BIBLE FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE

10 M Oct 27: Joshua and Judges and 11 W Oct 29 Saul, Samuel, David, Salomon
Summary and Analysis
Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings traditionally known as Former Prophets, modernly called Deuteronomistic History
• Martin Noth 1943 argued that book of Deuteronomy constituted literary unit with the historical books
o Books of Kings condemn northern Israel frequently for continuing “sin of Jeroboam” its first king
 Erected places of worship at Bethel and Dan…presupposes Josiah’s prohibition of sacrificial
worship outside of Jerusalem
o Entire Deuteronomistic History argued to have been composed by one editor during the Babylonian exile
 Explain the disaster that befell Israel and Judah as divine punishment
o Positive view of the kingship reflected in the promise to David in 2 Samuel 7 and in Josiah’s reform
• Some considerations
o Put together no later than seventh century B.C.E.
o Several hundred years after the supposed time of the conquest and the judges
o FINAL version no earlier than the Babylonian exile, possibly later
o Clear ideological character
 Heavily influenced by Deuteronomic theology
• Pattern of reward and punishment in history
• Written from a Judean perspective
o Strong belief in divine election of Jerusalem and the Davidic line
o Unsympathetic to the kings of northern Israel
o Diversity of editorial perspective
 Passages with negative view of the monarchy
 Others more positive
 Most easily explained by supposing 2 different editions of same book
• Key Points marked by speeches
o Joshua in Joshua 1 marks the beginning of conquest; conclusion with speech in Josh 23
o Samuel’s speech in 1 Samuel 12…transition to time of the monarchy
o Solomon’s prayer 1 Kings 8 at the consecration of the temple…
• Narrative summaries
• BOOK OF JOSHUA
o How the Israelite tribes took possession of the land of Canaan west of the Jordan
o Early chapters
Lord tells Joshua he is giving him the land
• “from the wilderness and the Lebanon as far as the great river, the river Euphrates,”
essentially the land promised to Abraham in Genesis 15
 Josh did indeed overrun the entire country (Josh 10:40)
 More limited conquest
• Chapters 2-10 take place in a small area around Jericho, Shechem, and Jerusalem.
• Actual narratives appear quite spotty as compared with the sweeping claims in the
summaries
• long list of places from which the Canaanites were not driven out, including
o Taanach
o Megiddo
 Inconsistensies
• “the people of Judah fought against Jerusalem and took it,”
• 1:21 “the Benjaminites did not drive out the Jebusites who lived in Jerusalem”
• Jerusalem was captured only in the time of David
o Four models of the origin influential
 Immigration model
 Conquest model
 Revolt hypothesis
 Gradual evolution
Origin of Israel in Canaan
o Four models of the origin influential
 Immigration model
• Main cities in the plains
• Central highlands were sparsely inhabited in the second millennium
• Israelites first occupied the highlands and gradually extended their control to the plains
• Accept the biblical account insofar as they assume the Israelites came from outside the
land
 Conquest model
• If the cities of Canaan had been violently destroyed
o Should be evidence that could be found by archaeologists
o William Foxwell Albright
o Attempt to corroborate the biblical account backfired
 First phase of conquest took place in Transjordan
• cities have been excavated
o Shown to have been unoccupied in the Late Bronze
period
• 20 identifiable cities in the conquest
o Only two, Hazor and Bethel, have yielded
archaeological evidence of destruction at the
appropriate period
o Ironically Hazor still in Canaanite hands in Judges 4-
5
o Results not entirely negative
 Sites in central highlands Identified as Israelite by the fact that the
region is the stronghold of early Israel according to the biblical
account…clearly Israelite in later times
 Commemorative stele of Egyptian pharaoh Merneptah, erected at
1220 B.C.E. boasts of his victories in Canaan and that “Israel is laid
waste, his seed is not”
• Not clear here whether Israel is a people or place, but an entity
called Israel existed in Canaan in the late 13th century B.C.E.
 Material culture is essentially Canaanite
• “four-roomed courtyard house”
• “collar-rimmed jar”
• Absence of pig bones
 Villages not fortified
 Revolt hypothesis
• Tries to explain the origin of Israel as social upheaval
• George Mendenhall in 1962
• Amarna letters
o Found in Egypt in 1888
o Written in Akkadian on clay tablets by people in Canaan
o Akhenaten
 Religious revolution in Egypt by promoting the cult of the sun-god
Aten to the exclusion of other deities
 Aten heresy
o Letters frequently complain about groups who were causing turmoil and
challenging Egyptian authority
 Troublemakers called
• Habiru/Hapiru or ‘Apiru
• Refers to people who were on the margins of society, i.e.
mercenaries, slaves, or outlaws
 Labayu “gave Schechem to the Habiru”
o Date from a time more than a century before the usual date of the exodus
 Gradual evolution (Emergence)
 • Israelites originated as Canaanites and only gradually attained a distinctive identity
• Consensus on the subject at the beginning of the 21st century favors this view
• Emergence as a distinct entity is reflected in the settlement of the central highlands
o Migrated from the lowlands
o Do not know why
o Maybe oppression like the revolt model but also may have fled because of
instability of life in the lowlands due to invasion of the Sea Peoples (Philistines)
Account of the Conquest
• Gilgal and Jericho
o Ritualistic character of early stories
 Joshua tells the Israelites to sanctify themselves as they had before Sinai
 Joshua 5: Israelites circumcised before proceeding to attack Jericho
 Vision of “commander of the army of the Lord” 5:14
 Theological or ritual theory of warfare at the siege of Jericho in Joshua 6
• Moral Problem of the Conquest
o Joshua instructs the Israelites that “the city and all that is in it shall be devoted to the Lord for
destruction” 6:17
o Exception of the prostitute Rahab
o “they devoted to destruction by the edge of the sword all in the city, both men and women, young
and old, oxen, sheep, and donkeys” 6:21
o Dedication and destruction known as herem, or the ban
 custom known outside Israel.
• King Mesha of Moab, 9th century B.C.E. boasted that he took Nebo from Israel
in a similar fashion
 Story of the capture of Jericho almost certainly fictitious
• Slaughter of the Canaanites presented as a theologically correct ideal
 Savagery bound up with sacral character
• Victims are dedicated to the Lord
• Religious act like a sacrifice (Phinehas in Numbers 25)
 Josiah’s reform as an assertion of national identity
• Claim that Israelites had a right to invade Canaan because it was given to them
o Paradigm for colonial conquest
• Story of Ai
o Initial attack fails
 Assumed the reason is the displeasure of the Lord
 Achan violated the ban by taking things for himself
• Executed swiftly
• Deut 24:16 says that “parents shall not be put to death for their children, nor
shall children be put to death for their parents, only for their own crimes may
persons be put to death”
o Story presumably older than Deuteronomoic law
• Done traditionally in Israel
• Tribes
o 2nd half is the allotment of territory to the tribes
o Song of Deborah in Judges 5
 Commemorates a battle between Israelite tribes and Canaanite kings
• Ephraim, Benjamin, Manasseh, Zebulun, Issachar, and Naphtali all reported for
duty
• Transjordan tribes of Reuben and Gilead and the coastal tribes of Dan and Asher
did not
• Meroz cursed because inhabitants did not come to the aid of the Lord
 Obligation of mutual defense
• No sanctions against tribes that did not show up
• Bond between Judah and the northern tribes was weak, eventually led to
separation of the two kingdoms after Solomon’s death
 • Covenant at Shechem
o Ch 24
o Prominence of Shechem suggests tradition of covenant renewal there
 Judg 8:33 Israelites at one point worshiped Baal-berith
• Was a temple at Shechem
• Tradition of covenant ceremony might be Canaanite and older that cult of
YHWH
• Joshua 23
o Farewell speech of Joshua
 Concedes that Canaanites not wiped out and warns against intermarriage (23:12-13)
 Already found in Deuteronomy 7 with reference to 7 peoples
o Thrust of Deuteronomy to maintain distinct identity
 Threatened by intermarriage
 After the Babylonian exile
• Significant part of Jewish people lived outside the land of Israel and need for
boundaries became more urgent
• Distinctions between Ammonites and Edomites for instance lost significance
and all intermarriage was discouraged
Passages
• Lord tells Joshua he is giving him the land
o “from the wilderness and the Lebanon as far as the great river, the river Euphrates,” essentially the land
promised to Abraham in Genesis 15
• Inconsistency in conquest
o Judges 1:8 “the people of Judah fought against Jerusalem and took it,”
o 1:21 “the Benjaminites did not drive out the Jebusites who lived in Jerusalem”
• Moral Problem
o Joshua instructs the Israelites that “the city and all that is in it shall be devoted to the Lord for destruction”
6:17
o “they devoted to destruction by the edge of the sword all in the city, both men and women, young and old,
oxen, sheep, and donkeys” 6:21
• Death of Achan
o Deut 24:16 says that “parents shall not be put to death for their children, nor shall children be put to death
for their parents, only for their own crimes may persons be put to death”

Kugel:

Joshua’s similarities to Moses page 365

“Joshua was very much the same kind of
leader as Moses--in fact, strikingly so. Like Moses, Joshua sent out spies to
scout the land (chapter 2), and like Moses, he led the people On a miraculous
crossing, causing the waters of the Jordan River to stand still, "while all of
Israel crossed over on dry land" (Josh. 3:17). Later, Joshua encountered the
"captain of the LORD'S army" (above, chapter 7), who said to Joshua exactly
what God had said to Moses at the burning bush: "Take your shoes from off
your feet, for .the place that you are standing on is holy ground" (Exod. 3:5;
Josh. 5:15).

Rahab the Harlot

-Kugel describes her actions…Israelites had come to scout out the land, were discovered, and then pursued…Rahab takes
them to the roof
"I know that the LORD is giving you this land, and all of us are
afraid of you... For we have heard how the LORD [has helped you]...
The LORD your God is indeed God in heaven above and on earth below.
Now then, since I have dealt kindly with you, swear to me by the Lord that
You will deal kindly with my family in return. Pledge to me in good faith
that you will spare my father and mother, my brothers and sisters, and
everyone else who belongs to them, and save us from death." The men said
to her, "Our lives for yours! If you do not mention this business of ours,
then we will treat you kindly and faithfully when the LORD gives us the
land." Josh 2
-both Rabbinic and Christian interpreters held her in high esteem

• Kugel describes the Deuteronomic Historian in general (370)

o Tendency to equate worship at the high places with cause for ending a king’s career
o D’s characteristic ideology
 Radical devotion to Israel’s God
 Fervent opposition to anything smacking of “Canaanite” worship
 Evident concern for the downtrodden
o Deuteronomistic historian was a collector
 Could not have written every word
• Kathleen Kenyon and Sir Mortimer Wheeler
o Archaeologists at the walls of Jericho
No archaeological data, scholars
have subsequently concluded, can support the Idea that a walled town even existed at Jericho during this whole
period. Indeed, archaeologists say that
Jericho may have already been abandoned by the time this incident was said to take place; the site was not resettled
until the seventh century BCE, six
hundred years after the purported time of Joshua, in fact, not long before the
Babylonian exile. Then, once again, Jericho briefly became a fortified city. Perhaps it was this later reality, scholars
say, that inspired the picture of Jericho's mighty walls as reported in the Deuteronomistic history.

• Kugel talks of Israel’s origins

o El Amarna Letters
 1887 a group of clay tablets a little more than 100 miles south of Cairo, Egypt
 Many references to the ‘apiru
 Remember the connection with the Exodus narrative
o Kugel argues that there may have been a mini-exodus from Egypt
 Movements were minor
 Most of what was to become Israel’s population was most likely already there
 Archaeologist stress the similarity of items found at sties to Canaanite material culture
o Shifted focus to remains of smaller villages
 Sudden boost in population starting around 1200 BCE
 Terrace farming was a technological development that helped people migrate to the highlands
 Availability of iron tools
 Waterproof plaster to line cisterns allowed rainwater to be collected and preserved more
efficiently
o Disagreement
 Settlements did not bear any sign of earlier way of life
• No public buildings of any sort that existed in cities below them
• New pattern
o Family-based groups and deliberately simple, rude existence
o No Pork
 Israel Finkelstein
• Absence of pig bones in hilltop sties starting in the Iron I period and continuing into Iron
II
• Before that in the Bronze Age pig bones abound
• If correct, suggests the new hilltop residents were fundamentally different from
predecessors in highlands and city Canaanites
• Either a different ethnic group or because they adopted a different way of life
 Record indicates central highland settlements sprang up east to west
• Suggests Hilltop settlers came from outside Canaan
Book of Judges
• Folkloristic stories about local heroes who distinguished themselves
• “There was no king in Israel”
• Local color but no extrabiblical evidence
• Conflicts in different regions
Judges and History
• Summary of conquest in Judges 1, more accurate than sweeping conquest of Joshua
• Not without its problems
• Contradictory notices about Jerusalem (1:8, 21).
• Gaza, Ashkelon, Ekron all said to be conquered by Judah in 1:18
o Subsequently known as Philistine strongholds
• Taanach
o Apparently destroyed in the 13th century and replaced by village like those in central highlands
• Hazor
o Still in Canaanite hands in Judges 4-5
• Prominence of Philistines in the book of judges is appropriate to the period.
• Book depicts the land of Canaan in a state of transition from the city-states of the Bronze Age to the emerging
national entities of Israel, Philistia, Aram…etc
o Located in 1200-1000 B.C.E.

Deuteronomistic Introduction
• Death of Joshua in Ch 2
o Angel appears beforehand and warns them not to make a covenant with the peoples of the land
o “tear down their altars” cf Deut 12
o Worshipping Baal, Astarte, and other deities
o Anger of the Lord kindled against them
 Then moved to pity and raised up judge to deliver them
 Judge would die and Israelites would relapse, angering the Lord again
 Long term view that this pattern explained the great destructions of Israel and Judah at the hands
of the Assyrians and Babylonians
 Institution of monarchy as a way of providing permanent leadership
• Judges…primarily military leaders
o Not officeholders…chosen to deal with a crisis
o Not chosen for virtue
o Rule Israel even after crisis passed
o Normal times, called upon to judge cases
 Deborah under a palm tree
 Samuel, the last of the judges
 Neither was a warrior, a deviation
Early Judges
• Passed over quickly
o Othniel 3:9-11
o Enud with colorful exploits
o Deception in killing Sisera, Canaanite general in Judges 4
 Judges 4 the prose eq. of Song of Deborah
 Lord delivered Israel into King Jabin of Hazor
• Jabin the oppressor?
• Song in ch 5…different impression
o Israelites successfully plundering the caravan routes
o Not a liberation but rather a clash of competing economic interests
• Deborah warns Barak that campaign will not end in glory
o “for the Lord will give Sisera into the hand of a woman” Judg 4:9
Gideon and Abimelech
• Gideon more attention than any other judge except Samson
o Marauding Midianites
 o Also known as Jerubbaal, meaning “Baal will contend”
 At one time a Baal worshipper
o After defeat of Midianites collects precious metals from soldiers to build an idol
o Vengeance on Midianites and Israelites who refused to help
o Deuteronomic mold
 Exodus recalled 6:13 and tears down father’s altar of Baal 6:25-32
 Inconsistent with subsequent idol worship
o Gideon’s success -> first proposal of kingship
o “rule over us, you and your son and your grandson also” 8:22
 Whole of Israel, though only Manasseh and Ephraim involved directly
 Gideon declines
o Abimelech in Judges 9
 No reservations about claiming the kingship
 Clears his path by murdering his seventy brothers, except for youngest, Jotham
 Like Jephthah in Judges 11, of dishonorable birth.
• Son of a slave woman
 Not asked to assume leadership but pursues it murderously
 King of Shechem, not of Israel
• Canaanite city, with a temple to Baal-berit
 People soon tire of him, and civil war breaks out
 Abimelech razed the city and burned its tower
Jephthah 10:6-12:7
• As gripping as any story in the HB
• Operates in Gilead in Transjordan
• Adversaries are Ammonites
• Agrees to help on condition that he will become ruler if he succeeds
• Spirit of the Lord comes upon Jephthah 11:29 and he makes a vow to the Lord that
o “whoever comes out of the doors of my house to meet me, when I return victorious from the “Ammonites,
whall be the Lord’s, to be offered up by me as a burnt offering” 11:31
o Did not anticipate that the person would be his only daughter
Samson 13-16
• Hero from birth to a barren mother
• Set aside as a nazirite who must abstain from wine and strong drink and never cut his hair
• People with whom he interacts are the Philistines, who are emerging as a power concurrently with Israel
• Last great deed
o Pulls down the temple of Dagon on himself and his Philistine tormentors
o Judges 16:22
• At no point motivated by concern for Israel
• Not constrained by any moral code except honor and vengeance
• Light sprinkling of piety and never suggests Samson as a moral exemplar
• Tragic hero
o Fatal weakness despite strength
In those Days There was No King
• “ all the people did what was right in there own eyes” 17:6 and 21:25
• When there was no king the society tended to disintegrate
o Relocation of the tribe of Dan
o Conflict between Benjamin and the other tribes
• “tales of terror”

• Similar to Sodom story

• Men of Gibeah want to abuse the stranger: a Levite from Ephraim

• Host offers his virgin daughter and the concubine

 o No divine intervention

o Levite’s willingness

o No commentary

• All but 600 Benjaminite men are slaughtered

• Women treated as disposable commodities

First Samuel
• Various tensions and duplications in 1 Samuel

• Samuel disappears from the scene in chapters 4-6 and then reemerges in ch 7

• Ch 8 choice of a human king implies rejection of YHWH’s command

• Different accounts of the way Saul becomes king (10:17-27, ch 11)

• Two accounts of David into the service of Saul Ch 16 and 17

• Becomes Saul’s son in law twice in ch 18

• Defects to the Philistine king of Gath 2x in ch 21 and 27

• Twice refuses to take Saul’s life when he has the opportunity ch 24 and 27

• Passages recognized in the oracle against the house of Eli in 1 Sam 2:27-36 and 3:11-14

Birth and Call of Samuel

• Story of Samuel’s birth similar to that of Samson’s but more elaborate

• Mother Hannah was barren

• Dedicated son as a nazirite to the Lord

• Dedicated to service at the house of Lord at Shiloh

• Song of Hannah in 1 Samuel 2

o Hymn of praise

• Manner of Samuel’s birth links him with the judges

• Seer

o Can find things that are missing (ch 9)

• 1 Sam 19:20 appears as a conductor of a band of ecstatic prophets

• Anoints kings and also declares that some have been rejected by God

Ark Narrative
Deut 10:1-5 Moses
o Ark of wood as a receptacle for stone tablets of the covenant

• 1 Samuel 4-6

o No mere box
 o Symbol of the presence of the Lord

o Carried into battle to offset the superior force of the Philistines

o YHWH’s enemies not scattered before him…ark is captured

 Led directly to the death of Eli

o YHWH destroys the statue of Philistine god Dagon

 Philistines send back the ark

o Old charismatic religion of the judges not adequate for dealing with the Philistines

Move to Monarchy
• Samuel reappears 1 Sam 7:3

• People finally ask for a king

• People said to have rejected YHWH as king

• Two accounts of the election of Saul as first king.

o Quaint story about consulting the seer Samuel about lost donkeys

o 2nd account: chosen by lot

• Initially Saul acts like a judge, summoning tribes by sending pieces of oxen and being inspired by the spirit of the
Lord

• Accession completed by the apparent retirement of Samuel in ch 12

• Samuel reluctant to yield the reigns of power

Trials of Saul
• Samuel clashes with Saul in two incidents…ch 13 and 15

• Preparation for a battle against the Philistines

• Saul offers the sacrifice himself when Samuel is late

• Theological reading of the failure of Saul’s kingship

• Samuel represents an ethic of unconditional obedience

• Saul represents a moderate pragmatism

• Samuel’s rebuke to Saul has a prophetic ring to it:

o “Has the Lord as great delight in burnt offerings and in sacrifices as in obeying the voice of the Lord?” 1
Sam 15:22

• Engrossing story that illustrates a similar conflict in values Sam 13 and 15

o Philistines battle: Saul curses any man who tasted food before enemy defeated

o Son Jonathan unware and ate some honey

o Jonathan shrugs it off

 o Conflict between moderate pragmatism and ethic that attaches importance to oaths and vows on the other

o Saul declares Jonathan must die

o Troops intervene and rescue Jonathan from his father’s oath

Rise of David
• 2nd half of 1 Samuel and opening of 2nd Samuel

• Story of David’s rise to power

• 1 Sam 16:14- 2 Samuel 5

• Historical novel rather than the kind of chronicle of Kings

• Cannot be verified from nonbiblical sources

• Composed as an apology for King David

• Appeal lies in the ambiguity of its hero

• By no means flawless or innocent

Election of David
• More than one account of how David became king

• Anointed by Samuel (1 Sam 16:1-13)

• First Samuel 16:14-23 different account

o Picked out because of his skill as a musician

• Combat with Goliath in 1 Samuel 17

o Two stories here

o David triumphs by wit and agility over the huge but immobile Philistine

• Saul and David relationship

o Complicated by Jonathan…loved David as himself 18:1

o Possible homosexual relationship

o Also relationships with Saul’s daughters

 Marriage initiative from Michal

• Cursed with childlessness for disapproving of David dancing before the ark

• Defend David from allegations that he used Michal and dumped her when he no longer
need her

• Saul repeatedly tries to kill David out of jealousy

• David called upon to join the Philistines in battle against Israel

• Death of Saul

o Falls on his sword rather than be captured

 o No hint of disapproval of suicide

2nd Samuel
• Extensive source documents only lightly edited by Deuteronomist

• Key Deut passage is account of the promise to David in 2 Samuel 7

Conclusion of David’s Rise

• David goes to Hebron where he is anointed king by his own tribe Judah

• Not undisputed

o Ishbaal, son of Saul became king over the rest of Israel

o Ishbaal is murdered

 David disavows responsibility and executes the murderers

o Only living heir to house of Saul is the crippled son of Jonathan

 No threat to David

 Mephibosheth was his name

Promise to David

• 2nd Samuel 7 one of the key passages in the Hebrew Bible

• Hebrew word hekal…palace and temple

• Foundation charter of the Davidic dynasty

o Basis for messianic hope that Davidic kingship would be restored and last forever

• Nathan

o Prophet in David’s service

o “Go, do all that you have in mind, for the Lord is with you”

o YHWH insists he never wanted a house – 2nd oracle

o Rather, he will build David a house, in the dynastic sense

o Double sense of “house”

• Unlikely that the Duteronomists would have invented an unconditional promise that the kingdom would
last forever

• Bathsheba Affair

o Woman bathes where she can be seen

o Husband Uriah carries instruction for his own murder

 Outdone by own piety and respect for tradition

 Refuses to sleep with his wife while his companions are on a military campaign

 David has his general, Joab, set Uriah up to be killed in battle, then marries Bathsheba
 o Nathan enters the scene

o Courage of the prophet in confronting his king

 Soft approach of the parable

o Child of Bathsheba dies

 Misplaced punishment

 David escapes the consequences by well-timed repentance

 Bathsheba mother of David’s heir Solomon

• David and Absalom

o 2nd Samuel 13-20

 Incestuous rape of Tamar by her brother Amnon

 Absalom bides his time and eventually kills Amnon in revenge

• Rebels against his father and flees

• Reenters and goes to the concubines

• Follows advice of David’s counselor and goes into battle in person

• Caught in a tree by long hair

• David takes no pleasure in his death and laments loss of his son

o Sheba of Benjamin attempts to secede

 David acts decisively to put down the revolt

Solomon
• Solomon as the younger brother…odd that he should succeed

• Street smarts

• Solomon not greatly concerned with the laws of Moses

• More pressing concerns in the need to eliminate anyone who might present a threat to his kingship

• Wisdom of Solomon

• Temple

• Issue that sparked the revolt: oppressive practice of forced labor, corvee, introduced by Solomon

o Rehoboam advised to lighten the burden on the people

o Jeroboam had been charge of all the forced labor in the northern tribes

 Rebelled with the encouragement of prophet Ahijah

 Fled to Egypt

 Shechem as the first capital of the northern kingdom

  Promoted sacrifice outside Jerusalem

o Moabite Stone

 Conflict between Mesha, king of Moab, and Omri

Kugel
• Saul vs. David

o After Samuel’s rebuke of Saul over the Amalekite herem, Saul continues on as king

o David was a fixture in Saul’s court

o King became jealous of the younger man’s popularity, suspicious of his military prowess

o David scored military victories against the hated Philistines

 Common people sang of his feats

o If one strips away the nice stories of David’s lyre playing and his divinely inspired selection as Saul’s
successor, one is left with

o Scholars believe David was little more than a ruthless gang leader

• Saul’s Death

o King put on a disguise and went to consult a “witch of Endor”

• David Takes Over

o David grieves with a moving elegy, whose opening lines strike a note of simplicity and straight from the
shoulder emotion

o Chosen by popular acclaim to be King of Judah

o Historians skeptical about the whole narrative

 Saul dies in a battle with the Philistines that David is said to have nothing to do with, but he had
fought with them before

• For “some” reason, the Philistines ordered him to depart on the eve of battle 1 Samuel 29

• Was this just a cover?

 Somehow, both Saul’s son Ishboshet and military leader Abner, assassinated under circumstances
in which David had no role whatsoever.

 Bible’s massive cover-up

o Capture of Jerusalem

 David’s first move

 Jebusites no match

 Absorbed soldiers into his army

 Biggest advantage: location

 Perched between Judah and northern tribes

 • God’s Promise to David

o David’s temple is spurned when Nathan informs him the Lord intends to build him a house

• Bathsheba Affair

o David issues Uriah a furlough so that he might “get his wife pregnant”

 did not go home; thought it was a test

 results in Nathan’s parable

 David’s response

David repented, but the baby still died

• Theme of David the Penitent

Solomon’s Wisdom
• David’s son Amnon slated to succeed David on the throne

• Fell in love with Tamar, his half sister

• Absalom’s revenge two years later

o Sheep shearing contest when Amnon was very drunk

o Servants murdered him…Absalom flees to Geshur

• Rebellion

o Persuades David to allow his return

 o Forgiven 2 Sam. 14:33

o But Absalom’s good looks were legendary 2 Sm 14:25

 Excellent political position to succeed David

 Began to win allies 2 Sam 15:4 through condescending to the people’s level

 200 supporters

• Proclaims himself king

• David’s top advisor Ahitophel

• Dies in battle due to his hair

Penitent David

• Creative flair throughout the Book

• Other happenings

o Sheba’s revolt

o Abishag the Shunammite attempts to get the king warm

Adonijah plots to take over just like his brother

• Gets Bathsheba to “remind” him of the solemn oath David took promising that Solomon would be the next king

• Adonijah’s request for Abishag interpretted as a request for overthrowing the king?

Solomon’s dream
 In one night Solomon becomes the wisest of kings
• Wisdom supposedly allowed him to author three of the Bible’s books: Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of
Songs

Kugel 503
• Taxed his people nearly to death (1 Kings 12:4)

• Many wives and riches

• To modern scholars it appears that Solomon was a patron of wisdom rather than a wise man himself

12 W Nov 5: The Divided Monarchy; Tales of the Prophets and 13 F Nov 7: Amos and Hosea

12 W Nov 5: The Divided Monarchy; Tales of the Prophets

Readings:
Elijah
• 1 Kings 18: Elijah appears before Obadiah and commands him to tell Ahab that he will meet with him that day.
Ahab gathers the 450 prophets of Baal at Mount Carmel. Elijah proposes a test between God and Baal. Two bulls
were brought as sacrifices, and the prophets were to ask their respective deity to burn the sacrifice (supernatural
fire). Only Elijah’s bull burns, proving his God’s might over that of Baal’s. Elijah proceeded to kill all of the
prophets of Baal. “How long will you falter between two opinions? If the LORD is God, follow Him; but if Baal,
follow him”; “Then the fire of the LORD fell and consumed the burnt sacrifice, and the wood and the stones and the
dust, and it licked up the water that was in the trench. Now when all the people saw it, they fell on their faces; and
they said, "The LORD, He is God! The LORD, He is God!" And Elijah said to them, "Seize the prophets of Baal!
Do not let one of them escape!" So they seized them; and Elijah brought them down to the Brook Kishon and
executed them there.”
•
Elisha
• 2 Kings 2: Elisha follows Elijah to Bethel and then to Jericho, proving his loyalty. Elijah asks Elisha what he wants
from him before he leaves and Elisha asks for a “double portion” of Elijah’s spirit; in other words, Elisha wishes to
be Elijah’s successor. Elijah ascends to heaven in a fiery chariot with fiery horses. Elisha is left with Elijah’s mantle
and his earlier request is granted. Elisha purifies the water in the town by throwing salt in it and calling on the Lord.
He proceeds to Bethel where 42 children call him “baldhead.” He curses them, and two she-bears kill the children.
“…a fiery horse with fiery chariots suddenly appeared and separated one form the other; and Elijah went up to
heaven in the whirlwind.”
• 2 Kings 4: (i) A widow whose husband has died is now about to lose her two children to creditors to pay her debts.
Elisha tells the woman to borrow as many vessels as possible, and begin filling them with the oil she has in the
house. The oil continues to pour, filling many vessels. The woman then sells the oil to repay her debts. (ii) A
wealthy Shunammite woman provides Elisha with food and shelter whenever he passes by. She has no children, so
he blesses her with a son who eventually dies. Elisha brings the boy back to life. (iii) During a famine, Elisha has his
servants cook a stew for the prophets. Unknowingly, the servants add a poisonous gourd. Elisha throws flour in the
pot and the stew is no longer poisonous. (iv) A man came bringing 20 loaves of bread. With Elisha’s blessing, the
food feeds a hundred men with some left over.
The Northern Kingdom:
• 1 Kings 12: Jeroboam and the Israelites asked Rehoboam to lighten the harsh labor. Instead of taking the elders’
advice and reducing their load, Rehoboam increases the workload and Israel revolts against the king. Rehoboam is
about to wage fight, but God stops him. Jeroboam, now the leader of Israel, makes two golden calves to put in
Bethel and Dan for the people to worship. He stations priests as these places and creates festivals and holidays so
that the people will not go back to Rehoboam.
• 1 Kings 13.1-10: A man of God predicts that Josiah will be born to the House of David and slaughter the priests of
the calves. Jeroboam commands that the man be seized, but his arm locks. The king asks the man to pray to God so
 that he can withdraw his arm. The man does, and Jeroboam offers him food at his home. The man refuses and
leaves.
• 1 Kings 14: Jeroboam’s son Abijah falls sick, so the king tells his wife to disguise herself and go to the prophet
Ahijah, taking bread and honey. Ahijah tells her that the Lord is displeased with Jeroboam because God gave him so
much but he has not been faithful. Ahijah informs her that Jeroboam and Israel will be punished. His son dies.
Jeroboam reigns for 22 years and is succeeded by his son Nadab. Meanwhile, Rehoboam became king of Judah.
King Shishak of Egypt invaded and took the king’s treasures, including Solomon’s golden shields which Rehoboam
replaced with bronze ones. Rehoboam ruled for 17 years and was succeeded by his son Abijam.
• 1 Kings 21: King Ahab of Samaria asked Naboth for his vineyard so that the king could have a vegetable garden.
Naboth refused, so Jezebel forges a letter from the king to the elders, claiming that Naboth has “reviled God and
king” and has Naboth stoned to death. Ahab takes the vineyard. Elijah tells Ahab that God will punish him for his
deeds, but Ahab repents so God decides to postpone the punishment to his Ahab’s son’s generation.
• 2 Kings 14.23-29: Amaziah, son of King Joash of Judah, becomes king and reigns for 29 years. He was faithful to
God, but not like David. He defeated the Edomites and captured Sela. King Jehoash of Israel confronted king
Amaziah and defeated him. Jeroboam succeeded Jehoash. Azariah succeeded Amaziah after he is killed due to a
conspiracy in Jerusalem. Azariah rebuilt Elath and restored it to Judah.
• 2 Kings 17.1-23: King Hoshea was not a good king. He was a vassal of the king of Assyria, and was imprisoned for
treachery. The Assyrian king captured Samaria because the Israelites had sinned (worshipped other gods, built
shrines, offered sacrifices, etc.). The people who resettled Samaria did not know the customs of God, so the Lord
warned the king of Assyria. The king sent one of the priests to Samaria to teach the ways of God to the people.
Thus, the religion was established there.
• 2 Kings 18-23: Hezekiah becomes king. He was one of the best kings in terms of following the word of God. He
demolished shrines, kept the commandments, etc. He was a vassal of Assyria and rebelled against the king. Samaria
continued to switch hands from Assyria to Israel. The king of Assyria threatens to take over, but Isaiah tells
Hezekiah not to worry and that God will kill the Assyrian king. God then strikes down 185,000 of the Assyrian army
and the king is killed by his sons. Hezekiah falls sick, but is cured by God. Isaiah prophecies that all of the palace’s
treasures will be carried off to Babylon and Hezekiah’s sons will serve as eunuchs in the Babylonian king’s palace.
Hezekiah is succeeded by his son Manasseh. Manasseh was not a good king. He rebuilt shrines and worshipped
other gods. God warns the people and Manasseh, but they continue to sin. Manasseh is succeeded by Amon. He too
did not follow the Lord. His courtiers eventually kill him, making his son Josiah king. Josiah, like David, followed
God. One year, a scroll of God’s Teaching is found, and Josiah realizes that his ancestors did not follow the word of
God. Because Josiah is good, God says that he will not punish the people in Josiah’s lifetime. Josiah reads the text to
all the people of Judah and Jerusalem, and they enter into the covenant. Josiah proceeds to tear down the shrines to
Baal, burns the idols, and ends prostitution. However, God still banishes Judah and Jerusalem because of Manasseh.
Josiah is killed by Pharaoh Neco, and is succeeded by Jehoahaz and then Jehoiakim, neither of whom correctly
followed God.
• 2 Chronicles 33 (similar to 2 Kings 21): The differences between these two chapters: In the chronicles, Manasseh
eventually turns to God after being captured and released by the Assyrians. He rebuilds shrines to the Lord and
commands the people to follow God. He also builds a huge wall around the City of David.

13 Nov 7: Amos and Hosea

• Hosea 1-4: God tells Hosea that Israel will stray from God’s word, that He will punish the House of Jehu for their
deeds at Jezreel and put an end to monarchy and that He will not pardon the House of Israel but will accept the
House of Judah. God compares Israel to an adulterous wife. He describes her sins, how he will bring her back, and
how he will punish her. God will restore his relationship with and blessings on Israel. God then directs Hosea to
return to his wife Gomer even though she was unfaithful. This is a representation of how God will love Israel again.
Hosea buys Gomer out of prostitution. Hosea then contrasts the fallen state of Israel (no political leadership, spiritual
service or supernatural guidance) with the restored state (the result of turning to God once more). Hosea tells the
people of Israel that if they continue this way, truth and mercy will become things of the past and bloodshed and
destruction will come. Even the priests have apparently taken God’s blessings for granted. God vows to punish
them, especially for their idol worship. He proceeds to warn Judah not to follow Israel. “For you are not My people,
 and I will not be your God”; “You will call me ‘my husband’”; “There is not truth or mercy or knowledge of God in
the land.”
• Amos 1: Amos was a sheep-breeder who was called on by God. He was a prophet to Israel, and served in the times
of the divided monarchy (Jeroboam and the king of Judah) two years before the earthquake. He warns the people of
the coming Judgement on various areas: Damascus will be destroyed and captured by the Assyrians because Gilead
was destroyed , Gaza and Tyre will be destroyed and will disappear because they attacked the Israelites, Edom will
be destroyed for attacking Judah, and Ammon’s king will be captured for killing Israelite babies.
• Amos 4: Amos describes the indulgent women of Israel who oppressed the less fortunate and indulged in the pursuit
of pleasure, and informs them that Judgement day is coming. He describes how their sacrifices are now just for
show, their worship corrupted. God has punished them lightly thought drought and famine, but they have not
mended their ways so God vows to uphold his promise. “Prepare to meet your God” is seen as a challenge,
invitation, and summons.
• Amos 6: Israel has sinned by lusting for comfort and luxury. God compares them to their pagan neighbors, saying
that the Israelites are no better. God vows that this time of economic prosperity will end and that they will be
captured by the Assyrians. God hates the pride of Jacob and will send a nation to ruin them. “I will raise up a nation
against you, O House of Israel”
• Amos 7.10-17: Amaziah, priest of Jeroboam, tells the people that Amos is fooling them and trying to undermine
Jeroboam. Amos replies that he was a farmer and was called on by God to deliver His message, not the type to
conspire against the people. God vows to punish Amaziah, and Amos confirms Israel’s future captivity.

14 M Nov 10: Isaiah I and 15 W Nov 12: Jeremiah and Lamentations

Isaiah I Overview:
• Three distinct divisions:

1. First Isaiah (ch 1-39) – 8th century prophet

2. Second Isaiah (40-66) – anonymous 6th century prophet; edited in under Isaiah’s name

3. Third Isaiah (56-66) – aka “Trito-Isaiah”

• Isaiah I writes at the height of Assyrian power

• Organization:
o Very loosely structured

o The final edition was compiled after the Babylonian exile, and it was guided by thematic rather than
historical interests

o “Some chapters are grouped together because of either common subject matter or a common theme… but
the degree of intentionality should not be exaggerated” (Collins 165)

Themes/Motifs in Isaiah I:
Rejection of the Sacrificial Cult?
Isaiah 1 – The Lord says “What to me is the multitude of your sacrifices?... learn to do good, seek justice, rescue
the oppressed, defend the orphan, plead for the widow.”
Scholarly disagreement over the extent Isaiah rejects cultic practices. This is similar to the controversy in Amos,
where it is similarly unclear whether the prophet was rejecting cultic practices entirely or just not as a replacement
for social justice.
Collins: Isaiah categorically rejects the ritualistic aspects of Israelite religion . “The sacrificial cult is a distraction
from the real service of the Lord, which is to defend the orphan and plead for the widow.” (Collins 169)
Cohen: Isaiah simply condemns a misplaced emphasis of rituals over social justice. After all, Isaiah 1 also claims
prayers are rejected, but God wouldn’t want us to stop praying – just to stop thinking we can act badly and go
through the motions of religion.
Social Justice: is important for Isaiah (as it was for Amos)
Reluctant prophet and Anti-prophet
Isaiah 6 – Commissioning scene, where Isaiah sees God on his throne, confesses that he is a man of “unclean lips”
and is purified with a hot coal.
Implies “the human condition can only be purified by [a] painful and radical remedy” (Collins 166)
Like Amos, Moses, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, Isaiah gains his legitimacy from claiming to not want to be a prophet at
all. Rather, God is the one who anticipates his objections and requires his prophecy.
Anti-prophecy: The Lord demands that Isaiah “Make the mind of this people dull” and not let them understand the
prophecy of destruction – setting Judah up for punishment by not letting the people repent. Normally, the function of
prophecy is to allow people to avoid punishment, but Isaiah seems to suggest that at some point, you can’t repent
and doom is inevitable.
Criticism of the high and mighty (they do not put their faith in God)
Isaiah 10 – Assyria is God’s rod of anger, used to punish the haughty Israelites, but since the Assyrians don’t know
what they’re doing, they’ll get punished too.
“The theme of bringing down the proud is perhaps the most consistent theme that unites the various oracles in Isaiah
I.” (Collins, 170-1)
Isaiah also rejects other forms of human arrogance, namely the “wise men” advisors of the political world who do
not consult the Lord via the prophets.
The Ideal Davidic King
Isaiah 9 – Announces “For a child has been born to us,” given hyperbolic names (“Wonderful Counselor”) and
promises a new line of kingship.
The child’s identity is much debated. Similar to the mysterious child in Isaiah 7, and most likely refers to an
immediate heir to the throne (Hezekiah) or possibly Isaiah’s son. “In Christian tradition, this passage is read as a
messianic prophecy” (Collins 168). However, it seems that “The king in Isaiah 9 is not a messiah in the later sense
of the term” and his names are merely praises of God – not the child himself being divine (Collins 168).
Isaiah 11 – Another portrait of the ideal Davidic king where “A shoot shall come out from the stump” and that child
will take all the animals so they get along in peace.
This passage may be read as either an ideal, utopian future or an allegorical tale for Judah living peacefully among
vicious neighbors.
The universalism of harmony and peace is important here under the ideal Davidic king.
Important here is also the recurring Isaiah “remnant theme” in which destruction will befall all the Israelites, but a
remnant will remain. This suggests both massive destruction (seen as terrifying before Babylonian exile) and
recovery (seen as hope-inspiring after exile).

Kugel Reading on Isaiah I:

The phenomenon of “writing prophets” begins in the eighth century with Hosea, Amos, Isaiah, and Micah. Only Isaiah is a
major prophet among them (this was, of course, an accident of history, whereby Isaiah’s text could fill a whole
scroll itself but the “minor” prophets simply implied shorter length).
Isaiah’s commissioning scene as a prophet (Isaiah 6) is strange because there is no precedent of “impure lips” in the Bible. It
was also extremely important to ancient interpreters because it revealed the nature of heavenly bodies – namely, that
they were angelic “seraphim” who did God’s bidding (for Isaiah’s commissioning scene, they carried hot coals
around for purification). It was also important because the angelic choir sings “Holy, holy, holy,” which was later
explained in a variety of ways (namely that they were coordinating their song to God in perfect unison).
Isaiah’s commissioning scene is also important because “the seraphim in Isaiah’s vision seem to constitute something parallel
to the “divine council” known elsewhere in the ancient world” (Kugel 545). God, of course, was the greatest, but by
no means the only existing divine god. The prophet, then, was the council’s messenger who delivered their edicts
and judgments to the world.
The Syro-Ephraimite War was the result of rising Assyrian hegemony in the region from about 740 to 640 BCE. Assyria’s
army greatly outmatched anything Israel could muster. Judah (the lower kingdom) tried to keep a low profile and
stay independent, but Israel (in the north) was not so fortunate and was wiped off of history in 723-722 BCE. This
period saw “a flurry of prophetic activity” because “the turbulent political situation confronting the people of Israel
and Judah called forth these prophets” (Kugel 548). Judah’s King Ahaz had to make a difficult decision between
allying with weak northern allies and fighting Assyria or striking a deal with the Assyrians. Isaiah advised him to
simply trust in the Lord; Ahaz struck a deal with Assyria.
Immanuel was the name that Isaiah prophesied would be born. What he really meant was that if you imagine a young woman
getting married and having a baby, by the time that son is old enough to eat on his own, the royal glory of Judah will
be restored. Of course, there is ambiguity as to whether this was a hypothetical, who the woman was (if a definite
woman at all), if she was a virgin/married, and the role of the child. The same child promises to bring universal
harmony to all animals in Isaiah 11, indicating that Isaiah was discussing a new heir to the throne who would fix the
mess that happened under Ahaz’s rule.
Hezekiah (who arguably was the child Isaiah meant) came on the scene as Ahaz’s heir. In addition to implementing
Deuteronomistic reforms, he tried to rebel against the Assyrians when he thought they were weak. In response,
Sennacherib invaded Judah in 701 BCE. This is when Judah was almost crushed, but the Bible claims Hezekiah
prayed and the Assyrians left; he really paid a hefty tribute.

Jeremiah & Lamentations Overview:

• Jeremiah is heavily concerned with the Babylonian invasion and occupation of the Israelites. He is the son of a
priest, and his book was recorded by his assistant, a scribe named Baruch. No other biblical prophet “tells the reader
more about the prophet’s own life, including his inner religious life, than Jeremiah” (Kugel 582).

• His book contains three kinds of material:

o Poetic Oracles

o Narratives about Jeremiah

o Sermonic prose (very similar to Deuteronomistic style)

• Jeremiah’s call parallels that of Moses: he is a highly reluctant prophet; he does not have any kind of vision (as
Isaiah did); he is even called “a prophet like Moses.”

• Similarities to Deuteronomy: Jeremiah has a close connection to the D authorship source. He condemns worship of
Baal and other gods and condemns seeking political alliances with foreign nations (concerns of D; similar to Hosea).
He was also concerned with social justice.

• Distinctive style of “doom and gloom”: Jeremiah gives the impression that it is inevitable.

• Lamentations: traditionally ascribed to Jeremiah (but “The consensus of modern scholarship is that Jeremiah was no
the author” [Collins 183]). It contains confession of sin and acknowledgement that the Lord is right, plus great
expression of suffering.

Themes in Jeremiah:
Rejection of misplaced priorities
Jeremiah 7: The Temple Sermon – People are relying on the inviolability of the temple as God’s house, but they’re
wrong. He won’t protect it if people are ignoring social justice.
This point emphasizes Cohen’s argument in the debate: Jeremiah doesn’t reject the temple per se, but only the
misplaced priorities of people who incorrectly hide behind its protection. This passage also stresses the function of the
prophet as the one who warns (but paradoxically, you hope he’s wrong)
Attitude to Babylonian rule = Submission
Jeremiah 25: “King Nebuchadrezzar is my servant” and Israelites should submit to his yoke. He is the Babylonian
king who captures Jerusalem in 597 BCE and destroys it in 587/586 BCE.
Jeremiah advocates simply submitting to the Babylonians and giving in to their yoke. To emphasize his point, he
builds a yoke and wears it around town! Jeremiah actually claims it is against God’s will to fight the oppressors. Detractors
claim he was a traitor, but the editor didn’t portray him this way. This is a very important point for Judaism through history.
Just as Assyria was God’s rod in Isaiah, Babylon is God’s servant in Jeremiah. This extends the motif that God uses
other agents to punish the Israelites. The difference between the two is that Nebuchandrezzar is portrayed as a vassal of God;
still, they will only rule the Israelites 70 years.
This prophecy was unique among prophets and brought him into conflict with the professional prophets, whom he
criticized harshly.
A New Covenant
Jeremiah 31 – Promises a “new covenant” which shall be written on people’s “hearts” and hardwired into them.
God’s justice will then be foolproof and manifest.
The content of the covenant does not change here (same as the old covenants between God and Israelites) but the
form is new – it describes a new kind of spirituality and religiosity. This covenant will be unbreakable because it will be
internal to everyone. The passage is part of the Deuteronomistic sermonic prose.
This theme is centrally a hope for the future: in the future, Divine Justice will be obvious (it is mysterious and often
generational now) and you’ll pay for your own sins. But you won’t really have to worry because everyone will naturally
automatically observe it. This theme of generational guilt is endorsed and established by the Deuteronomistic editor (Kings,
Samuel), then said it will disappear in the future (Jeremiah) and finally rejected by Ezekiel.
Theme of Lamentations: We have sinned and God is right to punish us, BUT it sure does seem unfair to keep punishing
future generations for the guilt of ancestors.

16 M Nov 17: Ezekiel and 17 W Nov 19: Isaiah II and III

 EZEKIEL
 Zadokite priest in Jerusalem
 Part of Babylonian exile- writes in Babylon
 Priestly feature of dating- from 5th year of exile to 25th year of exile (Collins)
 Priestly concern with holiness/purity, recalling Leviticus (Ezek 22)
 Thematic arrangement (Collins, Kugel):
 Prophecies of destruction against Jerusalem (1-11; 12-24)
• Ezek 1
♦ Commissioning vision
♦ Movable chariot throne- God has left Jerusalem (Kugel)
♦ Allowed temple to be destroyed
♦ Indication of the psychological/ unusual/ mystical elements of Ezekiel (Collins)
• Ezek 6
♦ Land full of abominations
♦ Will be destroyed
♦ “then they shall know that I am the Lord”- a “proof saying” informing all that it is God’s word
• Ezek 16
♦ Metaphors of promiscuous woman- extended marriage metaphor
♦ “They shall bring a mob against you, and they shall stone you and cut you to pieces with their swords”
(Ezek 16:40)
♦ Death by stoning is punishment for adultery (Deut 22:23-4) (Collins)
♦ Downside to metaphor?
 Permitting violence against women?
 Misogynist?
♦ Just a metaphor for Jerusalem’s role in its marriage/covenant with God
 Prophecies against the nations (25-32)
• Primarily against Tyre, the Phoenician coastal city (Collins)
• Sense of envy in these words
• Use of mythic pattern or pride, or hubris, that leads to a fall (Collins)
♦ Recall Greek tragedy, Adam and Eve, Tower of Babel, etc.
 Prophecies of restoration (33-48)
• Ezek 33
♦ Addresses role of the prophet as watchman, a reoccurring theme
♦ Not responsible for fate of the people as long as he warns them- Ezekiel 33:6
• Not return to stats quo, but whole purification of Israel (Collins
♦ “I will sprinkle clean water upon you, and you shall be clean: I will cleanse you from all your
uncleanness and from all your fetishes” (Ezek 36:25)
• Ezek 37 (Collins)
♦ Valley of the dry bones
 Zoroastrian tradition?
 No Israelite tradition of resurrection of the dead
 Only metaphorically will there be a resurrection
 “Whole house of Israel” will be restored, not just individual
 Symbolic action of writing on the sticks= unification of Judah and Israel (37:15-28)
 Reunification under a Davidic king
 ISAIAH II and III
 Isaiah II- Chapters 40-55
 Written after Babylonian exile- Cyrus of Persia mentioned (Collins)
• Mentioned in Isaiah 44:28 and 45:1
 Changes to a tone of comfort and reconciliation (Kugel)
• “Comfort, oh comfort My people/ Says your God…” (Ezek 40:1)
 Striking sense of monotheism (Kugel)
• Isaiah 40:12-31
♦ Focus on God’s unique power
♦ The one true creator
♦ God not defeated by Babylonian Gods
 Idea of “servant of the Lord” (Kugel, Collins)- “Servant Songs”
• Ramifications for Christians later
• Isaiah 52:13-53:12
• Collective or Individual suffering?- Idea of atonement (Collins)
 Isaiah 54
• Jerusalem again portrayed as a barren and abandoned woman
• God remains the husband and protector
• There will be a reconciliation with God
• Jerusalem will be restored and secured by God
 Isaiah III- Chaptets 56-66
 Isa 56:1-8
• Divisions within post-exilic community (Collins)
• Acceptance of “foreigners and eunuchs”
• Observance of Torah is enough to make complete members
♦ Conversion?
• Collins proposes his strong argument that there were “us-them” divisions in post-exilic Israelite
community (p.204-5); Kugel is less convinced
 Isa 58
• True piety vs. false piety
• Rituals vs. ethics
• Attend to both
• Reward for piety is God’s return to Jerusalem (58:8-9)
 Isa 60
• Another description of the Jerusalem’s resurrection upon God’s return and better behavior among the
Israelites
• Sense of change of fortunes
♦ Light to dark
• Secure and prosperous city
• Apocalyptic quality to these radical reversal stories? (Collins)

18 M Dec 1: Post-exilic prophecy, Ezra and Nehemiah

Hebrew Bible Study Guide

18 M Dec 1: Post-exilic prophecy, Ezra and Nehemiah

Collins 209-228
• Haggai: prophesied in 520 BCE, some 18 years after the first exiles returned
o People wanted to devote resources to the community instead of their own personal needs and created an
important symbol of their own identity. Haggai agrees that it should be given highest importance.
o Lack of prosperity from poor harvest was due to the failure to rebuild the temple
o His prophecy not fulfilled: when the foundation did not bring about a change of fortune, it would come “in
a little while”
o Zerubbabel was God’s signet ring: he was the medium by which God’s authority was exercised. He was
expected to restore the kingship
 • Zechariah: set of 8 visions in chapters 1-6
o In Zech 3:1-10, Joshua the High priest is standing before the Lord and Satan is there to accuse him. This is
one of three cases in the Bible where a figure called Satan appears. Joshua was absolved of all guilt while
his accuser is rebuked in a heavenly trial. He is given access to the heavenly council, a privilege granted to
prophets.
o Zerubbabel is the “branch of David” that will be restored, predicted by Zechariah
o The restored cult will be supported by “two sons of oil,” Zerubbabel and Joshua. This is a reference to
being anointed. This implies a different kind of community structure from that of the pre-exilic monarchy.
In the new order, high priest and king share power.
o In Zechariah 6 the prophet mentions “crowns,” apparently for Zerubbabel and Joshua. In the end he is told
to crown Joshua alone  Zerubbabel erased from history from this point on
o End of book of Zechariah = end of Prophecy: it reveals that there will come a time when prophets will
refuse to acknowledge their call.
• Malachi gives a sharp critique of the priesthood in the Persian period
o He demands sacrifice be done properly (worthy offerings)
o He rejects divorce (perfectly acceptable in traditional Israelite religion, given that only men had the right).
He would have disagreed with Ezra, who forces divorce and therefore sends away Godly children.
o Epilogues to Malachi, which conclude the Minor Prophets, affirm the teaching of Moses and the hope for
the return of Elijah
• Ezra-Nehemiah: was originally one book. Sometimes thought to be by the same author of the Chronicles, but
probably not
o Ezra 1-6: the return of the exiles and the building of the temple, which is described on the basis of source
documents
 5:16- Sheshbazzar came & laid the foundations of the temple. He was the leader of the Judean
community in 539 BCE, and then disappears from history even though he was governor of Judah
and was succeeded by Zerubbabel
o Ezra 7-10 & Nehemiah 8-9: The Ezra memoir
 Ezra was a priest skilled in the Law of Moses who was sent by the Persian King. His law
corresponds substantially to the Torah, including both D and P
 Festivals in Neh. 8-9 do not correspond to Lev. 23 calendar
o Nehemiah 1:1-7:73, 11, 13: The Nehemiah memoir
o Major incident over intermarriage: Ezra forced divorce of foreign wives, even though no biblical law
requires it. He did not approve of the “mixing of the holy seed”  novel idea in Bible!
o Nehemiah was concerned with security of Jerusalem (rebuilding city walls) and justice, as well as Judean
Identity (tried to enforce Sabbath, language)
 He was a person of great integrity; long-lasting legacy

Kugel 645-650
• Cyrus, King of the Medes and the Persians, toppled the Babylonian Empire and issued a decree in 538 BCE
allowing the Judean exiles in Babylon to return to their home (still under his rule). Some returned home, some
stayed. Thus up until Alexander’s conquest, Judah and the Jews were ruled by the Persian Empire.
• This was a significant time for the Bible, as many books were edited.
• Life went on as before; rather corrupt govt. officials
• Books that reflect on Persian period: Ecclesiastes, Esther, Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi 
contradict each other at times
• In the 2nd wave of returning exiles was Zerubbabel, whom the new king Darius had chosen to be governor. He may
have been a descendant of David and a member of the royal family. Judeans hoped he would shake off the Persian
yoke and become king so Judah could be an independent power again. Unfortunately, this did not happen and he
disappears from the pages of history.
• Plans to rebuild the temple and refortify Jerusalem were eventually carried out, but not as quickly as people hoped
(Ezra)
• Nehemiah, an advisor to the Persian king, was dispatched to Judah as governor at roughly the same time as Ezra, a
priest and sage learned in the commandments of the Lord and his laws for Israel.
o Ezra is a significant religious figure. He denounced his fellow Jews for taking foreign wives. He is so
distraught that he “tore my clothes and my cloak and pulled out the hair of my head and beard and sat
 dismayed…I fell on my knees, spread out my hands to the Lord my God and said, O my God, I am too
ashamed and embarrassed to lift my face to you…” Ezra 9: 3-12
o Ezra quotes previous prophets, but the quote is a phony—it is a loose rewording of Pentateuch, Lev 18:24-
30, Deut. 7:3-4. A later editor must have put those words in Ezra’s mouth, so to speak!
 Scholars note that this conflation of a passage attributed to the P source with one from the Deut.
Source may indicate that the completed Pentateuch was now the authoritative source, the Torah.
• Book of Nehemiah records another important event, the public reading of the Torah (Neh. 8:1-8). People tell Ezra
to bring the book to a public square. Scholars are unsure of the historicity of this event.
o Reveals that people took the initiative to listen for 5-6, meaning the scripture must have already been
central in their lives.
o Ezra’s Public prayer, Neh. 9:6-23 reveals that scripture is not just a recitation of past events; it is a long
series of lessons. Each event demonstrates some important truth.
• We are now in the world of scripture: the writings of the past are full of lessons for the present, and actual
interpreters will tell you what they are and what you should do.

Zechariah 3-4
• Zechariah’s 4th vision: high priest Joshua is purified after Satan’s accusation; he’s given clean clothes and told to
walk in His path.
o “He further showed me Joshua, the high priest, standing before the angel of the Lord, and the Accuser
standing at his right to accuse him. But the angel of the Lord said to the Accuser ‘The Lord rebuke you’”
Zech. 3: 1-2.
• The 5 vision: the lampstand and the olive trees. The two anointed dignitaries = the “sons of oil” = Zerubbabel and
th

Joshua.
o “’And what,’ I asked him, ‘are those two olive trees, one on the right and one on the left of the lampstand?’
And I further asked him, ‘What are the two tops of the olive trees that feed their gold through those golden
tubes?’ He asked me, ‘Don’t you know what they are?’ And I replied, ‘No, my lord.’ Then he explained,
“They are the two anointed dignitaries who attend the Lord of all the earth’” Zech 4: 11-14.

Malachi 2:10-16
• Do not divorce!
o “Did not the One make all, so that all remaining life-breath is His? And what does that One seek but godly
folk? So be careful with your life-breath, and let no one break faith with the wife of his youth. For I detest
divorce—said the Lord, the God of Israel…” Mal. 2:15-16

Ezra 9-10
• The Holy Seed has become intermingled with outsiders. Ezra is absolutely horrified. He insists that intermarriage is
prohibited, and if already married to an outsider, he must divorce her and expel any children. These laws are not
explicitly stated elsewhere. The community accepts his legal action.
o “Now, what can we say in the face of this, O our God, for we have forsaken Your commandments, which
You gave us through Your servants the prophets when you said, ‘The land you are about to possess is a
land unclean through the uncleanness of the peoples of the land, through their abhorrent practices with
which they, in their impurity, have filled it from one end to the other. Now then, do not give your daughters
in marriage to their songs or let their daughters marry their sons…” Ezra 9: 10-12.

Deuteronomy 7:1-6 and 23:1-9

• You shall not intermarry.
o “When the Lord your God brings you to the land that you are about to enter and possess, and He dislodges
many nations before you…you must doom them to destruction…. You shall not intermarry with them”
Deut. 7: 1-3.
• More laws about intermarriage and relations with other nations.
o “No Ammonite or Moabite shall be admitted into the congregation of the Lord; none of their descendants,
even in the tenth generation, shall ever be admitted into the congregation of the Lord…” Deut. 23: 1-9.

1 Kings 11:1-10
• King Solomon keeps a harem of foreign women, which displeases the Lord; Solomon broke the covenant and will
be punished.
 o “King Solomon loved many foreign women in addition to Pharaoh’s daughter…from the nations of which
the Lord had said to the Israelites, ‘None of you shall join them and none of them shall join you, lest they
turn your heart away to follow their gods.’” 1 Kgs. 11:1-2.

Nehemiah 8
• Ezra publicly reads the Teaching of Moses, similar to the Feast of Booths. The day is holy to the Lord.
o “When the seventh month arrived—the Israelites being settled in their towns—the entire people assembled
as one man in the square before the Water Gate, and they asked Ezra the scribe to bring the scroll of the
Teaching of Moses with which the Lord had charged Israel…. the ears of all people were given the scroll of
the teaching” Neh. 8:1-3.

Deuteronomy 31:7-13
• The institution of a covenant ceremony, during which the law will be read publicly and taught to the assembled
nation.
o “And Moses instructed them as follows: Every seventh year, the year set for remission, at the Feast of
Booths, when all Israel comes to appear before the Lord your God in the place that He will choose, you
shall read this teaching aloud in the presence of Israel.” Deut. 10-11.

Leviticus 23:33-44
• The Feast of Booths for seven days is a sacred occasion for celebration.
o “Those are the set times of the Lord that you shall celebrate as sacred occasions, bringing offerings by fire
to the Lord—burnt offerings, meal offerings, sacrifices, and libations, on each day what is proper to it—
apart from the sabbaths of the Lord…mark, on the fifteenth day of the seventh month, when you have
gathered in the yield of your land, you shall observe the festival of the Lord to last seven days…” Lev. 23:
37-39.

19 W Dec 3: Psalms

12.3 PSALMS

JSB Readings: [Psalm of Individual Lament: 3, 51; Communal Lament: 74, 79, 137; Trust: 23, 91; Thanksgiving: 145,
146; Divine Kingship: 97; Human Kingship: 2, 110; Pilgrimage 24,122]
Collins: 236-244; Kugel: 458-473
Relevant passages and lecture notes in italics.

Introduction to Psalms (JSB)

• Poetic prayers, numbering 150, in 5 books.
• Regarded as a prophetic book.
• Tradition: Psalms are written by David. Modern view: Psalms range in date from early (pre-Davidic? Psalm 29
with its numerous Ugaritic echoes) to exilic (Psalm 137;) to late (Hellenistic? Psalm 119 and others).
• All psalms have similar style, vocabulary and forms of expression.
o Themes: Creation, promise to Abraham of land/progeny, exodus, exile, Davidic monarchy, centrality of
Jerusalem, Zion, and the Temple, kingship of God, character of God (expected to answer prayer),
references to dwelling in the house of the Lord.
o Borrows mythological motifs from ANE (God defeating Israel’s enemies, conquest of primeval waters).
o Synonymous parallelism: both parts of the verse say the same thing (ex. 1:1 those who do not follow the
advice of the wicked, or take the path that sinners tread, or sit in the seat of scoffers)
o Several psalms are acrostics: each verse begins with a different letter of the alphabet (9, 10, 25, 34, 37, 111,
112, 119, 145).
o Use of metaphor and figurative language when speaking about God.
• Form-critical scholarship tentatively assigns a genre to each psalm; three main categories: Hymns of praise (most
common), complaints/pleas for help (laments), thanksgiving psalms. Other subcategories: wisdom psalms, royal
psalms. Collins’ categories: Hymns or songs of praise (Hallelujah!), Psalms of YHWH’s enthronement, individual
and communal complaints, individual and communal thanksgivings, royal psalms, wisdom psalms (give the Psalter a
didactic character).
• According to Psalms, main religious function of human beings is to praise God.
• Assumes potential efficacy of prayer.
 • In P priests and worshippers are silent; the Psalter gives us texts to be recited; wide variety of texts with formulaic
non-specific language can be used by a wide variety of worshippers in a wide variety of circumstances.

Psalms of Individual Lament

[3] Description of troubles (2-3), contrast between enemies and God (4-7). Motif of confidence in God (6-7)
[51]
Author expresses extreme sense of guilt. Idea of sin from birth (7) is rare in the Bible (Christians developed the idea of
original sin.” (17-19) Idea the prayer is more effective than sacrifice (opposite of priestly tradition).
1
Have mercy upon me, O God, according to thy lovingkindness: according unto the multitude of thy tender mercies
blot out my transgressions. 2Wash me throughly from mine iniquity, and cleanse me from my sin. 3For I
acknowledge my transgressions: and my sin is ever before me… 15O Lord, open thou my lips; and my mouth shall
shew forth thy praise.
16
For thou desirest not sacrifice; else would I give it [JSB: You do not want me to bring sacrifices]: thou delightest
not in burnt offering. 17The sacrifices of God are a broken spirit: a broken and a contrite heart, O God, thou wilt not
despise. 18Do good in thy good pleasure unto Zion: build thou the walls of Jerusalem. 19Then shalt thou be pleased
with the sacrifices of righteousness, with burnt offering and whole burnt offering: then shall they offer bullocks
upon thine altar.

Psalms of Communal Lament

[74]
Exilic lament for destruction of Jerusalem; asks God to end exile and vanquish Babylon.
(1-2) Recalls earlier, special relationship between God and Israel.
(12-17) examples of God’s power.
(20) Covenant is still in force, implication that God must protect Israel.
[79]
Exilic lament for destruction of Jerusalem. Views destruction as an affront to God, calls on God to restore His name.
Motif: scorn upon defeated Judah (4).
(8-9) Admission of Israel’s sins.
(12) Request for sevenfold retribution (this is common).
[137]
Lament for Jerusalem. Main theme: remembering Zion. More thoughts of retribution (8-9).

Psalms on Trust
[23]
God, the divine shepherd (common metaphor) leads his people to safety. May be a post-exilic portrait of a new exodus, from
the exile to return to Israel. Overwhelming sense of trust in God, of God’s reality and presence, not only in the temple but
also in the life of the Psalmist.
Psalm 23: 1The Lord is my shepherd; I shall not want.
2
He maketh me to lie down in green pastures: he leadeth me beside the still waters.
3
He restoreth my soul: he leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for his names sake.
4
Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil: for thou art with me; thy rod and
thy staff they comfort me.
5
Thou preparest a table before me in the presence of mine enemies: thou anointest my head with oil; my cup runneth
over.
6
Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life: and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever.

[91]
Speaker encourages audience to trust God so that no harm will befall them; God responds and reinforces the speaker’s words.
Theme of protection, shelter.

Psalms of Thanksgiving
[145]
Focus: praise for the kingship of God. (1) “I will extol You, my God and king…” Ends with destruction of the wicked
(common them).
[146]
Praise of God as creator and redeemer.
(10) Eternal kingship of God. “The Lord shall reign forever, you God, O Zion, for all generations. Hallelujah.”

Psalms on Divine Kingship

[97]
“The Lord is King!”
Emphasis on God’s justice and power, depicts a utopian world.
Theme: call to rejoice. Joy, not fear, is the proper reaction to God’s power, for those that are righteous.

Psalms on Human Kingship

[2]
Relationship between God and king is depicted as being very close; an attack against the Lord equals an attack against the
anointed. The anointed is depicted as a representative of God on Earth.
(6) Reference to “Zion, my holy mountain!” Close connection between Psalter and the temple; numerous references to Zion,
Jerusalem, the Mountain of the Lord.
(7) “you are my son” – adoption language from ANE.
[110]
Christian interpretation: reference to Jesus.
(1) “Sit at My right hand…”; King is close to God, at the position of privilege, part of the divine council.
(5) “The Lord is at your right hand.” – idea that God is king’s weapon.

Psalms on Pilgrimage
[24]
(1) Taming of primeval waters (ANE theme).
(2) Temple worship as a representation of obedience to God. Close connection between Psalter and the Temple.
(7-10) “Gates lift up their heads” – God is like a victorious king returning home to his palace.
[122]
Pilgrim’s ode to Jerusalem. Clearly describes the ritual of ascending to Jerusalem.

20 M Dec 8: Wisdom Literature: Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes (Qoheleth)

Bible Reading Guide

Proverbs
1-3: prologue attributes this to King Solomon, purpose of book is to give basic virtues of wisdom, and ethical behavior and
enable wise man to increase wisdom and hone skills; first needs fear of God for wisdom to grow, first one is that songs
should listen to parents and first should avoid gangs, then Lady Wisdom chastises the foolish, and then states the path to
wisdom: if you attend to the father’s words and seek for wisdom diligently, you will, with God’s help gain true wisdom and
piety; Lecture 3 is wisdom of piety and about how it is important to retain the commandments and praises wisdom and also
wisdom of honesty

7-9: This talks about bearing the seductress or any forbidden or strange woman by telling about how a woman lures a young
man in the dark street to her house for a night of sex; then there’s another bit of wisdom praising herself about how it should
be pursued and embraced about it’s call for people to study wisdom; and then goes to the two banquets of Wisdom and Folly
and how Life offers two feats, one is rich yet prudent and other is enticing but poisoness

30-31: In the appendences, number of miscellaneous poems and epigrams, first is about Agur about a foreign sage, with
overriding importance of piety, which does not require wisdom to possess; and don’t be like corrupted men who have
contempt of parents, self-righteousness, arrogance or rapaciousness and then there are some sayings with numbers and lists
some small but clever creatures all who exemplify wisdom over size and strength, such as ants, badgers, locusts and lizards
and finally to avoid strife; 31 is about woman of strength, this is one that describes a wise woman, praises her energy,
economic talents and personal virtues, and becomes ideal, paragon of female virtues, including capable wife, one with valor,
independence, and fear of God

Ecclesiastes
1: Everything is Futile; everyone dies and everything stays the same, introduces Koheleth as King in Jerusalem, he studies
with wisdom, which he says is an unhappy business He’s become richer and wiser than any that ruled before, so he this has
only brought him with more pain and vexation with more wisdom

3: poem with a lot of polarities, with different kinds of human activity arranged in pairs, either constructive-destructive or
reverse; he proceeds to comment that life is an endless circle of actions, but this is not to deny God’s control of everything
because God puts eternity into human minds, and by exploring God’s control, he says nothing can be added or taken away
from God; Koheleth mentions God will doom both righteous and wicked, everyone dies and go to same plce, return to dust,
best thing for humans is to enjoy what they have in lifetimes

12: he talks about the terrors of old age, days of sorrow, uses imagery about human death about funeral mourning, breaking
of pitcher used to raise water from well, return to dust, then there are editorial reflections in 3rd person: Koheleth was a sage,
instructed people, listened to, tested people, he tried to discover useful sayings and record truthful sayings, and a final word
that reason for this instruction is that God will bring every action into judgment whether for good or for bad and thus you
should revere God and observe commandments because it applies to everyone

Job
1-3: Biography of Job, he was righteous, feared God, shunned evil, had lots of children, animals and rich, he always made
burnt offerings, then the Adversary comes and God says Job is an excellent servant, and they strike deal for Adversary to try
to make Job blaspheme God; all his sons die and he lost the animals, but Job didn’t sin. Adversary then gives him an
inflammation and even wife and friends test his integrity, but he remains good and talks about his lament, but instead sees
death as a release from suffering

28: This is a hymn of wisdom, but actually is about how difficult to acquire wisdom, praises of fearing God and shunning
evil, praises of virtues that merit God giving knowledge to Joseph, Solomon, Job and Daniel, surpass normal wise people,
and wisdom is more precious than gold, but cannot be found in physical world, death does not know where it is, thus only
God knows the source so “Fear of God is wisdom; // to shun evil is understanding”

38-42: Go makes some species to Job and says that Job wasn’t at beginning of time so has no right to demand explanation,
message of book might be people should be righteous even in face of injustice, God puts Job in place and awe him with
God’s might, with all that God has created and then Job replies in 40 and saying that he does not want to respond so God
continues about his creations and deeds, and finally Job says that he knows that God can do everything and before he didn’t
understand, but now he does; in the epilogue, God restores Job’s fortunes and gave him twice as much as before and blessed
the years of his life more than his former and Job died old and contented

KUGEL

pps. 506 – 514

Wisdom in the Ancient Near East
“wisdom” in English – used for the most part to describe a quality of mind.
“wisdom” in Hebrew – referred to things known, knowledge.
Solomon was the wisest of man because he knew a huge number of proverbs and could speak about animals, etc..
In the ancient world, knowledge was fixed and unchanging. Wisdom meant knowing both the rules that governed
the natural world and the rules that governed the way people behaved as well as the way God treated them in consequence.
mashal (“prove”) – the two-part wisdom sentence, a form in which it could travel.
The Book of Proverbs
biblical book of Proverbs – the first three books that Solomon is said to have writeen.
The book refers to Solomon as the author in 1:1; 10:1; 25:1. However, modern scholars say Proverbs is a collection
of smaller collections. This fact does not, of course, prove that Solomon did not write one or all of them. To be a sage was
to know, not to compose. Wisdom’s true author was God or other gods; after all, the “ways of the world” that were wisdom’s
bailiwick had been divinely established at the beginning of time and then merely discovered by different human beings.
Orthodox Wisdom
The world of wisdom was not consisted mostly of observed truths; it was highly ideological. All sages believed in
the existence of an underlying body of rules that determined reality. Thus, justice must always prevail in the end: the
righteous must always be rewarded and the wicked must always be punished.
The consistent divisions of humanity into two opposite categories: the wicked versus the righteous or the foolish
versus the wise. The middle ground is never mentioned in orthodox wisdom.
The Book of Ecclesiastes
The speaker of the book of Ecclesiastes is has learned in the ways of wisdom, but he appears too down-to-earth to
buy into some of the wisdom’s lofty idealism; he sees only futility. Modern critics are skeptical about whether Solomon
wrote the book of Ecclesiastes because of the use of loan word and the dialect in which it is written are markedly different
from the classical Hebrew of earlier times. The author of Ecclesiastes tells us his name: Koheleth; he would more likely be
described as a governor. If the mention of “Koheleth son of David” took on a different look and the author is indeed the son
of David, that could only mean that he was literally King Solomon.
pps. 636 – 642
Job and Postexilic Wisdom
It was in the period after the return from Babylonian exile that the wisdom ideology truly began to emerge as a
dominant stream in biblical texts. Suddenly they were merely one very small people in a world of mighty nations. It is easy
to see how, under such circumstance, the wisdom outlook might exercise a certain appeal: universalist in character, it posited
a great set of immutable rules underlying all of reality, whether that reality was west of the Jordan or east of the Euphrates.
Crucial as well were wisdom’s views on the subject of reward and punishment. Wisdom’s advocates posited an
utterly just world, in which the righteous were ultimately rewarded and the wicked punished even though divine justice often
took years to work itself out.
Patience, an idea related to suffering, was also an important element. The way of wisdom was thus one of waiting
for God’s inevitable justice to work itself out.
Job’s Protest
hebel – elusive, baffling.
The book of Job adopts a similar stance to the book of Ecclesiastes regarding wisdom; it is profoundly divided on
the subject.
Refusing to Be Comforted
The ritual of mourning called for sufferers to reject all comforting efforts for a while and remain plunged in grief.
In Job’s cases, however, the people who came to perform this ritual are not members but fellow sages. Job, who in “refusing
to be comforted,” ultimately calls into question the most hallowed doctrines of the wisdom outlook. Finally, God Himself
intervenes and says: “Job, you don’t begin to understand. You have no real idea of the great rules and underlying existence.”
Job crumbles and says: “I am too small to give answer. I cover my mouth with my hands.”
The writer could not quite make his peace with what the “sages of the East” said about suffering. He says suffering
seems to be utterly undeserved and unjustifiable; we accomplish nothing by pretending that is it otherwise. However, human
knowledge is limited; we were not there when God was setting up the rules of your game.
Some claimed the basis of the book of Job’s language is of non-Israelite origin, but there is little in the book itself to
support such a view. So no one knows for sure when the book of Job was written. The book was Job was a problem in
another matter. Is he good or bad? For Christians, on the other hand, the matter was rather simple. In the New Testament,
Job’s standard epithet in Western Christianity became “the blessed Job”. And he could thus join other Old Testament figures
as a typological foreshadowing of Jesus.

COLLINS

Intro:
Proverbs different from Torah, Prophets, historical books: no reference to Israel / history; only collection of sayings and
instruction; wisdom literature
wisdom literature: proverbs, Qoheleth, Job, some Psalms

Wisdom and Solomon:

Solomon was traditional patron of wisdom, but no one now believes he wrote it
this literature probably associated with royal court in some way, maybe with Solomon

Origins of Wisdom Literature:

Proverbs put together in postexilic period
genre of wisdom instruction in other cultures, like that of Egypt

Composition of Proverbs:
7 collections based on supposed authorship

Nature of Proverbial Wisdom

observational sayings, propositional statements, use of analogy
Cause and Effect
pragmatic ethical teaching
moments of idealism
tension between pragmatic wisdom versus moralizing tendency
no miraculous role of Deity; God merely sees that nature takes its course

Proverbs 1-9:
reflect on nature of wisdom in abstract way
two theme: avoid "the Strong Woman" / temptress; praise of wisdom (personified by Lady Wisdom)
Wisdom was created before creation of the world and gives life

Proverbs 31:
poem on the capable wife
patriarchal perspective, glory redounds to husband

Conclusion:
later Jewish tradition identified Wisdom with obedience to Torah, but this is not implied by Proverbs

21 W Dec 10: The Short Story (Ruth Jonah Esther)

Collins 268-277: The Hebrew Short Story: Ruth, Jonah, Esther

Each of these three clearly is independent free-standing story; the opening line of each provides a chronological “hook” to
attach it to the master narrative:
• Jonah surely is meant to be the prophet Jonah in 2 Kings 14:25 (reign of Jeroboam II)
o Hence book of Jonah is among the twelve minor prophets
• Ruth 1:1 sets the book in the period of the judges
o Hence in Christian Bibles Ruth is an appendix to the book of Judges
• Esther is set during the reign of Ahasuerus (Xerxes?) mentioned in Ezra 4:6.
Each of these stories has its own setting and point but also share certain features:
• Anonymous narratives (as are all biblical narratives)
• Happy ending (Ruth and Esther certainly, Jonah probably)
• Gentiles (non-Israelites) figure prominently in all three narratives.

Ruth: placed in Writings in the Hebrew Bible (postexilic date – date uncertain)
• Heroine is a Moabite woman
o Moabite women do not get good press in the Hebrew Bible
 Numbers 25: Israelite is punished for having sexual relations with a Moabite woman
 Deuteronomy 23:3: sates no Moabite should be admitted to the assembly of the Lord
• Book of Ruth is primarily about family relationships – ethnic origin isn’t as important, about human action, with
little appeal to divine intervention
o Occasional reference to Lord suggests entire action is guided by divine
• Story divided into 4 chapters:
1. Sets up situation of crisis – famine in the land of Israel
o Time of the Judges – man from Bethlehem named Elimelech goes to live in Moab. Elimielech’s sons marry
Moabite women: Orpah and Ruth
o Elimelech and his sons eventually die
o Deut 25:5-10: if a man died without a son, his brother should marry the widow and raise up an heir to the
deceased: levirate law
o Ruth goes with Naomi (her mother-in-law) instead of going back to her parents for relative security (Orpah
goes to their parents)
o Ruth 1:15-19: 15So she [Naomi] said, “See, your sister-in-law has gone back to her people and to her gods;
return after your sister-in-law.” 16But Ruth said, “Do not press me to leave you or to turn back from
following you! Where you go, I will go; Where you lodge, I will lodge; your people shall be my people,
and your God my God. 17Where you die, I will die— there will I be buried. May the Lord do thus and so to
me, and more as well, if even death parts me from you!” 18When Naomi saw that she was determined to go
with her, she said no more to her. 19So the two of them went on until they came to Bethlehem -------- is this
a story of conversion?
o Chapter ends with the return of the two destitute women to Bethlehem
2. Elimelech has a rich kinsman named Boaz
o Levirate law only applied to brothers – Boaz didn’t need to marry Ruth
o Ruth supports the women by gathering ear of corn
o When she goes to the field of Boaz to gather, Boaz notices her and protects her
o Ruth tells Naomi she met Boaz and it was a sign from the Lord for care
o Ruth and Naomi are secure until the end of the barley/wheat harvests, but their long-term future is still
precarious
 3. Brings the story to a climax
o Naomi knows best hope for long-term security is have Boaz marry Ruth
o Naomi instructs Ruth to seduce Boaz
o Scene at threshing floor (workplace and place of celebration)
o Ruth puts on her best clothe s, waits until Boaz has eaten and drunk (not unconscious just
receptive)
o Ruth “came stealthily and uncovered his feet and lay down” (Ruth 3:7) feet = euphemism
o Nowhere in Hebrew Bible does a woman uncover a man (bold)
o Ruth asks him to “spread your cloak over your servant, for you are next-of-kin” (3:9) spreading of
cloak = protection, marriage
o Boaz knows there is another man more closely related to Naomi who has first dibs – of he declines
that Boaz will marry her
4. Resolution
o Boaz convenes elders in city gate
o Closer relative doesn’t want Ruth – Boaz marries Ruth, happy ending
o When Ruth bears a child, Naomi nurses him, and the people say, “A son has been born to Naomi”
o Conclusion attempts to locate Ruth in context of biblical history
o Ruth is naturally linked to Tamar – both widows, bold sexual initiatives in order to have children
o Ruth’s child became father of Jess, the father of David
o Perez is a direct ancestor of Boaz
• Purpose of book is to put a positive spin that David’s great-grand-mother was a Moabite that won the Lord’s favor
• Ruth presupposes an agrarian society where people moved between Judah and Moab
• Message: people who act with fidelity and compassion are ultimately blessed by God, even if they have to endure
difficult circumstances for a while
Jonah: placed in the collection of prophetic writings
• Story about an antiprophet – not the same person as Jonah in 2 Kings,
• Lord tells him to go to Nineveh, he goes in opposite direction to flee from the Lord
• Storm rises at sea, other sailors urge Jonah to pray to God but he confesses he is fleeing
• Jonah tells sailors to throw him overboard as human sacrifice – they do – storm calms
• Jonah does not die – a large fish swallows him, he remains in its belly for 3 days and 3 nights
o Christians took story to rep. Christ’s resurrection on 3rd day
o Jonah prays to lord in while in the belly – takes form of psalm of thanksgiving. Author imagines that Jonah
could have said this psalm because some phrases allude to his situation
• Jonah is vomited from the fish – allows Jonah a new beginning
• Lord speaks to him again, this time Jonah obeys and goes to Nineveh (size of city exaggerated)
• Jonah thinks Lord is too merciful and Nineveh should have been destroyed – why Jonah tried to run away
• Jonah leaves the city, Lord provides a bush for shelter but it withers, he prays for death
o Jonah is concerned about the bush, should he not be more concerned about people of Nineveh?
• Book has compassion for the Ninevites (human-being like any others)
• Author gently suggests that prophets (Jonah never called a prophet but is called to speak in the name of the Lord)
should not take themselves quite so seriously
• Said Nineveh “was” a great city – ie: no longer exists – destroyed in 612 (Jonah’s prophet came true???) B.C.E, thus
story written after
• Converts in Jonah?
o “Then they cried out to the Lord, ‘Please, O Lord, we pray, do not let us perish on account of this man’s
life. Do not make us guilty of innocent blood; for you, O Lord, have done as it pleased you.’ So they picked
Jonah up and threw him into the sea; and the sea ceased from its raging. Then the men feared the Lord even
more, and they offered a sacrifice to the Lord and made vows” (1:14-16)
o And the people of Nineveh believed God; they proclaimed a fast, and everyone, great and small, put on
sackcloth. 6When the news reached the king of Nineveh, he rose from his throne, removed his robe, covered
himself with sackcloth, and sat in ashes. 7Then he had a proclamation made in Nineveh: “By the decree of
the king and his nobles: No human being or animal, no herd or flock, shall taste anything. They shall not
feed, nor shall they drink water. 8Human beings and animals shall be covered with sackcloth, and they shall
cry mightily to God. All shall turn from their evil ways and from the violence that is in their hands. 9Who
knows? God may relent and change his mind; he may turn from his fierce anger, so that we do not perish.”
(3:5-9)
Esther: first time the story revolves around yehudim, “Jews” (or perhaps “Judeans”)
• Heroine is located in the Diaspora, at the Persian court - resembles stories of Joseph and Daniel
• Book divided into 10 chapters:
1. Locates the story:
o “In the days of Ahasuerus, the same Ahasuerus who rules over 127 provinces from India to Ethiopia” –
Ahaseuerus is better known as Xerxes
o Ahaseuerus gives two banquets, Queen Vashti gives banquet for women at same time
o King order queen to appear before him “wearing the royal crown, in order to show the people and the
officials her beauty” (1:11). Vashti refuses.
o Refusal elevated into issue of imperial concern: if queen can disobey king, so might any wife disobey her
husband
 Vashti is banished from king’s presence: vacancy at royal court
2. Explains how Esther was chosen to be member of the royal harem and is crowned queen in place of Vashti
o Esther has no concern for observing Jewish practice – conceals her Jewish identity on advice from her
cousin, Mordecai – also loyal subject of king
o Mordecai uncovers plot against king’s person
o No qualms about being taken into royal harem
3. Introduces Haman, who is appointed over all other officials
o Conflict develops when Mordecai refuses to prostrate before Haman – not in Jewish custom
o Haman resolves to destroy all Jews in kingdom. “a certain people…whose laws are different from those of
every other people, and who do not keep the king’s laws” (2:8)
o The king give the ok – decree issued for destruction of all Jews
4. Crisis facing Jewish people presents dilemma for Esther
o Mordecai asks her to go to the king to intercede
o “Do not think that in the king’s palace you will escape any more than all the other Jews. For if you keep
silence as such a time as this, relief and deliverance will arise for the Jews from another quarter, but you
and your father’s family will perish. Who knows? Perhaps you have come to royal dignity for just such a
time as this” (4:14)
5. Danger to Esther’s life is dismissed – king offers her anything she wants
o Esther requests that only the king and Haman join her in a banquet
6. Haman has gallows prepared for Mordecai but is shocked when king orders that Haman has to attire Mordecai with
robes and lead him on horseback around the city
7. King and Haman come to Esther’s banquet, she tells the king about plot against the Jews, “my people”
o She reveals Haman is to blame – Haman begs for his life from Esther when king leaves the room
o King returns and thinks Haman is performing sexual assault – he is hung on the gallows that were prepared
for Mordecai
8. Esther asks the king to revoke the decree against the Jews - king allows them to write what they want – Mordecai’s
letters give the Jews permission to kill any people who might attack them
o “In every province and in every city, wherever the king’s command and his edict came, there was gladness
and joy among the Jews, a festival and a holiday. Furthermore, many of the peoples of the country
professed to be Jews, because the fear of the Jews had fallen upon them” (8:17) – converts?
9. On the day the Jews were supposed to be destroyed, they killed thousands with permission of the king
o “The Jews established and accepted as a custom for themselves and their descendants and all who joined
them, that without fail they could continue to observe these two days every year, as it was written and at the
time appointed” (9:27) – converts?
10. King laid tribute on the land, Mordecai was next unto king and great among the Jews, instituted the Festival of
Purim to commemorate the occasion
Esther and History
• Problems: Mordecai was apparently among exiles taken to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar, but is active in reign of
Xerxes a century later, number of provinces inaccurate
• Book appears to be a festal legend told to explain why Purim is celebrated – actual origin unclear
• Book is earliest known narrative of an attempt to wipe out Jewish community in a Gentile environment
The Religious Character of Esther
• Esther’s silence about God is debated – but the God of Israel is present
o Mordecai tells Esther that if she does not act, “deliverance will rise for the Jews from another quarter”
(4:14) – Esther’s royal rank was purely luck
o Haman’s friends said he cannot prevail against the Jews
 • Interesting that Jews do not thank the Lord for their deliverance
Quintessential diaspora (the body of Jews outside Palestine or modern Israel) tale

22 F Dec 12: Daniel

Lecture 22: Daniel

Time period: Most recent book of Hebrew Bible; actually written 160’s BCE, claims to have been written four centuries
earlier during Babylonian times.

Section: Kethuvim (writings). Could have been considered a prophetic book but placed here most likely due to its late
creation.

Key terms: Angelology: protectors of the people, cast as supernatural princes. Ex., Michael, who aids Daniel in interpreting
a variety of visions in the second half of the book.

Consider:
Emphasis on the afterlife, resurrection, judgment and reward of the righteous at the “end times.” Secrecy of revelation,
(eventual) resurgence of Israel.
Daniel as a sage-like character as part of an ancient court of another culture (i.e., Joseph).
Readings divided into two sections. Dan. 1-5 retells court tales. 7-12 are historically charged visions of future and depictions
of political state of Israel.

Passages:
Daniel 5: Writing on the wall. (first section of Daniel)
“He (God) therefore made the hand appear, and caused the writing to be inscribed. This is the writing that is inscribed:
MENE MENE TEKEL UPHARSIN. And this is its meaning: MENE – God has numbers the days of your kingdom and
brought it to an end; TEKEL – you have been weighed in the balance and found wanting; PERES – your kingdom has been
divided and given to the Medes and the Persians.”
Daniel is the only one who can read the writing, let alone interpret it. King Belshazzar, son of King
Nebuchadnezzar, is fated to lose control of his kingdom according to Daniel’s diving interpretation. This event happens at
the start of the ensuing chapter. The passage reinforces the idea that God still controls history despite an apparent loss of
Israelite control as well as the idea of judgment; Belshazzar is “weighed and found wanted” after they are said to have
worshipped the gods of gold, silver, wood, etc. Furthermore, a stark contrast exists between the transitory rulers and the
power of God’s servants (think of the parallels with Joseph). Prior the above passage, Daniel is brought before the kind
because of his renown associated with feats with other rulers, namely Nebuchadnezzar .

Daniel 7: Vision of the four beasts (second section of Daniel)

“Four mighty beasts different from each other emerged from the sea. The first was like a lion but had eagles’ wings. As I
looked on, its its wings were plucked off, and it was lifted from the ground and set on its feet like a man and given the mind
of a man…” (7.3-5)
“One like a human being came with the clouds of heaven; He reached the Ancient of Days and was presented to Him.
Dominion, glory and kingship were given to him; All peoples and nations of every language must serve him. His dominion
is an everlasting dominion that shall not pass away.” (7:13-14)

In assessing this quote, be very careful. If the passage refers to ‘beasts,’ then it’s Daniel 7. If it speaks about a
statue, then it’s Daniel 2. Contextually, this Daniel 7 is a terrible dream. The first part of this passage describes the
progression of kingdoms, namely the gentile ones that would rule over the Jews during diaspora (160 BCE and after). The
four beasts refer to different kingdoms, including the Babylonians, Medes, Persians and Greek, and the horns that arise out of
the last beast represent a progression of kings. The final horn, referring to Antiochus IV, is the most dreadful and alludes to
the persecution of the Jews. All of the beasts and horns eventually fall and give way to fall of the beasts and the judgment
that takes place in the court of God. We’re reminded that God still controls history as he hands over the everlasting,
permanent kingdom to “one like a human being.” According to Collins, this “Son of Man” referenced by the passage alludes
to the Archangel Michael from the standard Jewish standpoint and Jesus Christ from the typical Christian one.

Collins:
--Collins remarks that Daniel is the only book in the Hebrew Bible that contains the genre of apocalypse, which was key in
the formation of Judaism and Christianity.
--He also comments that the court stories in Dan. 1-6 emphasize prayer and maintaining Jewish identity (again, Jewish, not
Israelite). The stories told here, however, are not historical but more similar to legends because they are full of miraculous
elements. They were meant to “inspire awe and wonder.” Like the stories, Daniel is exemplary – an example Jew during the
diaspora. By this, Collins states that Daniel respects the governing (pagan) authorities while also remaining faithful to God
and traditions of the Bible.
--Collins views Daniel 2 (King’s dream of four material statue) to once again focus on the passing of numerous kingdoms, all
of which are ultimately outdone by Israel. Collins sees this as eschatological, not rebellious. This idea of specific
eschatological scripture (end of history) arises again in the second half of the book when an angel interprets a variety of
images to Daniel.
--In comparing the two sections, Collins notes a general acceptance of Gentile rule in the first section of the book that clashes
with a focus on times of persecution in the second half. The solution, though, is to still wait for deliverance in heaven.
Immortality is especially granted to “the wise,” a characteristic embodied by Daniel.

Kugel:
--Kugel starts by pointing out the division in Jewish culture over Greek pervasiveness at the time that the book of Daniel was
written (~160’s BCE). He focuses on this historical background, especially the religious persecution of the Jews by
Antiochus IV throughout the excerpt and does in fact refer to the people as “Jews,” not Israelites.

--According to Kugel, historical input also plays a role in the apocalyptic nature of the book. Various leaders, both Jewish
and non-Jewish, traded control in what Kugel calls a “messy” section of history. The Jews had neither terrible or great
leaders and more importantly, previous prophecies (i.e., the resurgence of Israel) were not coming true. Daniel, then, focuses
on the succession of empires (Daniel 7) as a means of reviving the idea that God controls history. Israel would still triumph,
but maybe not until an “end-time.”

--Kugel describes Daniel as an interpreter and a sage – similar to Joseph but more powerful. Not only does Daniel decipher
the underlying meanings behind mysterious happenings as Joseph does, but also he also reveals what they are in the first
place: he knows the Pharaoh’s dream without being told it (Dan. 1) and can read the writing on the wall that is illegible to
everyone else (Dan. 5).

--Kugel stresses the facts that Daniel receives divine aid and often seeks out a hidden meaning. For example, the
interpretation that “seventy years” in Jeremiah’s prophecy actually meant seventy groups of years as an angel tells Daniel.
Kugel argues that this specific example served as a historical explanation as to why Israel had not been restored at the
originally indicated time.

--Finally, interpretation and understanding of biblical laws should also be considered when reading Daniel. Law and its
interpretation provided both a common ground and grounds for conflict for Jews at the time.

23 M Dec 15: Conclusions and Reflections

Mon Dec 15 Notes:

Main points from Reading: (No readings from the bible)

Kugel 662-689
Julius Wellhausen: Formulation of the documentary hypothesis. Argued that the Torah or Pentateuch had its origins in a
redaction of four originally independent texts dating from several centuries after the time of Moses, their traditional author.

Hermann Gunkel: German Protestant Old Testament scholar. Used critical methodology of source criticism. Source
criticism was based on identifying and examining the genres used in the text to reach the "literary history" behind them, on
the assumption that each form belonged to a quite definite 'setting in life; in this way, Gunkel and his circle believed, the
previous history of a written biblical text could be reconstructed in terms of its social and liturgical setting

W. F. Albright: universally acknowledged founder of the Biblical archaeology movement. He did the authentication of the
Dead Sea Scrolls in 1948, but made his scholarly reputation as the leading theorist and practitioner of biblical archaeology,
"that branch of archaeology that sheds light upon "the social and political structure, the religious concepts and practices and
other human activities and relationships that are found in the Bible or pertain to peoples mentioned in the Bible.
Charles Augustus Briggs: Tried for Heresy because he suggested- 1)errors may have existed in the original text of the Holy
Scripture, 2)Moses is not the author of the Pentateuch, and that Isaiah is not the author of half of the book which bears his
name, 3) many of the Old Testament predictions have been reversed by history and that the great body of Messianic
prediction has not and cannot be fulfilled

The bible is seen as mutatis mutandis in modern scholarship.

1 : with the necessary changes having been made
2 : with the respective differences having been considered

Some (like Charles Augustus Briggs) see modern scholarship of the bible as trying to recover the real/original meaning of
the bible, while many see these scholars as discrediting the bible. For example, categorizing text groups J, E, P, H D that
contrast on basic theological issues may raise difficult to answer questions about divine inspiration.

Scholars point out inconsistencies, repetitions, and outright mistakes. They also don’t accept foreshadowing that extends
well beyond the writer’s lifetime. For example, they don’t accept that the binding of Isaac foreshadows Jesus’ crucifixion.
Modern biblical scholarship began with the belief that the bible’s meaning was simply inherent in its words and by throwing
away assumptions and interpretations of ancient readers the “real” bible would emerge, but this didn’t happen.

There has been a gradual shift in the idea of scripture’s divine inspiration. For centuries people believed that God had simply
whispered words into his prophets ears, but more recently theologians have come up with a range of different understandings
for inspiration.

Bible scholars are functional atheists, and it may be preferable to see the troubling having human rather than divine origin.
-Calls for genocide/ complete extermination. Ex: Canaanites and Amalequites
-Rules regarding and support of slavery
-Lower status and roles for women
-Severe punishments including stoning.

---No excerpts or quotes from the bible- No reading was assigned

Specific Essay 1

According to the books of Joshua and Judges, how did the Israelites conquer the land of Canaan? Indeed, did they conquer it
at all? What is the contribution of archaeological evidence on this question?

Collins:
• In the opening verses of Joshua it is suggested that Joshua is given all the land of Canaan from God, but a closer
reading suggests that Joshua actually conquered the country, according to the writings
• Chapers 2-10 describe in detail the conquest of Jericho, Shechem, and Jerusalem
• Summary in Chapter 10:40-43 claims the conquest of the Southern part of the country
• Chapter 11 describes a campaign against Hazor in the far north
• Actual narratives are pretty spotty compared to sweeping claims made in the summaries
• Judges 1 gives list of places that were not conquered and has a lot of inconsistencies with account in Joshua
• Judges 1:8 says the tribe of Judah conquered Jerusalem, 1:21 says that the Benjaminites did not drive the Jebusites
out of Jerusalem
• Conquest of Hazor in Joshua 11 is not noted in Judges 4 and 5, in which the territory is still under Canaanite control
• The account in Judges is considered to be more historically accurate
• Still scholars are not convinced that the conquest took place at all
• Four different models of origin of Israel
 • The Immigration Model
o Proposed that Israelites started out in Highlands that were less populated and gradually asserted dominance
in major cities
o Claims support from account in Judges 1, which admits that not all cities were conquered
• The Conquest Model
o In mid 20th century archaeologists tried to find evidence of ruined cities that would support idea of
conquest, but no evidence was found
o Cities such as Jericho and Heshbon show no record of being large cities at the time of the apparent
conquest
o Only Hazor and Bethel show evidence of conquest at appropriate time period
o Leads to the idea that the account of the conquest is just not true
o In fact the archeological evidence suggests that the settlement was a peaceful process, and that the settlers
most likely came from within Canaan
o This is represented by similar building styles and tools that have been found in the region
• The Revolt Model
o Originated through social revolt within Canaan
o Theory based on letters found in Egypt that describe a group of people called Apiru who were
troublemakers and lived primarily in Shechem
o It is thought that the Israelites who left Egypt may have found common cause with this group
o Supported by evidence, but has no basis in the Bible
• The Gradual Emergence Model
o The consensus in recent times is that the Israelites were basically Canaanites who gradually developed a
separate identity
o This model differs from revolt model because it does not assume Israelites were motivated by egalitarian
ideals

Keugel:

The book of Joshua opens with God’s assurance that, although Moses has died, He will help his successor, Joshua, to conquer
the whole land promised to Israel’s ancestors (Josh. 1:1-5)

Book of Joshua’s description of how Israelites conquered Canaan

• Conquest of Jericho (supposedly a big, fortified city) in chapter 6
o Joshua ordered his men to circle the city 7 times and to shout when trumpet sounded…when they did this,
the walls fell and they took the city
o Jericho is the only piece of evidence presented in the book of Joshua about the Israelites conquering all of
Canaan
• After Jericho it says the Israelites, led by Joshua swept across the whole land in 3 campaigns (chapters 6-8, 9-10, l1)
o Nothing stood in their way, all kings (really mayors/governors) put to death (list of 31 executed kings by
location in Josh. 12:9-24)
• Divided up the land among different Israelite tribes (chapters 13-21)

According to archaeologists, the story of the conquest of Canaan, as presented in Joshua, cannot be true
• Archeology is known as an inexact science, but destruction is not hard to spot
• In the case of Jericho, there has been nothing found that would indicate any sort of destruction, breach of walls,
pillaging, etc. anywhere near the time the conquest apparently happened
o Expert on Jericho (Kathleen Kenyon) found that Jericho was actually a very poor settlement with little or
no fortifications during the time Joshua was reported to have conquered it (1200 BCE)…in fact, Jericho
wasn’t really resettled and fortified until the 7th century BCE
• Of more than a dozen other cities, most were either undefended or unoccupied during the time of the supposed
conquest, and only 2 showed any signs of destruction from during that period

According to other books in the Bible, including Judges, the story of the conquest of Canaan, as presented in Joshua, does not
make sense
• Judges (1:1) starts out: “After the death of Joshua, the Israelites inquired of the Lord, “Who shall go up first for us
against the Canaanites to fight against them?”
 o This wouldn’t makes sense if Joshua had annihilated all the Canaanites as the book of Joshua claims

According to modern scholars, when it comes down to specifics, the book of Joshua itself doesn’t really even describe a
Canaan-wide conquest, rather it only talks about a small area of land
• The only specific stories of conflict center on a tiny area (Jericho, Ali, and Gilgal, which are only a few miles apart)
• The great Canaanite city of Shechem is mentioned only once in Joshua and it seems there is no conflict there
o Shechem then reappears in Judges 9 and is somehow controlled by an Israelite
o This would mean Shechem just became Israelite overnight without any bloodshed
• It seems the Deuteronomistic History adopted a few stories connected with Jericho and the territory of the tribe of
Benjamin, then used them to add detail and authenticity to its overall picture of a massive conquest of all of Canaan
• According to modern scholars, the figure of Joshua might even be partly fictitious (see Kugel p.376 if you want the
full explanation why)
o Name change by Moses (Hoshea to Joshua) could have been done by a late editor
o Joshua could have been a local war hero that got elevated to legendary status by editors so that Moses had a
worthy successor
 This would explain why the editor felt the need to make Joshua so similar to Moses:
• Sent spies out to scour the land (like Moses) (Josh. 2)
• Led people on a miraculous crossing of the Jordan River (13:17)
• Was to told to remove his shoes because he was standing on holy ground (5:15)
• Could work miracles (e.g. in battle against Amorites hw prayed to God for more daylight)

Since it is very unlikely the Israelites took all of Canaan in a huge military conquest, these are the other theories as to how
Israel came to be:
• The closest possible theory to what the Bible claims: ethnic group or groups originally foreign to Canaan entered
Canaan from the east or southeast and, through armed conflict or otherwise, ended up settling in the Canaanite
highlands and from there extending their influence to other parts of the country
• Alt (German historian)-nomadic tribes moved in and out of Canaan with their flocks depending on the season, but
gradually began to settle down in Canaan, at first in the unpopulated areas, but gradually encroaching on more
populated areas, at which point conflict ensued
• Apiru-Canaanite revolutionaries (referred to as the “apiru” in the El Amarna Letters…very important for this theory)
started a popular, grassroots revolt to get rid of the Egyptian hegemony…a small group of exiles from Egypt (and
people from elsewhere for that matter) could have become part of this revolution
• “The Canaanites are us”-regardless of which of the above theories (or combination) is correct, it has become clear
that what is now known as Israel was mostly already in Canaan (i.e. a large portion of the people were already there)
o Archaeology supports this because there has been nothing found to support a huge exodus from Egypt or a
sweeping conquest of Canaan by outsiders
o There has been archaeology that suggests there was a population increase in the central highlands of
Canaan around 1200 BCE (small villages probably made up of semi-nomads who settled down, like Alt
said) that accompanied a decrease in population of the urban centers

Specific Essay 2
What are the relative social roles of the king, the priest, and the prophet? What are the special rights and privileges of each
and how does each relate to God?

Prophet
Social role:
• Serves as check on other two groups to keep them from acquiring too much power/influence
• Serve as messenger from God, often reluctant
• Chosen by God to perform duties
• Generally announces God’s verdict rather than predicting future (Kugel)
• First announces the sin and then declares God’s punishment to be carried out soon, although with later
prophets, the purpose of the prophet is to warn and to encourage repentance to avert disaster
• God tells Jeremiah that he will cast aside the Israelites because of all their wrongdoings. Jeremiah
tries to warn the people (Jeremiah 7)
• Political and religious influence
• Oracles against other nations (OANs), attacking other nations and encouraging kings to attack them or to
not seek political alliances (Isaiah 7)
 • Amos asks for moral code rather than just blindly following rituals as previously told by priests (Amos 4,
6)

Privileges:
• Access to royalty and priests due to nature of having message from God. Message of God often requires change,
resulting in constant power struggles with other parties:
• Often reproach king on God’s behalf (Nathan w/ David)
• Caters to inherent distrust of kings having too much power (Kugel)
• Samuel (prophet) appoints first king of Israelites (Saul/David)
• Began at same time as kingship and ceased to function after kingship was gone (Kugel)
• Had to do with Israelite tribes’ early and ongoing suspicion of kingship – fearful of the power a
king might wield (Kugel)
• As God’s messenger, could reproach king – less of an absolute dictatorship (Kugel)
• Close relationship with kings, whether in alliance or in opposition
• Alliance:
• Samuel with Saul then David
• Opposition:
• Elijah against king Ahab, queen Jezebel, and prophets of Baal in a display of God’s
power (1 Kings 18)
• Amos foretells the death of King Jeroboam and is therefore antagonized (Amos 7)
• Jeremiah – one of 2 ways the people abandoned god is by searching for foreign alliances
(Jeremiah 2)
• Power struggle with priests over the way religion should be understood and the way the people should
behave
• Appear in times of hardship to change situations to God’s liking (Kugel)
• Jeremiah and Ezekiel encourage repentance to avert disaster that God has announced (Ez.
33)
• Amos asks for moral code rather than just blindly following rituals as previously told
(Amos 4, 6)

King
Social role:
• Military leader (Saul and David’s rise to power due to military prowess)
• Political leader who decides the fate of Israel’s interactions with other peoples (Isaiah 7)
• Social leader who could decide the organization of deity worship
• David builds one temple in Jerusalem
• King Jeroboam tells his people to worship the Golden Calves again (1 Kings)
• After exile, the role of the king vanishes as he is replaced by a governor and high priest (Joshua)
Privileges:
• Divine right to rule and the backing/support of God
• Kingship began with God telling Samuel who to anoint as king of Israel
• God tells Nathan (prophet) that he will build a house for David – a dynasty for the lineage of David (2
Samuel)
• Absolute authority over his subjects, including priests and prophets
• David demands that Uriah, husband of Bathsheba (with whom David conceived a child), be “accidentally”
killed in battle so he may take Bathsheba as his wife (2 Sam. 11-12)
• Ahab (esp. wife Queen Jezebel) order all prophets of God killed (1 Kings)

Priest
Social role:
• Carry out word of god
• Interpret sacred texts and instruct Israelites on how they should conduct their lives
• Perform religious rituals and preside over religious activities
• Advisor to king (Amos 7)
 • After exile, the priests begin to hold more administrative powers since king is replaced by a governor and a high
priest (Joshua)
• Replace role of prophet by becoming interpreter of the Torah
Privileges:
• Position and responsibilities passed on through lineage
• Access to royalty and therefore influence over affairs of state
• Amaziah, priest of Bethel, told King Jereboam that Amos conspired against him by foretelling the king’s
death and thus banished him (Amos 7)
• Increased administrative and religious duties after restoration

Specific Essay 3

In the last decades of the eighth century BCE, the kingdom of Judah faced a severe threat from the Assyrians; in the early
sixth century BCE it once again faced a severe threat, this time from the Babylonians. Compare and contrast these two
situations: what policies did the kings of Jerusalem pursue, what advice did they receive from their advisors (including court
prophets), what advice did they receive from Isaiah (in the first case) or Jeremiah (in the second case), and what was the final
outcome?
I. Threat from Assyria
A. Policy of king (Hezekiah)
1. Hezekiah conducts reform similar to the one later carried out by Josiah, in that he removes the high
places, breaks down the pillars, and cuts down the sacred poles (Collins). Basically, Hezekiah son of
King Ahaz did what was “pleasing to the Lord” and could be considered the “best” king of Judah (2 Kgs
18:3-5).
2. “He rebelled against the king of Assyria and would not serve him.” (2 Kgs 18:7)
3. King Sennacherib of Assyria threatens to invade Judah, but Hezekiah offers to pay tribute to avert an
invasion (2 Kgs 18:13-16). The tribute Hezekiah must pay is also confirmed by Assyrian records.
4. Hezekiah makes an alliance with other kings in the area, also relying on Egyptian support (Collins).
5. Assyrians lay siege to Judah, taunting its citizens to submit to Assyrian rule (Judeans don’t because
Hezekiah told them not to respond to the Assyrians). Hezekiah prays to God, consults the prophet Isaiah,
and eventually the Assyrian army was struck down by an angel of the Lord and they fled, but King
Sennacherib gets killed by his sons (2 Kgs 18 and 19).
6. After Hezekiah, Manasseh becomes king, but he does what is displeasing to the Lord. Manasseh idolatry
might perhaps be explained as Assyrian loyalty (cf Ahaz 2 K 16:10-18) or perhaps seeking more divine
protection against the Assyrians (cf Jeremiah 44:15ff). Judah falls because of the sins of Manasseh, the
worst idolater (2 Kgs 21).

B. Advice (Isaiah)
1. No real mention of advice from court people/prophets, pretty much only from Isaiah. Hezekiah’s court
people/prophets mainly act as messengers to the Assyrian invaders and to Isaiah (2Kgs 18 and 19).
2. King Hezekiah’s advisors seek Isaiah’s counsel, and he tells them not to be frightened, that the Assyrians
will be diverted and will not destroy Jerusalem (2 Kgs 6-7).
3. Remnant theme in Isaiah (e.g. 7:3; 10:20); implies destruction (bad) but recovery (good)
4. The oracle of Isaiah in 2 Kgs 18 and 19 is also in Isaiah 37.
5. Theme throughout Isaiah 1-39 (Collins): The high and mighty, the proud and the haughty, shall be laid
low, because they do not put their faith in God. Most striking in Isaiah 10: Assyria is God’s staff of
anger but Assyria will be punished.
6. Pretty much all Isaiah does in this situation is provide reassurance; there is no judgmental side or much
speaking of punishment/suffering from Isaiah (Collins).
*7. Jer 26:17-19 mentions the case of Micah the Mosrashtite, who warned of Jersualem’s destruction
during Hezekiah’s reign. However, Jerusalem was spared because of Hezekiah’s repentance and
obedience.
C. Outcome
 As stated earlier, the Assyrian camp is struck down by an angel from the Lord and they flee. King Sennacherib is
killed by his sons, and the Assyrian threat is gone. However, the sins of Manasseh lead to Jerusalem’s destruction
by the Babylonians.

II. Threat from Babylon

A. Policy of kings (Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah)

1. Jehoiakim – did what was “displeasing to the Lord” (2 Kgs 23:37). When King Nebuchadnezzar of
Babylon came to power, Jehoiakim became his vassal for three years, but he eventually rebelled (2 Kgs
24:1).
2. Jehoiachin – also displeased the Lord. He was king when Babylon was laying siege to Jerusalem.
Jehoiachin eventually surrenders to King Neb (2 Kgs 24:8-12).
3. Zedekiah – was appointed king of Judah by King Neb. He also does what is displeasing to the Lord and
rebels against the king of Babylon (2 Kgs 25).
B. Advice
1. Jehoiachin’s courtiers, commanders, and officers surrender to the king of Babylon when he lays siege to
Jerusalem (2 Kgs 24:12).
2. Jeremiah: Function of the prophet is to warn, encourage people to repent, to avert disaster.
3. Jeremiah: People are relying on inviolability of the temple, God’s house [such a theology is often
imputed by modern scholars to Isaiah I] but they’re wrong; God destroyed Shiloh, and God can destroy
Jerusalem – just as he destroyed northern kingdom.
4. Jeremiah: No rejection of temple per se; rejection of misplaced priorities; what good is ritual if you’re
wicked?
5. Jeremiah advocates submission to Babylon: God is using King Neb. for his own ends – to punish Israel;
in order to allow this to happen God is giving King Neb., who is “my servant” or “my subject” (25.9, 27:6),
an empire of 70 years (25:11, 29:10); the states to be subjugated by the Babylonians are listed in 25:19-26
6. Jeremiah: Therefore “put your necks in the yoke” of Babylon; resisting Babylonia is not only foolish it is
also against God; those who claim that God will protect us are false prophets (25:27-28)
7. Jeremiah: In Babylon do not resist the government; live quietly and normally, and wait (29:4-9).
8. Jeremiah: After 70 years God will punish the Babylonians. “according to their deeds” – their sin is not
stated – and Israel can be restored (29:10).
9. Jeremiah’s message of submission and doom brought him into conflict with other prophets (Collins).
10. When Jeremiah prophesies Jerusalem’s destruction during the reign of Jehoiakim, the priests, prophets,
and officers wanted him put to death, outraged that someone would believe that Jerusalem would be
destroyed (Jer 26).
11. Prophet Uriah also prophesied destruction during Jehoiakim’s rule and was eventually killed (Jer 27:20-
24).
12. Prophet Hananiah breaks the yoke that Jeremiah builds to show submission to Babylon, saying that the
exile would soon be over (Jer 28:11).
C. Outcome
Babylon seeks to invade Jerusalem after Jehoiakim’s rebellion. Jehoiachin surrenders to Babylon when Jerusalem is
under siege and the Babylonian exile begins (597 B.C.E.) Zedekiah rebels and Babylon destroys Jerusalem in 586 B.C.E.

Specific Essay 4

After the destruction of the temple in 587 BCE, how were the Judaeans, both in the homeland and in exile, to relate to the
foreign powers under whose rule they live? Compare the responses, both explicit and implicit, of Jeremiah, II Isaiah, Esther,
and Daniel.

Isaiah
• Isa 13-23 mocks foreign nations – Babylonians, Assyrians, and Philistines, Moabites, Syrians, and Egyptians.
o “oracles against nations”
o True, Jews were exiled until time of Cyrus
• Ch.40-66 (Isaiah 2= Chs.40-55 and 34-35) come from a time during or after the Babylonian exile.
o Cyrus, the king who overthrew Babylon, is mentioned twice.
• With the rule of Cyrus came a new era in policy toward people
o He did not ravage Babylonians – rather wanted to win them over.
o He took the same approach to Judeans – he authorized them to go back to Jerusalem and build the temple.
He gave them more rights than they have had under Babylon
o Second Isaiah interprets this as a help from God.
• Isaiah 2
o Aka Deuteo-Isaiah, chapters 40-55 and 34-45
o Chs. 34-35 about the Redemption of Judah
o Promises Judaen exiles that the Persians would allow them to return to their homeland to rebuild their
temple there
o Anticipated victory of Persian king, Cyrus, over the Babylonian Empire
o Chapter 49 on, prophet seems to be living in land of Israel
 Likely that he moved there as soon as the Persians allowed Judean exiled to do so after Cyrus took
control of Babylonia
o All chapters addressed to a despondent exilic and postexilic audience to convince Judaens that the God of
Israel is still powerful and loyal to his people
 Insistent in its claim that only one God exists, only he created the world and only he can bring
redemption
o Looks forward to the dawn of a new era with God as the ruler over all creation
 Believes in a messianic era, but not in a personal messiah
o Initially predicted the return to Zion at the time of Cyrus would usher in the renewal of the Judean
Commonwealth
 This did not occur for a much longer time
o Break up of chapters
 40-48: prophecies delivered to exiles in Babylonia
 49-57: prophecies concerning Zion and the renewal of the community there
o Isaiah 44:21-28 24Thus says the Lord, your Redeemer, who formed you in the womb: I am the Lord, who
made all things, who alone stretched out the heavens, who by myself spread out the earth; 25who frustrates
the omens of liars, and makes fools of diviners; who turns back the wise, and makes their knowledge
foolish; 26who confirms the word of his servant, and fulfills the prediction of his messengers; who says of
Jerusalem, “It shall be inhabited,” and of the cities of Judah, “They shall be rebuilt, and I will raise up their
ruins”; 27who says to the deep, “Be dry— I will dry up your rivers”; 28who says of Cyrus, “He is my
shepherd, and he shall carry out all my purpose”; and who says of Jerusalem, “It shall be rebuilt,” and of
the temple, “Your foundation shall be laid.”

 Cyrus as servant
 Judeans have to wait for Cyrus who is God’s servant, will be able to return to Zion
 Babylonians and Persians will be punished by the same God as well
 God’s power to redeem Israel is manifested also in his power to create the world
• Isaiah 40 introduces the idea that Judeans had to be punished for their sins.
o This implies bad relations with the foreign powers under whose rule they were.
o Even mentioning “double punishment”
 “I am the Lord and there is no other” (45:5) - a common theme in Isaiah II; God’s universal
power; anti-dualistic statement in 45:7
o In Isa 45, great suffering of Israelite people – as big as to get the attention of the foreign people. People
were supposed to see the great suffering of Israel – this scenery further shows that the position of Israelites
in their society was not the best one.
• Isa 45
o 45:1-7Thus says the Lord to his anointed, to Cyrus, whose right hand I have grasped to subdue nations
before him and strip kings of their robes, to open doors before him— and the gates shall not be closed: 2I
will go before you and level the mountains, I will break in pieces the doors of bronze and cut through the
bars of iron, 3I will give you the treasures of darkness and riches hidden in secret places, so that you may
know that it is I, the Lord, the God of Israel, who call you by your name. 4For the sake of my servant Jacob,
and Israel my chosen, I call you by your name, I surname you, though you do not know me. 5I am the Lord,
and there is no other; besides me there is no god. I arm you, though you do not know me, 6so that they may
 know, from the rising of the sun and from the west, that there is no one besides me; I am the Lord, and
there is no other. 7I form light and create darkness, I make weal [wholeness, shalom] and create woe [evil];
I the Lord do all these things.
 Cyrus is God’s anointed (45:1)
 God gave Cyrus an empire, so that he can benefit Israel (45:4) – cf. Isaiah I re Assyria and
Jeremiah re Babylonia;
• Isaiah 2 introduces a long tradition of mockery against foreign Gods.
o This means that the Judeans were free enough to do what they wanted, as they wanted it.
o God is the only god; brilliant satire against idolatry (44); idol is fetish
 44:15-17 Part of it he takes and warms himself; he kindles a fire and bakes bread. Then he makes
a god and worships it, makes it a carved image and bows down before it. 16Half of it he burns in
the fire; over this half he roasts meat, eats it and is satisfied. He also warms himself and says, “Ah,
I am warm, I can feel the fire!” 17The rest of it he makes into a god, his idol, bows down to it and
worships it; he prays to it and says, “Save me, for you are my god!”

• Isa 56 shows a very open approach to foreigners

o All foreigners who accepted the Lord are accepted by the Judeans
• In general, Isa says that the great king has to be like Messiah, has to be Jew. Does not acknowledge full rulership of
foreign kings.
Haggai
• Exiles returned to an impoverished land – building of temple not the highest priority on their list.
• The Lord specifies Zerubbabel as his signet and servant – he gives him a lot of strength – through this he is
diminishing the role of the rulers of Persia.
o The high Priest foresees that Zerubbabel will be king; obvious that this case won’t happen. The fact that he
was foreseeing this shows the suppressed position of Judeans further. In order to make their people feel
good/move on, they were making high aiming stories.
o This was also refueled by the fact that in that time, kingship and priesthood were being established
together. Thus, if Zerubbabel was priest, it would make sense that he would be royal eventually too.
o However, Zerubbabel suddenly disappeared – probably removed by Persian for his teaching. This shows
that the Persians had the real power and were able to remove people as wished.
• During Ezra’s time – tells us a lot about Cyrus approach
o Extremely dividing approach to foreigners – especially foreign women. All of them are asked to leave the
country with the children in order for their blood to be pure.
o Cyrus tells Babylon that he got strength from Heaven, because they weren’t following their cult
o He says Judeans that YHWH gave him the power to take Earth and build temple
 However, Judeans build temple which says a lot about their independence from the foreigners
o Sheshbazzar – prince. Shows that Cyrus let the Judeans do their own thing too.
• Samarian community wanted to help in the rebuilding of the temple
o Also there were people who were Judean origins.
o Exile people did not let them take part at all. They considered it their exclusive right to work on temple. –
sign of great tensions between Judeans and the authorities.
• The Persian authorities took great interest in the country.
o They gave them independence and let them live by their own laws. Just wanted to know what is going on.
Also shows a big amount of respect.
Esther
• She is a Jew, in the Diaspora.
• She has to hide her identity. She becomes the main queen in the king’s harem.
• The king Ahasuerus favors Esther above all of the other maidens
• BUT "Ester did not reveal her people nor her kindred, for Mordecai had told her not to reveal it." (2:10)
• Esther's cousin Mordecai also helps the king when he hears two courtiers plan to assassinate Ahasuerus
o "And the thing was known to Mordecai, who told it unto Esther the queen; and Esther certified the king
thereof in Mordecai's name." (2:22)
o The king is nevertheless unaware of Mordecai's service
o Jews living within court and serving important roles, but nevertheless have to conceal religion
 • Problems for the Jews arise when Haman is appointed prime minister and disfavors Mordecai, leading to his plan to
exterminate all of the Jews
o Esther’s and Haman’s actions depict that the king was expecting them to engage in actions that were
contrary to Jewish customs and believes.
o Haman’s speech indicates that the Jews were different than most other people
o “a certain people… whose laws are different from those of every other people, and who do not keep the
king’s laws” (2:8)
 Evident that people are not assimilated under the foreign rule – they still have their own identity
 They refused to worship the same deities.
 Jews are loyal to the state; they are at risk of being turned upon by the state, but they survive
through fasting and prayer and by remaining loyal to the king
 Esther 9:27 the Jews established and accepted as a custom for themselves and their descendants
and all who joined them, that without fail they would continue to observe these two days every
year, as it was written and at the time appointed.

 Decree to destroy all Jews – shows the extreme ignorance with which Jews are treated. 3:1-15
o 3:8 And Haman said unto king Ahasuerus, There is a certain people scattered abroad and dispersed among
the people in all the provinces of thy kingdom; and their laws are diverse from all people; neither keep they
the king's laws: therefore it is not for the king's profit to suffer them.

3:9 If it please the king, let it be written that they may be destroyed: and I will pay ten thousand talents of
silver to the hands of those that have the charge of the business, to bring it into the king's treasuries.

3:10 And the king took his ring from his hand, and gave it unto Haman the son of Hammedatha the
Agagite, the Jews' enemy.

3:11 And the king said unto Haman, The silver is given to thee, the people also, to do with them as it
seemeth good to thee.

o Ahasuerus agrees to this plan

• Upon finding out about this plan, Mordecai and Esther call for the Jews to repent and fast
• When Ahasuerus finds out that Mordecai helped save his life, he wants to honor him and instructs Haman to do so
even though Mordecai is Jewish
• Esther reveals to Ahasuerus that Haman plans to exterminate her people including her and asks for Haman’s edict to
be rescinded
o 7:3 Then Esther the queen answered and said, If I have found favour in thy sight, O king, and if it please
the king, let my life be given me at my petition, and my people at my request: 7:4 For we are sold, I and my
people, to be destroyed, to be slain, and to perish. But if we had been sold for bondmen and bondwomen, I
had held my tongue, although the enemy could not countervail the king's damage.
o 7:5 Then the king Ahasuerus answered and said unto Esther the queen, Who is he, and where is he, that
durst presume in his heart to do so? 7:6 And Esther said, The adversary and enemy is this wicked Haman.
Then Haman was afraid before the king and the queen.
 Here Esther equates her life to her people, but never formally mentions the Jews
o Ahasuerus leaves the banquet hall in rage and Haman pleads to Esther for his life
 Reversal of roles/power with Haman now at mercy of Esther the Jew
o When king returns, Haman is ordered to be killed “on the stake which he had put up for Mordecai” (7:10)
• Though Haman is gone, his decree must be upheld, yet Ahasuerus gives Esther permission to write an edict on his
behalf that essentially allows the Jews to defend themselves/draw arms
o Esther’s influence with the king is crucial here, saving her people again
• The Jews ultimately triumph over their enemies
o “For Mordecai was now powerful in the royal palace, and his fame was spreading through all the provinces,
the man Mordecai was growing ever more powerful. So the Jews struck at their enemies with the sword,
slaying and destroying; they wreaked their will upon their enemies.” (9:4-5)
o Mordecai assumes a prominent position in Ahasuerus' court, and institutes an annual commemoration of the
delivery of the Jewish people from annihilation
Daniel
• Patriotic fervor Maccabean revolt
• Share the story of Esther – maintaining Jewish identity in a foreign land.
• Dan 1-6: his message to Jews in exile: participate in the life of the gentile world and be loyal to the king, but realize
that ultimate success depends on fidelity to God and his laws
• Interpretation of Nebuchadnezzar’s dream- “God of Heaven will establish a kingdom that shall never be destroyed, a
kingdom that shall not be transferred to another people. It will crush and wipe out all of these kingdoms” (2:44)
o Predicts demise of Babylonian king and replacement with the kingdom of God, yet Nebuchadnezzar still
reveres Daniel for his insight
 Daniel and king have positive relationship (perhaps model for what the other Jews should do until
the coming of God’s kingdom)
 Daniel serves in a high position in the king’s court despite being Jewish
o Expressing hope for time when gentile kingdoms are overthrown
• Persians had a very laissez-faire attitude – things just kept on going.
• Story of young Judeans that are reported after the conquest.
o Balance between loyalty to rulers and religious traditions
 Eats vegetarian food rather than the rations provided by the king (Dan 1)
• So as to follow the Jewish food laws
• This pays off- “when the ten days were over, they (the Jewish youths including Daniel)
looked better and healthier than all the youths who were eating of the king’s food. So the
guard kept on removing their food, and the wine that they were supposed to drink, and
gave them legumes. God made all four of these young men intelligent and proficient in
all writings and wisdom, and Daniel had understanding of visions and dreams of all
kinds.” (1:15-17)
 Dan 3 (refusal to worship an image; fiery furnace)
• Herald for the king proclaims, “you are commanded, o peoples and nations of every
language, when you hear the sound of the horn […] to fall down and worship the statue
of gold that King Nebuchadnezzar has set up. Whoever will not fall down and worship
shall at once be thrown into a burning fiery furnace.” (3:4-6)
• King was then told of certain Jews, who were the three youths who ate legumes with
Daniel, did not obey and ordered that they be thrown into the furnace
• But they did not burn- Neb says, “did we not throw three men bound into the fire? […]
but I see four men walking about unbound and unharmed in the fire and the fourth looks
like a divine being.” (3:24-25)
• Neb is impressed by this and orders a decree ‘ “I hereby get order that any of any people
or nation of whatever language who blasphemes the God of [the three youths] shall be
torn limb from limb and his house confiscated for there is no other God who is able to
save in this way.” (3:29)
o Three youths then promoted by king
• Dan 6 (Daniel persists in praying to his God in spite of a royal decree; lions’ den)
o “When Daniel learned that it (being thrown into the lion’s den) had been put in writing, he went to his
house, in whose upper chamber he had had windows made facing Jerusalem, and three times a day he knelt
down and, prayed, and made confession to his God, as he had always done.” (6:11)
o Before Daniel was thrown into the den, the king said, “your God, whom you serve so regularly, will deliver
you.” (9:18)
o Daniel survived and those men who had slandered him were thrown in the den with their families and all
died
o King then declares, “I have hereby given an order that […] men must tremble in fear before the God of
Daniel, for he is the living God who endures forever; his kingdom is indestructible, and his dominion is to
the end of time…” (6:27-28)
o Daniel then continues to prosper during reigns of Darius and Cyrus the Persian
• Daniel manages not to get killed when everyone else – shows the strength of him
o Depicts the establishment of great Israel empire.
o Depicts a king that was Israeli enemy as savior.
o Currently, Jews happy to be serving the king.
• Vision in Daniel – depict time of persecution, not so good for Jews.
 • Hard situation in which they were oppressed – they had to choose between following the law and being loyal to
God.
• Daniel 7 depicts a very bad, suffering time for the Jews.
o He advises them to do nothing but to wait and to be saved.
o Dan 7 indicates that the Jews will suffer until the time of final kingdom (God’s kingdom) arrives but that
this time will eventually come
 Endure because the Jews are “the people of the holy ones of the Most High” (7:27)- they will be
redeemed
• Antiochus tries to suppress the Jews after war has broken out during his visit to Egypt.
o Daniel says to follow God. This costs certain people life as the foreign rulers to not allow them to simply
do what they want.
o He introduced religious prosecution for Jews!
• The Persians were eventually kicked out by Alexander the Great.
• All about abiding by foreign kings’ rules, but more importantly following God’s laws
o Jews can only wait for their redemption

General Essay A
A. Now that you have read representative selections from most of the books of the Hebrew Bible, and have read a modern
academic summary/analysis (or two) of almost all the books of the Hebrew Bible, you are prepared to answer the following
question: is the Hebrew Bible a single coherent thing or not? Does it have a point, a thesis, an argument, or is it a chaotic
assembly of this and that, bits and pieces that have little to do with each other? In your answer, be specific. Explain the
criteria by which you are constructing your answer, and cite specific biblical books and passages to support it. Acknowledge
too the arguments on the other side of the question.

General Essay A: Is the Hebrew Bible a single coherent thing or not?

Really depends on what you mean by “coherent thing.” I took coherent to mean consistent/non-contradictory, this is
definitely not true.

Hebrew Bible is NOT a coherent thing. Coherency implies consistency. But…

Bible is composed from multiple sources

• Documentary Hypothesis
i. Conceived by Julius Welhausen
ii. Pentateuch is a combination of four major sources (J, E, D, P)
iii. Mention how multiple versions of the same story serve as evidence
1. creation of the world: Gen 1-2,
2. “She’s not my wife, she’s my sister”: Gen 12, 20, 26
3. Covenant btw God and Abraham (Gen 15, 17)
4. Naming of Beersheba (Gen 21, 26)
5. Ten Commandments appear in three distinct places! (Exod 20:1-17, 34:10-28 and Deut
5:6-18)
iv. Contrast stylistic features of authors
1. Name of God (YHWH, Elohim)
2. P has dry, formulaic style
3. See Collins 30-33 for good discussion of differences btw the sources
v. Authors can have different motivations (i.e. priestly source places importance on central
sanctuary, D does not)
• Even looking beyond the Pentateuch, there is clear evidence for multiple authorship, even within books…
i. Isaiah 50-55 vs 56-66

Someone could argue that though there are multiple sources, Bible is still a coherent theological guidebook. However,
the Bible has many contradictory positions within it, even on the most fundamental issues.
• Nature of God himself – anthropomorphic or omniscient/all-powerful
 • Where does God reside? Ark of the covenant (Exod 25:22), Tabernacle (Exod 40:33-35), not in a temple (Isaiah
66:1-2)
• Conceptions of conduct - Legal material contrast in P vs D, animal sacrifice not necessary (Psalm 50)
1) Why would divine voice have inspired contradictory versions of the same law?
• There are many, many more contradictions you can mention!

We also have troubling sections which question hypothesis that overall goal is to provide “moral guidance” as many
would argue
• Command to exterminate the Canaanites and Amaleqites;
• Low status of women in society
• Adultery, male homosexual intercourse are punished capitally (Lev 18 and 20)
• Validation of slavery
• Execution of juvenile delinquents (Deuteronomy 21:18-21)

One Possible Counterargument:

Hebrew Bible is coherent even if there are contradictions/multiple sources. Basic theme is the story of the Israelite people and
their relation to God. There is a central narrative that more or less progresses, and the bible details this narrative. Calling it a
chaotic assembly is therefore inaccurate, even if the purpose of some books is unclear to us.

General Essay B

Essay B: Now that you have read representative selections from most of the books of the Hebrew Bible, and have
read a modern academic summary/analysis (or two) of almost all the books of the Hebrew Bible, you are prepared to
answer the following question: does modern academic scholarship help us (that is, us modern readers) understand the
meaning and message of the biblical books? What advantages does a modern scholarly approach have over an
approach based on the Four Assumptions (discussed by Kugel)? What advantages does a Four-Assumption-
approach have? After you give your general answer, be sure to give specifics to back it up. Illustrate your answer
with some examples, drawn from the biblical books that we treated in the first part of the term (the Torah) as well as
from the biblical books that we treated in the second part (Prophets and Writings).

Thesis: While the Four Assumptions approach lends itself to useful analysis and has certain benefits; modern scholarship
deeply adds to Biblical understanding as it includes layers of meaning, such as contradictions, historicity, and redactions just
to name a few, that are skimmed over when solely using the four assumptions approach.

Note: Chapter 36 “After Such Knowledge…” in Kugel starting on page 662, is a whole chapter on this topic.

Four Assumptions ancient interpreters made when reading the Bible, as explained in Kugel on pages 14-15.
1. That the Bible was fundamentally a cryptic text. To actually understand it, one needed to be trained and have an
extensive knowledge of the entire book. In other words, you can’t analyze on distinct instance and understand the full
meaning.
2. The lessons in the Bible are applicable to today’s world even though they were written centuries earlier. It doesn’t
matter that the laws were written in a very different society, when the Bible says you should/ shouldn’t do something it still
holds today.
3. That the Bible has no contradictions or mistakes. It is completely seamless and consistent. If God appears to not
be all-knowing, then the interpreter must simply be misunderstanding the text as there has to be a way to interpret it that fits
with their beliefs, because God is clearly all-knowing.
4. The Bible was divinely inspired, meaning that God is either speaking directly or through his chosen prophets to
convey his messages. Whenever it says “The Lord spoke…” it means God is actually speaking; when the author is not stated,
it is commonly thought to be God.
-One flaw in this is seen in Psalms. Psalms was attributed to God as the speaker, yet they
are spoken to God, so he logically can’t be speaking and being spoken to at the same time (Kugel
16).
Four assumptions advantages
-More personal.
-Freedom of interpretation: The Bible can mean what you think/ want it to mean
theologically provided that it is in accordance with God’s word.
-Reasoning provided by some to interpret the Bible and act upon it as they
see fit, including religious extremism.
-Like a living text that’s applicable to daily lives, can see the humanity in the works.
-The assumption that it is divinely inspired and all true, lays the foundation for modern
religion. You can’t have a religion based on a book that in inaccurate and contradictory.
-If the reader does not follow these assumptions certain aspects of the Bible do not make
Sense
-If one doesn’t assume that the Bible is full of cryptic meaning, the countless
allegories do not make sense. One example of this is seen from Kugel 19, Philo of Alexandria was
an ancient interpreter who wrote of Abraham’s expedition from Ur to Canaan. Literally, Abraham was going on
a journey, but the allegorical message to take is that his soul is venturing out to find God.
Thus, for one’s soul to encounter God, you must reject the safe city of Ur and the senses of hearing,
sight, and so forth and migrate into another city of Canaan where one finds a new
perception. Without knowledge that the story is inherently cryptic, like Philo
assumed, a modern reader would completely miss this interpretation.
-If we do not know that the Bible is assumed to be divinely inspired, then we cannot
understand people’s adherence to rules and customs presented, as well and acceptance as absolute law.

Modern Scholarship Analysis

-Modern scholarship has given us much of the basis we use today to read to the Bible.
-Documentary Hypothesis: Welhausen.
-Hermann Grunkel: Broke the Bible down in its smallest component parts and analyzed common literary
genres and their role in daily life. This lead to new understandings about where Genesis stories come from, as well as history
of Psalms.
-W.F. Albright
-Historical Perspective: Modern scholarship’s use of archeology and other tools to study ancient Israel and its
neighbors sheds a whole new light on the Bible by placing the stories in context. Also, this allows the confirmation as well as
disproval of events based on the established historical record.
- Numbers 16 has the story of the rebellion of Korah which tells that it is blasphemous to contradict the
priesthood and Moses. This incidence lends insight into the Israel caste system.
-Kugel 426- Similarities between Canaanite, Midianite, and Israelite deities. Show the high amount of
influence between the cultures, if not suggesting that Israelites arose from the Canaanites. El in Canaan, YHWH is Israel.
-Modern scholarship does not require the rejection of the Bible as the word or God. In the words of scholar Charles
Briggs in the early 1900s- “historical criticism is searching for the rock-bed of the divine word, in order to recover the real
Bible.” Sweep away the false interpretations of so-called ancient experts and redactors so that one can get to the real meaning
of the Bible.
-However, modern scholarship has ended up doing the opposite- it has undermined the basic beliefs of
divine inspiration. Kugel : “Modern scholarship has reduced scripture to the level of an ordinary, human composition” (667).
-Shift from the past belief of four assumptions that the Bible is some to learn from to the modern scholarship belief
that the Bible is to be learned about. Kugel 666.
-Learning from the Bible leaves the reader as “smaller” than the text waiting for it to dictate to the reader,
while the reader learning about the Bible becomes equal to the text. Lea
-about: analysis is now solely the reader’s and anyone can see the results.
-This exposed the human flaws in the bible
-Example: Eponymous ancestor, Cain, is added to explain a later phenomenon, Kenites cruelty in
the future.
-Scholars concluded that there was no exodus from Egypt or conquest of Canaan. Desert
tabernacle was a construction of a later priest.
-Kugel concludes that much of what we think makes the Bible; actually Biblical is not found in the text, but instead
completely supplied by the four assumptions and ancient interpreters.
-The inconsistencies in the Bible can be explored for what they are, instead of being referred to as cryptic mysteries
that the four assumptions approach calls for.
-Exod. 22 and 24 contradictions. God calls for the sacrifice one’s son, then commands his redemption.
 -With modern scholarship we can look at this as maybe 24 was added in later at a time when child
sacrifice was no longer culturally acceptable.

Some examples with the resulting analysis if looked at from both modern and assumption methods.

-Genesis and the two versions of God.

-1 God: anthropomorphic God while the other God is omnipresent, omniscient, omni…
-Also there are two names of God presented: Elohim and YHWH- why differing names? Are they different
people? One is God the other is his ruling council which we see referenced at times, notably in the prophets sections.

-Modern scholarship:
-Shows the different perspectives people had of God.
-Influence of other neighboring religions.
-Most importantly, shows how to Genesis story arose from varying cultural backgrounds. This
serves to humanize the story.
-However, this interpretation does undermine God’s authority.
-Four Assumptions: The different versions of God do not matter, as there is truly only one omni-
everything God. The contradictions are mysteries needing decoding to uncover their true meanings.

- Exodus: Many scholars do not think there was a great Exodus from Egypt
-If looked at historical context, it may have been the Hapiru.
-Four assumptions: This story is central to their culture as it gives them gave a story that tells exactly how
they came to be, what they were founded for, who they are, ect. Something they can take pride in. We are special/
chosen, not of this place.
-Modern scholarship:
-False story, but still useful as it places the Israelites in context with their surrounding neighbors,
gives insight into what they found important enough as a society to include in their founding story. However, this
analysis does make a good story into just that- a made up story.

-Joshua and Judges: Joshua orders all foreigners to be killed, but we see them living in Judges among other places.
-Modern Scholarship- this is yet another contradiction.
-Shows what traits are reviled at the time (immigrants)- xenophobic but later writings, Judges,
rectifies this mistake by saying that we don’t like foreigners, but we didn’t really mean to kill them all, so actually
they’re ok.
-Four Assumptions: Contradictions don’t exist; the varying repetitions are there for an underlying reason.
-God promised the Israelites a place of their own and has given it to them.
-Also, God inspired this killing which goes to show his reward and punishment system. Some may
not have been killed as a reward.