) RV Pulmonary Semilunar

Valve  Pulmonary Trunk and Arteries  LUNGS  Pulmonary
Veins  LA  LAV (Bicuspid)  LV  Aorta  Body  SVC/IVC

• Describe the conduction system and explain innervation to the heart

• Innervation: The heart is innervated by the ANS. Consists of

sympathetic and parasympathetic components. The innervations by
the ANS doesn’t initiate a heartbeat, but can increase or decrease the
rate of the heartbeat.

• Sympathetic: Increases the rate and the force of the

contractions

• Parasympathtic: Decreases the heart rate, but generally tends

to have no affect on the force of the contraction.

• Conduction System

1. Muscle impulse generated @ the sinoatrial node. Then travels to

the AV node
 2. AV node communicates with the AV Bundle

3. AV Bundle (Bundle of His) conducts the impulse into the

interventricular septum

4. In the interventricular septum, the bundles spilt into R and L

5. These bundles conduct the impulse to the conduction fibers:

Purkinje Fibers located in each ventricle.

• Describe the blood supply to and from the heart muscle

• Chapter 23

• Name the three types of blood vessels.

The three classes of blood vessels are arteries, capillaries and veins

• Describe the tunics of an artery, vein and capillary

Both artery and vein walls have three layers called tunics. From outer to
inner:
Tunica externa (adventitia) – connective tissue that helps anchor the
blood vessel to an organ. Larger blood vessels require their own blood
supply . The smaller arteries that supply the larger arteries are called
vasa vasorum which runs through the tunica externa
Tunic media – comprised of circularly arranged smooth muscle.
Sympathetic input causes this smooth muscle to contract resulting in
vasoconstriction. Parasympathetic input results in vasodilation.
Tunica intima (interna) – composed of an endothelium (simple
squamous epithelium lining the inside of the arteries and veins) and a
subendothelial layer of areolar connective tissue

• Describe the differences between elastic arteries, muscular arteries and

arterioles

Elastic Arteries
Largest of the arteries (aorta, pulmonary, brachiocephalic, common
carotids, subclavians)
Most examples are near the heart
The elastic fibers present in all three tunics allows these arteries to stretch
under the increased pressure generated by bloodflow from the heart
Elastic arteries branch into muscular arteries
Muscular Arteries
Medium diameter arteries
Possess elastic fibers in two concentric rings between the three tunics:
The internal elastic lamina which separates the tunica intima and tunica
media
 The external elastic lamina which separates the tunica media and the
tunica externa
Muscular arteries have a proportionately thicker tunica media
Arterioles
Smallest arteries
Have less than six cell layers of smooth muscle in their tunica media
Sympathetic innervation to the muscle fiber cells of the tunica media
causes vasoconstriction resulting in elevation of blood pressure
Parasympathetic innervation causes vasodilation and a lowering of blood
pressure

• List the three different kinds of capillaries.

There are three types of capillaries:

Continuous – most common type, endothelial cells form a continuous and
complete lining (no physical holes) aided by the presence of tight junctions
Fenestrated – endothelial cells possess small “holes” to allow fluid
exchange between blood and interstitial fluid
Sinusoid – have big gaps between endothelial cells that promotes transport
of large molecules and cells to and from the blood

• Describe a capillary bed (the role of precapillary sphincters and the pathway
of blood flow)

Form capillary beds

Each bed is fed by a metarteriole whose proximal end is surrounded by
smooth muscles while the distal end, called the thoroughfare channel
lacks smooth muscles.
The thoroughfare channel connects to a postcapillary venule
Branches from the metarteriole that begin with a ring of smooth muscle on
their walls are called true capillaries

• Explain the function of valves in veins

Blood pressure in veins is too low to overcome the forces of gravity and
possess valves
Valves are formed from the tunica intima and prevent blood from pooling in
the limbs

• Define vasa vasorum

The smaller arteries that supply the larger arteries are called vasa vasorum which
runs through the tunica externa

• Chapter 14
• Define CNS and PNS

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain skull
Spinal cord  vertebral canal

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Cranial nerves  Extend from the brain
Spinal nerves  Extend from the spinal cord
Ganglia  Clusters of neuron cell bodies located outside the CNS

• Explain the following types of sensory and motor information carried by the
nervous system: somatic sensory, somatic motor, visceral sensory, visceral
motor

Somatic sensory
Voluntary
Components
General somatic senses - touch, pain, pressure, vibration and
proprioception
Special senses – taste, vision, hearing, balance and smell
Visceral sensory
Involuntary
Components
Transmit nerve impulses from blood vessels and viscera to the CNS
Somatic motor
Voluntary nervous system
Conducts impulses from the CNS to the skeletal muscles, causing them
to contract
Autonomic motor
Involuntary nervous system
impulses from the CNS that regulate smooth and cardiac muscle and
glands
Two subdivisions
Parasympathetic
Sympathetic

• Define reflex arc including its basic features: sensory neuron, interneuron
and motor neuron

Sensory (afferent)
transmit impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS
Motor (efferent)
Transmit impulses from CNS to muscles or glands
Interneurons
 facilitate communication between sensory and motor neurons
Reflex Arc
Is the neural “wiring” of a single reflex
Always begins at a receptor in the PNS
Communicates with the CNS
Ends at a peripheral effector (muscle or gland) cell
The number of intermediate steps varies depending on the complexity of the reflex

• Distinguish between gray and white matter in the CNS

Gray matter
Houses
Motor neuron cell bodies
Interneuron cell bodies
Dendrites
Telodendria
Unmyelinated axons
White matter
lies deep to the gray matter of the cortex
made up of myelinated axons

• Distinguish between nerve and nerve cell (neuron)

Neurons (nerve cells)  electrically excitable cells that initiate, transmit

and receive nerve impulses
Nerve: a cable-like bundle of parallel axons

 Describe the features of a nerve cell and their functions.

The basic structural unit of the nervous system

Conduct nerve impulses from one part of the body to another part
Characteristics
High metabolic rate
Extreme longevity
Non-mitotic

Classified according to the direction that the nerve impulse is traveling

relative to the CNS
Sensory (afferent)
Motor (efferent)
Interneurons

• Describe the structure of function of a myelin sheath

Myelination
The process by which part of an axon is wrapped with a myelin sheath
 Myelin sheath
a protective fatty coating that gives the axon a glossy-white
appearance
supports, protects, and insulates an axon
composed of the lipoprotein myelin
Concentric layers of myelin
No change in voltage can occur across the membrane in the insulated
portion of an axon
In the PNS, myelin sheaths form from neurolemmocytes
In the CNS, they form from oligodendrocytes

• Name six types of glial cells and describe them by their shape and function

Four types of glial cells are found in the CNS

Astrocyte
Ependymal cell
Microglial cell
Oligodendrocyte

Astrocytes
Most abundant glial cells in the CNS
Functions
Help to form the blood-brain barrier (BBB)
Regulate tissue fluid composition
Form a structural network
Replace damaged neurons
Assist development of fetal neurons

Ependymal Cells
Ciliated cuboidal epithelial cells
Line the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord
In conjunction with other glial cells, the ependymal cells produce
cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) and form the choroid plexus

Microglial Cells
Small cells that are motile
Wander through the CNS and exhibit phagocytic activity, removing
cellular debris from dead or dying cells

Oligodendrocytes
Associated with CNS axons only
Wrap themselves around the axons like electrical tape wrapped
around a wire
Produce myelin which is an insulator of electrical activity

There are two types of cells found in the PNS

Satellite cells
Neurolemmocytes
 Satellite Cells
Flattened cells arranged around neuronal cell bodies in ganglia

Neurolemmocytes
Also called Schwann cells
Associated with PNS axons only
Wrap themselves around the axons like electrical tape wrapped
around a wire
produce myelin which is an insulator of electrical activity
Same structure and function as oligodendrocytes

• Chapter 15

• Describe the embryological development of the brain, basic parts, and

protection of the brain

EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAIN

Brain forms from the cranial part of neural tube
different growth rates in different regions of neural tube

Three primary brain vesicles in 4-week embryo

Prosenencephalon
the forebrain
Mesencephalon
the midbrain
Rhombencephalon
the hindbrain

Developing Human Brain (Four Weeks)

By the late fourth week of development three primary vesicles have formed
Prosencephalon (forebrain)
Mesencephalon (midbrain)
Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)

Developing Human Brain (Fifth Week)

By the fifth week of development, the three primary vesicles further
develop into five secondary brain vesicles
Telencephalon
Diencephalon
Mesencephalon
Metencephalon
Myelencephalon

Developing Human Brain (Fifth Week)

Telencephalon
arises from the prosencephalon
 eventually forms the cerebrum
Diencephalon
derives from the prosencephalon
eventually form the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus
Mesencephalon
is the only primary vesicle that does not form a new secondary vesicle

Developing Human Brain (Fifth Week)

Metencephalon
arises from the rhombencephalon
eventually forms the pons and cerebellum
Myelencephalon
derives from the rhombencephalon
eventually forms the medulla oblongata

Support and Protection of the Brain

The brain is protected and isolated by multiple structures
The bony cranium
provides rigid support
Meninges
Protective connective tissue membranes surround and partition portions
of the brain
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
acts as a cushioning fluid
Blood-brain barrier
prevents entry of harmful materials from the bloodstream

Major Regions of Human Brain

Cerebrum
Diencephalon
Brainstem
Cerebellum

• Describe the gross anatomy of the cerebrum including sulci, gyri, fissures,
and lobes

Cerebrum
Divided into two halves (superior view)
left cerebral hemisphere
right cerebral hemisphere
Each hemisphere is subdivided into five functional areas called lobes

Cerebrum
Outer surface of an adult brain
 exhibits folds called gyri (gyrus)
shallow depressions between the gyri called sulci (sulcus)

• Locate the ventricles of the brain and describe the flow of CSP from the
lateral ventricles to the arachnoid villi

Ventricles
Cavities or expansions within the brain that are derived from the lumen
(opening) of the embryonic neural tube
continuous with one another and the central canal of the spinal cord

Lateral ventricles (two)

are in the cerebrum
separated by a thin medial partition called the septum pellucidum

Third ventricle
Smaller ventricle within the diencephalon
each lateral ventricle communicates with the third ventricle through an
opening called the interventricular foramen

Fourth ventricle
located between the pons and cerebellum

CSF Circulation
CSF produced by choroid plexus in the ventricles
CSF flows from
Lateral ventricles  interventricular foramina  3rd ventricle 
mesencephalic aqueduct  4th ventricle  lateral (2) and median
apertures  subarachnoid space (& central canal)
CSF leaves ventricles and enters subarachnoid space
But CSF must be continuously removed from this space
Arachnoid vili (arachnoid granulations) extend through dura mater; CSF
drains and mixes with the blood within the dural venous sinus

• Distinguish between commissural tracts, association tracts, and projection

tracts in white matter

• Commisural tracts: Extend between the cerebral hemispheres

through axonal bridges called commissures. Ex: Corpus
callosum/anterior/posterior commissures.

• Association tracts: connect different regions of the cerebral cortex

within the same hemisphere. Ex: Composed of arcuate fibers in the
tract that connects the primary motor cortex
 • Projection tracts: link cerebral cortex to the posterior brain regions
and the spinal cord. Ex: Brainstem and spinal cord.

• Name the distinctive Cerebral (basal) nuclei and describe their general
function

are paired irregular masses of gray matter buried deep within the central white matter in the basal
region of the cerebral hemispheres inferior to the floor of the lateral ventricles

Caudate Nucleus -- produces patterned arm and leg movements associated with walking
Amygdaloid body -- expression of emotions, control of behavioral activities, development of
moods
Lentiform Nucleus is composed of:
The putamen -- subconscious muscular movement
The globus pallidus -- excites and inhibits activities of thalamus to control and adjust muscle tone
Claustrum -- processes visual information at a subconscious level
Corpus Striatum -- striped appearance of internal capsule as it passes among the caudate
nucleus and lentiform nucleus

• Name the three parts of the brain stem

Three regions form the brainstem

Mesencephalon
Pons
Medulla Oblongata

• Explain the limbic system and reticular formation

Comprised of multiple cerebral and diencephalic structures

The above structures work together to process and experience
emotions

The structures of the limbic system form a ring around the

diencephalon

The limbic system affects memory formation through the integration

of past memories of physical sensations with emotional states

 The reticular formation is a part of the brain that is involved in actions

such as awaking/sleeping cycle, and filtering incoming stimuli to
discriminate irrelevant background stimuli.[1] It is essential for governing
some of the basic functions of higher organisms

• Describe the structure and function of the cerebellum

Cerebellum
Composed of left and right cerebellar hemispheres
Each hemisphere consists of two lobes
the anterior lobe
 the posterior lobe
are separated by the primary fissure
Partitioned into three regions
An outer gray matter layer of cortex
An internal region of white matter, called the arbor vitae
Cerebellar nuclei in the deepest layer of gray matter

Cerebellar Functions
Coordinates and fine-tunes skeletal muscle movements
Ensures that skeletal muscle contraction follows the correct pattern leading
to smooth, coordinated movements
Stores memories of previously learned movement patterns
Adjusts skeletal muscle activity to maintain equilibrium and posture
Receives proprioceptive (sensory) information from the muscles and joints
and uses this information to regulate the body’s position
Monitors the position of each body joint and its muscle tone

Chapter 16

Describe the gross anatomy of the spinal cord including the location, enlargements
and conus medullaris

Length: 42-45 cm
Roughly cylindrical, slightly flattened posteriorly and anteriorly
Two longitudinal depressions on external surface
Posterior median sulcus
Swallow groove on posterior surface
Anterior median fissure
Deeper groove on anterior surface
Conus medullaris
The tapering inferior end of the spinal cord
is the official “end” of the spinal cord proper, usually at the level of the first
lumbar vertebra
The cervical enlargement
located in the inferior cervical part of the spinal cord
Contains neurons that innervate the upper limbs
The lumbar enlargement
extends through the lumbar part of the spinal cord
Contains neurons that innervate the lower limbs
31 pairs of spinal nerves

Describe the function of the spinal cord

Provides a vital link between the brain and the rest of the body
Functions of spinal cord and attached spinal nerves
Provide a pathway for sensory and motor impulses
Responsible for reflexes
 are the quickest reactions to a stimulus

Describe the meningeal coverings of the spinal cord and the epidural, subdural and
subarachnoid spaces

The spinal cord is protected and encapsulated by spinal cord meninges

are continuous with the cranial meninges
The epidural space
Lies between the dura mater and periosteum covering the inner walls of the
vertebra
Houses areolar connective tissue, blood vessels, and adipose connective tissue
Space where epidural anesthetic is given
The subdural space
separates the dura mater from the arachnoid
This is a potential space
The subarachnoid space
is a real space filled with cerebral spinal fluid

Distinguish between dorsal and ventral roots

• Dorsal Root: contain sensory axons only

• Ventral Root: contain motor axons only.

Describe the organization of white and gray matter

Gray Matter  is centrally located, and its shape resembles an “H”. May be
subdivided into the following components:

• Anterior Horns

• Lateral Horns

• Posterior Horns

• Gray Commissure: contains un myelinated axons and communication route

between right and left sides of the gray matter.

White Matter  External to the gray matter. Is partitioned into three regions:

• Posterior Funiculus

• Anterior Funiculus

• Lateral Funiculus

• White Commissure

• Funiculus contains axons of both motor and sensory nerves

Chapter 19

Distinguish between a stimulus and a sensation

• Sensation = the conscious or unconscious awareness of external or

internal stimuli.

• Stimulus = Changes in internal/external environments

Distinguish between mechanoreceptor, chemoreceptor, and photoreceptor

• Mechanoreceptors respond to a change in pressure; (i.e. touch,

pressure, vibrations, stretch)

• Photoreceptors (in retina of eye) respond to light energy

• Chemoreceptors respond to changes in chemical concentrations

Understand the eye and vision

SENSE OF SIGHT: Vision

Introduction: The organ of vision is the retina of eye. The sensory receptors
are called photoreceptors. When photoreceptors are
stimulated, impulses travel within the optic nerve (CN II) to the
visual (occipital) cortex for interpretation

A. Accessory organs of the eye:

1. Eyelids = protective shield for the eyeball.

a. Conjunctiva= inner lining of eyelid; = red portion around

eye.

2. Lacrimal apparatus = tear secretion & distribution.

a. Lacrimal gland = tear secretion; located on upper lateral

surface

• Tears contain an enzyme called lysozyme, which functions as

an anti-bacterial agent.

b. Nasolacrimal duct = duct which carries tears into nasal

cavity (drainage)

3. Extrinsic muscles hold eyeball in orbital cavity and allow for

eye movement.
a. superior rectus muscle

b. inferior rectus muscle

c. lateral rectus muscle

d. medial rectus muscle

e. inferior oblique muscle

f. superior oblique muscle

B. Eye Structure:

The eye is composed of three distinct layers or tunics:

1. Outer (fibrous) Tunic = protection.

a. Cornea = transparent anterior portion;

• Function: helps focus (75%) incoming light rays.

* See green box, page 484 on cornea transplant.

b. Sclera = white posterior portion, which is continuous with

eyeball except where the optic nerve and blood vessels
pierce through it in the back of eye.
• Functions:

1. protection

2. attachment (of eye muscles)

2. Middle vascular tunic = nourishment...

a. Choroid coat = membrane joined loosely to sclera

containing many blood vessels to nourish the tissues of the eye.

b. Ciliary body = anterior extension from choroid coat which is

composed of 2 parts:

 Ciliary muscles which control the shape of the lens (i.e. Accommodation);

 Ciliary processes which are located on the periphery of the lens.

1. Suspensory ligaments extend from the ciliary processes on the

lens to the ciliary muscles (i.e. they connect above structures), and
function to hold the lens in place.

* Accommodation = the process by which the lens changes

shape to focus on close objects.

1. The lens is responsible (with cornea) for focusing incoming

light rays.

2. If light rays are entering the eye from a distant object, the
lens is flat.

3. When we focus on a close object, the ciliary muscles contract,

relaxing the suspensory ligaments. Accordingly, the lens
thickens allowing us to focus
 2. Middle vascular tunic (continued)

c. Iris = colored ring around pupil;

 thin diaphragm muscle;
 lies between cornea and lens;
• The iris separates the anterior cavity of the
eye into an anterior chamber and
posterior chamber.

• The entire anterior cavity is filled with

aqueous humor, which helps nourish the
anterior portions of the eye, and maintains
the shape of the anterior eye.

3. Inner nervous (sensory) tunic

a. Retina = inner lining of the eyeball; site of photoreceptors.

 There are two types of visual receptors

(photoreceptors) in the retina:

1.Cones = photoreceptors for color vision;produce

sharp images.

2. Rods = photoreceptors for night vision;produce

silhouettes of images.

 The optic disk is the location on the retina where

nerve fibers leave the eye & join with the optic
nerve; the central artery & vein also pass through
this disk.

• No photoreceptors are present in the area of the

optic disk = blind spot.

 The posterior cavity of the eye is occupied by the

lens, ciliary body, and the retina.

• The posterior cavity is filled with vitreous

humor, which is a jelly-like fluid, which
maintains the spherical shape of the eyeball.
 C. The Pathway of Incoming Light:

1. Intro: Incoming light rays are refracted (bent) onto the retina
due to the convex surface of both the cornea and the lens.

2. Visual Pathway to Brain for Interpretation:

a. cornea

b. aqueous humor

c. lens

d. vitreous humor

e. photoreceptors in retina.

Once the rods and/or cones are stimulated, a sensory impulse is

carried on the:

f. optic nerve (CN II) which crosses at the

g. optic chiasma forming optic tracts that carry the impulse

to the

h. thalamus for direction to the

i. primary visual cortex (occipital lobe) for interpretation.

Understand the ear and hearing

• SENSE OF HEARING

• Intro: The organ of hearing is the Organ of Corti which is present in the
cochlea of inner ear. The sensory receptors are called mechanoreceptors.
Once these mechanoreceptors are stimulated, the impulse travels on the
cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear (CN VIII) nerve which leads to the
primary auditory cortex (temporal cortex) of the cerebrum.

• A. EAR STRUCTURE:

• 1. External Ear:

• a. Auricle = outer ear (cartilage); Function = collection of sound

waves.
 • b. External auditory meatus = ear canal; Function = starts
vibrations of sound waves and directs them toward tympanic
membrane

• 2. Middle Ear: Function = to amplify and concentrate sound waves

• a. Tympanic membrane = eardrum.

Tympanic Reflex = protective mechanism for hearing mechanoreceptors;

Loud noises cause 2 muscles associated with the tympanic membrane to
contract; This decreases amplification effect of ossicles (see below).

• b. Tympanic cavity = air-filled space behind eardrum; separates

outer from inner ear.

• c. Auditory ossicles = 3 tiny bones in middle ear:

• Malleus (hammer) is connected to tympanic membrane;

• Incus (anvil) connects malleus to stapes;

• Stapes (stirrup) connects incus to the

Oval window = the entrance to inner ear.

• d. Auditory (Eustachian) tube = passageway which connects

middle ear to nasopharynx (throat).

• Function = to equalize pressure on both sides of the tympanic

membrane, which is necessary for proper hearing.

• 3. Inner Ear:

• a. The inner ear consists of a complex system of intercommunicating

chambers and tubes called a labyrinth. Actually, two labyrinths
compose the inner ear:

• Osseous labyrinth = bony canal in temporal bone;

• Membranous labyrinth = membrane within osseous labyrinth.

• b. Two types of fluid fill the spaces in the labyrinths:

• Perilymph fills the space between the osseous and

membranous labyrinth;
• Endolymph fills the membranous labyrinth.
 • c. The inner ear labyrinth can further be divided into three regions
(cochlea, vestibule & semi-circular canals), each with a specific
function:

• Cochlea = snail shaped portion; Function = sense of

hearing.

• Semi-circular canals = three rings; Function =

dynamic equilibrium.

• Vestibule = area between cochlea and semi-cicular

canals; Function = static equilibrium.

• d. The osseus labyrinth of the cochlea can be divided into two

compartments:

• Scala vestibuli = upper compartment which extends from oval

window to apex;

• Scala tympani = lower compartment which extends from apex

to round window.

• Both compartments are filled with perilymph.

• E. Between the two bony compartments, we find the membranous labyrinth =

cochlear duct.

• The cochlear duct is filled with endolymph.

• 3. Inner Ear:

• f. There are membranes that separate the cochlear duct from the
bony compartments:

• Vestibular membrane separates the cochlear duct from the

scala vestibuli;

• Basilar membrane separates the cochlear duct from the scala

tympani;

• g. The mechanoreceptors responsible for the sense of hearing are

contained in the Organ of Corti = 16,000 hearing receptor cells
located on the basilar membrane.

• The receptor cells are called "hair cells";

• The hair cells are covered by the tectorial membrane which
lies over them like a roof.
Pathway of sound waves from outside to the Organ of Corti:

• 1. auricle

• 2. external auditory meatus

• 3. tympanic membrane

• 4. malleus

• 5. incus

• 6. stapes

• 7. oval window

• 8. perilymph of scala vestibuli

• 9. endolymph of cochlear duct

• 10. hair cells in Organ of Corti.

Once these mechanoreceptors are stimulated, a sensory impulse is triggered and

then travels on the

• 11. cochlear branch of vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) to the

• 12. thalamus for direction to the

• 13. primary auditory cortex (temporal lobes) of cerebrum for

interpretation.
 • VI. SENSE OF EQUILIBRIUM

• A. Static Equilibrium functions to sense the position of the head and help
us maintain posture while motionless.

• 1. The vestibule of the inner ear contains the two membranous

chambers responsible for static equilibrium.

• a. The utricle communicates with the semi-circular canals;

• b. The saccule communicates with the cochlear duct.

• c. Each of these chambers contains a macula = organ of static

equilibrium.

• The macula is composed of "hair cells" that are in contact with

a jelly-like fluid containing calcium carbonate crystals
(=otolith).

• When the head is moved, the gelatin sags due to gravity and the
hair cells bend.

• This triggers a sensory impulse which travels on the vestibular

branch of the VC nerve to the pons which directs the impulse
to the cerebellum for interpretation.

• B. Dynamic Equilibrium functions to prevent loss of balance during rapid

head or body movement.

• 1. The three semi-circular canals contain the organ responsible for

dynamic equilibrium.

a. Each semi-circular canal ends in an enlargement called the ampulla.

b. Each ampulla houses a sensory organ for dynamic equilibrium

called the crista ampullaris, which contains a patch of "hair
cells" in a mass of gelatin.

c. When the head is moved, the gelatin stays put due to inertia,
causing the hair cells to bend. This triggers a sensory impulse
which travels on the vestibular branch of the VC nerve to the
pons which directs the impulse to the cerebellum for
interpretation.

Chapter 20

List the endocrine glands and the hormones each produces.

Hypothalamus  Secretes: ADH, Oxytocin

 Pituitary Gland  Anterior Pituitary: ACTH, FSH,GH,LH,MSH,PRL,TSH

Pituitary Gland  Posterior Pituitary: Stores: ADH, Oxytocin

Pineal Gland  Melatonin

Thyroid Gland  Calcitonin, TH

Adrenal Gland Cortex: Corticosteroids  Mineralcorticoids: Aldosterone

Glucocorticoids: Cortisol

Adrenal Gland  Medulla: Epinephrine, Norepinephrine

Thymus  Thymosins, Thymopoietin

Kidney  Calcitriol, Renin, Erythropoietin

Pancreatic Islets  Glucagon, Insulin, Somatostatin, Pancreatic polypeptide

Testes  Testosterone

Ovaries  Estrogen, Progesterone

Heart  Atriopeptin

Describe how the hormones are classified based on chemical structure

o. a. Peptide Hormones
i. Produced by all except adrenal cortex, ovaries and
testes.
ii. Activate existing enzymes in cells, therefore relatively
rapid acting.
p. b. Steroid Hormones
i. Produced by adrenal cortex, ovaries or testes.
ii. Complex rings of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
iii. Trigger synthesis of new proteins, therefore slower
acting but more sustained effect.

Explain the basics of hormonal action, defining target cells

• Function along with the nervous system to coordinate and regulate body
activities.
• Compared to nervous system, endocrine system is slower due to diffusion of
hormone in bloodstream to organs.

q. Hormones travel in blood throughout bloodstream; organ that responds to presence

of hormone is target organ.
r. Target organ contains cells with specific receptors to hormone; receptors combine
with hormone in lock- and-key manner.

NEW MATERIAL  60 QUESTIONS WILL COME FROM THIS INFORMATION!

24: Lymphatic System:

Lymphatic System: involves several organs as well as systems of

lymphatic cells and lymph vessels located throughout the body. Together,
these structures transport fluids and help the body fight infection.

- Function of the Lymphatic System:

o Fluid that is pushed out into the interstitial space due to capillary blood
pressure. The LS Carries interstitial fluid back to the bloodstream,
transports dietary lipids

- Why are fluids lost from the bloodstream: At the arterial end of a
capillary bed, blood pressure forces fluid from the blood into the interstitial
spaces around cells. This fluid is called the interstitial fluid.

- Transporation of dietary lipids: Although most nutrients are absorbed directly

into the bloodstream, some larger materials such as lipids and lipid-soluble
vitamins are unable to enter the bloodstream directl from the GI tract. These
materials are transported via tiny lymph vessels called “lacteals”, which
eventually drain into larger lymph vessels and eventually into the
bloodstream.

o Lymph vessels that transports from the small intestine to the thoracic
duct

o Fig. 24. 2- Lymphatic Capillaries “Lacteals” small intestine contains

lacteals

 “Milky color due to lipids”

o Fig.24.1 Thoracic Duct: Largest lymphatic vessel. Receives lymph

from most regions of the body

o cisterna chyli- sac like feature that collects the fatty material from
the small intestine; stores in sac.. Transporation of fatty material to
small intestine.

- Lympathtic capillaries- unique? –dead end vessel; it doesn’t going anywhere;

another unique feature, endothelial cells overlap each other. Analogy is “go
back to the door and push the door open; “Pressure draws fluids fluid back
into the lymphatic vessels.

- Lymphatic Capillaries 

o Are closed-ended tubes that are interspersed among most blood

capillary networks. Is similar to a blood capillary in that its wall is an
 endothelium. Larger in diameter, lack a basement, and have
overlapping endothelial cells.

o These overlapping endothelial cells act as one-way flaps; when

interstitial fluid pressure rises, the margins of the cells push into the
lymphatic capillary, allowing interstitial fluid to enter. When the
pressure increases in the lymphatic capillary, the cell wall margin
pushes back into lace next to the adjacent endothelial cell. The fluid is
now “trapped” in the lymph capillary and cannot be released into the
interstitial fluid. Analogous to open/close door.

- Lympathetic vessels- Resemble small veins, in that both contain all three
tunics (intima, media, externa) and both have valves within the lumen

o Trunks: R and L trunks form from merging lymphatic vessels

o Ducts: Lymphatic trunks drain into the largest vessels, called lymphatic
ducts

o At the end of the line there 2 ducts(R and L Lymphatic Ducts); taking
up fluid from the left side of the body and taking fluid from right side
body.

 24.4- Thoracic duct; major duct; draining all the fluid from lime
green section body(left side of head/neck, left upper limb, left
thorax, and all body regions inferior to thorax; right lymphatic
duct is picking up the fluid: right side head/neck, right upper
limb, and right thorax.

- Houses and develops lymphocytes

o Lymphatic cells are located in the lymphatic system and cardiovascular

system. The work together to elict a immune response.

o Lymphocytes are the most abundant cells in the LS. There are 3
types of lymphocytes(T,B, and NK Lymphocytes).

 T-Lymphocytes: make up about 70-80% of body’s

lymphocytes: lymphocyte plasma contains a coreceptor that
recognizes a particular antigen.

• Helper T-lymphocytes: Needed to begin effective defense

against antigens. Initiate and oversee the immune
response
 • Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes: Come in direct contact with
infected or foreign cells and kill them

• Memory T-lymphocytes: Patrol the body, and if they

encounter the same antigen again, the mount an even
faster immune response than occurred at the first
exposure to the antigen.

• Suppressor T-lymphocytes: appear to “turn-off” the

immune response once it has been activated to help
regulate its performace

 B-Lymphocytes: make up about 15-30% of the lymphocytes in

the body. B-lympocytes contain antigen receptors that respond
to one particular antigen and stimulate the production of
antibodies that response to a particular antigen

• If activated  go on to become Plasma Cells, mature cells

that produce and secrete large amounts of antibodies.

• Memory B-lymphocytes: “remember” the initial antigen

attack and stand guard to mount a faster, more efficient
immune respose should the same antigen attack again.

o Fig. 24.7- T lymphocytes are produced by all blood but they mature in
the thymus gland; endocrine gland that is superior to the heart. T-
lymphocytes matures and circulate in the blood cell and reside in
lymph nodules and lymph nodes

 Fig. 24.8

• Lymphatic Nodules: Are oval clusters of lymphatic cells

with some extracellular connective tissue matrix that are
NOT surrounded by a tissue capsule. The pale center of a
lymphatic nodule is called germinal center; it contains
B-lymphocytes. T-lymphocytes are located outside of the
germinal center.

 Tonsils are large clusters of lymphatic cells and extracellular

connective tissue matrix that are not completely surrounded by
connective tissue capsule.

• Pharyngeal tonsils  nasopharynx

• Palantine tonsils  Oropharynx

• Lingula tonsils  Laryngopharynx

o Lymphatic organs- Consists of lymphatic cells within an extracellular

connective tissue matrix and is completely surrounded by a connective
tissue capsule. Main lymphatic organs are: Thymus, Lymph nodes, and
Spleen.

 Thymus: Is large in childhood, and diminishes in adulthood,

aging and immune system is going to bring a decline; Thymus
functions as a site for T-lymphocyte maturation and
differentiation

 Fig. 24.9 and 24.10

 Lymph nodes: filter antigens from lymph and initiate an

immune response when necessary

• Afferent Lymphatic Vessels: carry lymph to the lymph

node

• Efferent Lymphatic Vessels: Lymph exits the lymph

node by these vessels. Efferent LV originate at the
indented portion of the lymph node called the Hilum.

• Has valves

 Fig. 24.11 Spleen

 Largest lymphatic organ.

• left side of the greater curvature of the stomach

• White pulp: Associated with the arterial supply of the

spleen and consists of circular clusters of lymphatic cells

• As blood enters the spleen and flows through the central

arteries, the white pulp lymphatic cells monitor the blood
for foreign materials, bacterial, and other antigens.

• If antigens are found, T –B Lymphocytes elicit an immune

response

• Red Pulp: Associated with the venous supple of the

spleen, since blood that enters the spleen in the central
arteries travel through blood vessels in the red pulp.

o Splenic Cords: contain erythrocytes, platelets,

macrophages, and some plasma cells.

o Splenic Sinusoids: act like enlarged capillaries that

carry blood. Macrophages lining the lumen
phagocytize bacteria and foreign debris from
blood, and also phagocytize old defective
erythrocytes/platelets.
 • - lympathtic tissue; outer cortex, inner germinal center

o Outer cortex= t cells

o Germinal- B cells

Aging and Immune System

o The lymphatic system’s ability to provide immunity and fight disease

decreases as we get older.

o When an adult reaches adulthood, the thymus no longer matures and

differentiates T-lymphocytes. New T-lymphocytes can be produced
only by division(mitosis) of pre-existing lymphocytes.

o Helper T-lymphocytes do not respond to antigens as well and no not

always reproduce rapidly.

Chapter 25

Upper Respiratory Tract:

• Composed of the nose and nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharanyx, and
associated structures

• Nose: main conducting airway for inhaled air. Supported by nasal bones

o The internal surface of the nose leads to the nasal cavity.

o The nasal cavity is continuous with the nasopharynx via paired opening
called choanae

o The nasal cavity is lined with Psuedostratified ciliated columnar

epithelium

Fig. 25. 2

Paranasal Sinuses

• Air spaces, which together decrease skull bone weight.

o Frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal, and maxillary sinuses.

Nasopharynx

• Superiormost region of the pharynx.

• Nasopharynx is located directly posterior to the nasal cavity

• In the lateral walls of the nasopharynx, paired auditory tubes connect the
nasopharynx to the middle ear

Lower Respiratory Tract

Larynx: Also called the voice box.

 • Supported by 9 pieces of cartilage (3 individual pieces and 3 cartilage pairs)

o 3 Individual Pieces

 Thyroid

 Cricoid

 Epigottis

o 3 Paired Cartilage pieces

 Arytenoid

 Corniculate

 Cuneiform

Difference between true vocal/ false vocal cord

• True Vocal Cords

o Inferior ligaments called: Vocal ligaments, are covered by a mucous

membrane. These ligaments together with their mucosa are called the
vocal folds. These are the true vocal cords because they produce
sound when air passes between them

• False Vocal Cords

o Superior ligaments called: Vestibular ligaments, are covered by a

mucous membrane. These are called the vestibular folds. These are
the false vocal cords because they have no function in sound
production, but to protect vocal folds.

Trachea: Flexible, slightly rigid tubular organ. The anterior walls are supported by
the tracheal cartilages.

o The mucosa lining the trachea is pseudostratified ciliated columnar

epithelium

o The trachea bifurcates into two smaller tubes: R and L Primary Bronchi

o Each primary bronchus then branches into Secondary Bronchi

o They further divide into Tertiary Bronchi

o The Terminal Bronchioles are the final segment of the conducting pathway.
They give rise to:

o Respiratory bronchioles  alveolar ducts  alveoli: air sacs that

are surrounded by capillaries of the circulatory system.
 o Alveolar Wall: Contain two cell types

 Alveolar Type I (squamous alveorlar cell): Simple

squamous epithelial cell promotes rapid gas diffusion across the
alveolar wall.

 Alveolar Type II (septal cell): cuboidal shape, secrete

pulmonary surfactant

• Pulmonary Surfactant: Fluid that coats the inner

alveolar surface to reduce surface tension and prevent
the collapse of the alveoli

 Alveolar Macrophages (dust cells): may be either fixed or

free. Engluf any microorganisms or particulate material that has
reached the alveoli.

Lungs

o Primary organs of respiration.

o Wide, concave base which rests inferiorly upon the muscular diaphragm.

o Apex: blunt, projects superiorly to a point that is slightly superior and

posterior to the clavicle

o Costal Surface: relatively broad, rounded surface in contact with the

thoracic wall.

o Mediastinal Surface of the lung is directed medially, facing the

mediastinum and slightly concave in shape.

o Hilum: through which bronchi, pulmonary vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves
pass.

Right lung  3lobes

Left lung 2 lobes: because it has to accommodate heart.

Thoracic Cavity

o Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts, ribs are elevated and thoracic cavity

widens, inferior portion of sternum moves anteriorly.

o Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes, ribs are depressed and thoracic cavity

narrows, inferior portion of sternum moves posteriorly

o External Intercostal Muscles: cause the ribs to elevate upon

contraction of the external intercostals
 o Internal intercostals Muscles: lie @ right angles to the external
intercostals and deep to them. Contraction of the internal intercostals
depresses the ribs, but this only occurs during forced exhalation.
Normal exhalation requires no active muscular effort.

Primary Muscle in thoracic cavity  Diaphragm

Boyle’s Law: movement of gases into and out of the respiratory system follows
this law.

o “The pressure of a gas decreases if the volume of the container increases,

and vice versa.” Thus, when the volume of the thoracic cavity increases even
slightly during inhalation, the intrapulmonary pressure decreases slightly,
and air flows into the lungs through the conducting airways. Therefore, air
flows from a region of higher pressure(atmosphere) into a region of lower
pressure within the lungs.

“Fig 25.17- there are 2 areas w/in the brainstem- that regulate breathing rates;
strength the breath”

o The respiratory rhythmicity center in the medulla oblongata establishes the

rate and dept of breathing. Two distinct autonomic nuclei form this center.

o Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG): Inspiratory center that controls

inhalation

o Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG): expiratory center for forced

exhalation. Only functions during forced exhalation.

 DI: INSPIRE

 VE: EXPIRE

o Apneustic Center: Stimulates inspiration through the DRG

o Pneumotaxic Center: Inhibits both the activity of the DRG and that of
the apeneustic center.

 Ex: During vigorous exercise, when your repiratory rate must be

increased, respiratory gases must be exchanged more
frequently than when at rest. Thus, DRG, once stimulated, must
be inhibited fairly quickly, with the simultaneous activation of
the VRG, so that forced exhalation can occur and the next
inhalation can begin.

Chapter 26

Digestive System

o Includes the organs that ingest the food, transport the ingested material,
digest the material into smaller useable components, absorb necessary
 digested nutrients into the bloodstream, and expel the waste products from
the body.

o Digestive Organs

o Make up the GI tract

 Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and

large intestine

o Accessory Digestive Organs

o Not apart of the GI tract, but often develop as outgrowths from and are
connected to the tract

 Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas

o 6 Main Functions:

o Ingestion: introduction of solids and liquids materials into the oral

cavity

o Digestion: breakdown of large food items into smaller structures and

molecules

 Mechanical Digestion: physically breaks down ingested materials

into smaller

 Chemical Digestion: breaks down ingested material into smaller

molecules using enzymes.

o Propulsion: Movement of materials swallowed through the GI tract:

Peristalsis

o Secretion: Producing and releasing mucin or fluids such as acid, bile,

and digestive enzymes

o Absorbtion: passive/active movement of electrolytes, digestion

products, vitamins, and water across the GI tract epithelium

o Elimination of wastes: compacted into feces and eliminated by GI tract

by the process of: defecation

Toungue: Covered with stratified squamous epithelium

o Taste receptors  Papillae: small projections cover the superior surface of

tongue

Salivary Glands:

o Parotid: largest salivary gland

o Submandibular: Produce most of the saliva

 o Sublingual: contribute a very small amount of saliva

o Salivary amylase- digests carbs,

Teeth

o Collectively known as dentition

o 32 permanent teeth

Pharynx

o Common space used by both the respiratory and digestive systems.

Abdominal GI Organs

o Retroperitoneal Organs: typically lie directly against the posterior abdominal

wall, so only their anterolateral portions covered with peritoneum

o Only the Urinary Bladder’s fundus is covered by peritoneum

o Parietal Peritoneum: Portion of the serous membrane that lines the inside
surface of the bosy wall

o Visceral Peritoneum: Portion of the serous membrane that reflects to cover

the surface of internal organs.

o Peritoneal Cavity: between these two layers.

Layers are found within the digestive tract

o Four layers

o Mucosa: 3 components

 Superficial epithelium lining the lumen of the GI tract

 Underlying areolar connective tissue: Lamina propria

 Thin layer of smooth muscle: muscularis mucosae

o Submucosa: Composed of either areolar or dense irregular CT

o Muscularis: Contains 2 layers of smooth muscle

 Inner circular layer

 Outer longitudinal layer

o Advetniots (Serosa):

 Adventitia: composed of areolar CT

 Serosa: composed of areolar CT, but is covered by a visceral

peritoneum
Stomach: muscular, J shaped sac. Contains: Chyme

o Internally, the stomach lining is composed of numerous gastric folds: Rugae

 allow the stomach to expand greatly when it fills

o Stomach has 3 layers of Muscularis

o Longitudinal (outer)

o Circular(middle)

o Oblique (inner)

o Stomach pits are made up from: Simple Columnar Epithelium

o Mucous Neck Cells: Secretes acidic mucin

o Parietal Cell: secretes HCL acid

o Chief Cells: secretes pepsinogen

o Enteroendocrine cells: secretes gastrin

Small Intestine:

o Plicae Circulares: mucosal and submucosal tunics are thrown into these folds.

o Increase the surface area through which nutrients can be absorbed.

o Villi: Fingerlike projections of mucosa only. Further increase surface

area. Simple columnar epithelial cells

o Microvilli – further increase surface area

Cells found in the lumen of the espophagus

o Thick, nonkeratinized stratified squamous epitheleam

Liver

o Made up of hepatic lobules  Are the classic structural and functional units of
the liver

o At the center of each lobule is a central vein  drains blood from the lobule.
Merge throughout the liver to form numerous hepatic veins that eventually
dump into the IVC

Hepatic Portal vein- carries blood from the small intestine to the liver

GallBladder

o Attached to inferior surface of liver

 o Saclike organ: concentrates bile produced by the liver and stores this
concentrate until needed for digestion.

Pancreas

o Mixed gland: both endocrine/exocrine functions.

o Exocrine function: secretion of digestive enzymes, and bicarbonate=

digestive juices

o Retroperitoneal organ

o Acinar cells: simple cuboidal epithelial

Chapter 27:

Urinary System

o Storage of urine

o Excretion of urine

o Regulation of blood volume

o Regulation of erythrocyte production

Trace blood

Renal artery interlobar artery arcuate arteryinterlobular arteryafferent

arteriolesGlomerousefferent arterioles paratubular capillaries or vasa
rectaminterlobular vein Arcuate vein  interlobar vein  Renal Vein

Cortical nephron:

o 85% of nephrons

o Reside in cortex

o Nephron loops just barely penetrate the medulla

Juxtamedullary nephron:

o Long nephron loops extend deep into medulla

Renal Corpuscle

o Enlarged, bulbous region of a nephron

 o Composed of two structures:

o Glomerulus: thick tangle of capillaries

o Glomerulus capsule: Epithelial capsule surrounding the glomerulus

(Bowman’s Capsule)

 Visceral Layer of Glomerulus Capsule has:

• Podocytes: specialized cells which have long processes

called:

• Pedicels: Feet, that wrap around the glomerulus

capillaries to support capillary wall. They are separated
by:

• Filtration slits: which allow material from the blood plasma

to pass into capsular space.

• Collectively make up  Filtration membrane of the

glomerulus

What waste material has to be removed?

o Urea has to be removed

Proximal Convoluted Tubule

o The cells of the proximal convoluted tubule actively reabsorb almost all
nutrients, ions, and vitamins.

Nephron Loop

o Descending limb: extending from the cortex and into the medulla

o Ascending limb: returns back to the renal cortex

o Primary Function: facilitate reabsorption of water and solutes from the

tubular fluid.

o H20 and Na+ and Cl-

Distal Convoluted Tubule

o Primary function: secrete ions such as potassium K+ and hydrogen H+ into

the tubular fluid.

o Aldosterone is secreted here to increase Na+ and H20 reabsorption from

tubular fluid.

Trigone : Posteroinferior triangular area of urinary bladder wall. Formed by

imaginary lines connecting the two ureteral openings and the urethral opening.

Female Urethra;
 o 6 cm in female

o Only function: eliminate urine

Male Urethra:

o 19 cm in male

o Double function: eliminate urine and reproductive passage

Chapter 28:

Perineum

o diamond shape area pubic area

Principle gonad?

o ovaries

o Testes

Ovarian Follicles:

o Primordial follicle  consists of a primary oocyte: NOT capable of mitosis.

Cannot divide and make two oocytes

o Primary follicle  haploid. Secretes estrogen as it continues to mature

o Secondary follicle  Haploid. Forms from the primary follicle, contains a

primary oocyte

o Fluid filled sac called: Antrum surrounds the primary oocyte

o Vesicular follicle  Mature/Graafian follicle forms from the secondary

follicle. Contains a secondary oocyte

o Vesicular follicle ruptures  expels oocyte (ovulation). The remnants of the

follicle are yellowish, called the Corpus luteum: secretes the sex hormone
progesterone and estrogen. These hormones stimulate the continual lining of
the uterine lining and prepare the uterus for possible implantation of
fertilized oocyte.

o Corpus luteum breaks down, turns white, is then called the corpus albicans.
Will be reabsorbed.

Female child has all the potential eggs she will need at birth.

How many eggs cell happen during her lifetime? 400

Follicular Phase

o Occurs during days 1-13

 o FSH and LH stimulate primordial follicles to mature into primary follicles

Ovulation: occurs on day 14. Defined as the release of the secondary oocyte from
the vesicular follicle

Luteal Phase

o Occurs during days 15-28

o Remaining follicle cells in the ruptured vesicular follicle turn into corpus
luteum

o CL secretes progesterone and estrogen that stabilize the build up of the

uterine lining

o CL has a life span of 10-13 days if the secondary oocyte is fertilized

o After this time, CL regresses, its levels of progesterone and estrogen drop

o Uterine lining begins to shed  Menstruation

Ovarian cycle-28 days

28.15

The male reproductive system

The seminiferous tubules contain two types of cells:

o Sustentacular Cells: a group of non-dividing support cells. Help is sperm

development

o Population of dividing germ cells that continually produce sperm cells

beginning at puberty.

Spermatogenesis: process of sperm development that occurs within the

seminiferous tubules

o All sperm form from primordial germ(stem) cells called: Spermatoginia

o Spermatogonia: are DIPLOID cells (23 pairs of chromosomes = 46)

o Divide by mitosis

o Other cell is a “committed cell” called primary spermatocyte: diploid

and exact copy of spermatogonia

o Primary spermatocyte: undergo meisosis. The two cells produced from

this is called: Secondary spermatocytes: HAPLOID, only 23
chromosomes.

o Secondary spermatocytes complete meisos and form: Spermatids=

HAPLOID
 o Final state of spermiogenesis: newly formed spermatids differentiate to
become anatomically mature spermatozoa or sperm

Spermatagonium- can go through mitosis

Secondary spermacocyte- haploid