Pavement and Foundation Engineering Design--Assignment 1

Penetrometers
A Penetrometer is a device to test the strength of soil. There are many different types of penetrometer. They
are usually round or cone shaped. The penetrometer is dropped on soil or it is pressed against soil to measure
how deep a hole it makes. This is a way to decide if soil is strong enough to build structure on. Scientists can
use a penetrometer to measure how much moisture is in soil.

Dilatometer (DMT)
A dilatometer is a scientific instrument that
measures volume changes caused by a
physical or chemical process. The Flat
Dilatometer Test (DMT), developed in Italy in
1980, is currently used in over 40 countries
both for research and practical applications.
The wide diffusion of the DMT lies on the
following reasons (Lutenegger 1988):

(a) Simple equipment and operation.

(b) High reproducibility.

(c) Cost effectiveness.

(d) Variety of penetration equipment.

The test procedure and the original

correlations were described by Marchetti (1980). Subsequently, the DMT has been extensively used and
calibrated in soil deposits all over the world.

Equipment and Test Procedure

The dilatometer consists of a steel blade having a thin, expandable, circular steel membrane mounted on one
face. The blade is connected, by an electro-pneumatic tube, running through the insertion rods, to a control
unit on the surface. The test starts by inserting the dilatometer into the ground. By use of a control unit with a
pressure regulator, a gauge and audio signals, the operator determines, in about 1 min, the po-pressure
required to just begin to move the membrane and the p1-pressure required to move its center 1.1 mm into
the soil. The blade is then advanced into the ground of one depth increment, typically 20 cm, using common
field equipment.

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 Pavement and Foundation Engineering Design--Assignment 1

In most cases a DMT sounding starts from the ground surface, with the tube running inside the rods.
Alternately, one can start testing from the bottom of a borehole. In this case the tubing can either run all the
way up inside the rods, or can exit laterally from the rods at any point above the blade. In all cases the
penetration must occur in fresh (not previously penetrated) soil.

Interpretation In terms of Soil Parameters

The primary way of using DMT results is to interpret them in terms of common soil parameters. In many cases
the parameters estimated by DMT are used by applying the usual design methods. In this way the engineer
can compare and check the parameters obtained by other tests, select the design profiles, then apply his usual
design methods. This methodology ("design via parameters") opens the door to a wide variety of engineering
applications. Direct DMT-based methods are limited to some specific applications (e.g. axially loaded piles, P-y
curves for laterally loaded piles).

Horizontal Stress Index KD

The horizontal stress index KD is defined as follows:

KD =

Where ơ'v0 is the pre-insertion in situ overburden stress. KD provides the basis for several soil parameter
correlations and is a key result of the dilatometer test. The horizontal stress index KD can be regarded as K0
amplified by the penetration. In genuinely NC clays (no aging, structure, cementation) the value of KD is KD,
NC » 2. The KD profile is similar in shape to the OCR profile, hence generally helpful for "understanding" the
soil deposit and its stress history.

Material Index ID (Soil Type)

ID =

Where u0 is the pre-insertion in situ pore pressure. The above definition of ID was introduced having observed
that the P0 and P1 profiles are systematically "close" to each other in clay and "distant" in sand. According to
Marchetti (1980), the soil type can be identified as follows:

clay 0.1 < ID < 0.6

silt 0.6 < ID < 1.8

sand 1.8 < ID < (10)

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Dilatometer Modulus ED
ED = 42.8 (P1 – P0)

ED in general should not be used as such, especially because it lacks information on stress history.
ED should be used only in combination with KD and ID. The symbol ED should not evoke special affinity with the
Young's modulus E'.

 Advantages:

1- Determine accurate values for strength or compressibility of the soil strata

2- Accurately measures the low strain shear wave velocity using the true interval method
3- Conclusion available at the spot.

 Disadvantage:
1- This method includes specific requirements for the preliminary reduction of dilatometer test data. It
does not specify how to assess or use soil properties for engineering design.
2- Test results for soils containing primarily gravel-sized particles and larger may not be useful without
additional research.
3- This method is not applicable to soils that cannot be penetrated by the dilatometer blade without
causing significant damage to the blade or its membrane.

Pressure meter (PMT)

A Pressure meter is a cylindrical device with flexible membrane that imposes a uniform pressure on borehole
wall. The applied pressure and the resulting deformation of the membrane are measured. The outward radial
horizontal deformation of membrane is only few millimeters. The PMT was invented by the Menard in 1962 -
1963 in France, where this test is widely used. National standards exist and geotechnical design is based
almost exclusively on this type of test. Over the years the PMT has been further developed in France, the
United Kingdom and Japan, and has found increasing acceptance in several countries. However, the PMT is
still a specialist tool, which requires experience in test performance and data interpretation .

The pressure meter are also used to measure in-situ deformations (compressibility) , in-situ horizontal stress
and strength of both soil and rock. Several types of pressure meters are available. They are:
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 Pavement and Foundation Engineering Design--Assignment 1

Pre-bored Pressure meter

Self boring Pressure meter
Full-Displacement Pressure enter(Powell & Uglow 1985)

 Pre-bored Pressure meter

The Pre-bored pressure meter, which is most commonly of the type, is inserted into the borehole. The test can
be used in a wide range of soils and rock conditions. Testing is usually Stress-Controlled. The instrument
consists of three expanding cells, and reading of the pressure and volume changes of the membrane (central
cell) are recorded as the pressure is increased and decreased. Ground disturbance due to borehole can be a
significant factor.

 Self-boring Pressure meter

The self boring pressure meter (SBP) is more sophisticated instrument that incorporates a drilling or cutter
head to advance itself without the use of borehole. There are much less disturbance effects than with the pre-
bored pressure meter. SBPs have been used in Varity of soils from sandy to very stiff clays to depth as greater
as 80 m.

 Full-Displacement Pressure meter

The Full displacement pressure meter is becoming increasingly available and has promising potential as a
valuable investigation tool. The pressure meter portion of the instrument is located at the behind of the cone
portion. The tool is pushed into the ground in the same manner as for CPTU. Although the method of insertion
cause disturbance, repeatable results are obtained.

Working Principle
This is an in-situ test carried out in bore hole by means of cylindrical expandable probe. The probe is inserted
in the boring and inflated against the side of the bore hole by pumping in fluid and the pressure and the
volume of the fluid continuously recorded.

Advantages
1- It is used in detecting the slip surfaces.
2- It can be conveniently used with drilling equipment or pushed in with direct push equipment.
3- While tests can be done in soft clay or loose sands, the test is best used in dense sands, hard clays and
weathered rock which cannot be tested with push equipment.

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 Pavement and Foundation Engineering Design--Assignment 1

Disadvantage
1- This test method does not cover the self-boring pressure meter, for which the hole is drilled by a
mechanical tool inside the hollow core of the probe.
2- Its standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns.

Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

The cone penetrometre test is a specialized quasi-static penetration profiling test performed independently of
drilled borings. The cone penetration test (CPT) is an in situ testing method used to determine the
geotechnical engineering properties of soils and delineating soil stratigraphy. It was initially developed in the
1950s at the Dutch Laboratory for Soil Mechanics in Delft to investigate soft soils. Based on this history it has
also been called the "Dutch cone test". Today, the CPT is one of the most used and accepted in situ test
methods for soil investigation worldwide.

The test is performed using a cylindrical penetrometer with a conical tip (cone) penetrating the ground at a
constant rate. During the penetration, the forces on the cone and the friction sleeve are measured. The
measurements are carried out using electronic transfer and data logging, with a measurement frequency that
can secure detailed information about the soil conditions.

Main applications

to determine the soil profile and identify the soils present.

to interpolate ground conditions between control boreholes.
to evaluate the engineering parameters of the soils and to assess the bearing capacity and
settlement of foundations.

Soil Classification
A. Sand

insertion of the cone into sand will give a high end resistance
low friction ratio
low pore pressure - quick dissipation of water (high permeability)

B. Clay

insertion of the cone into clay will give a low end resistance
high friction ratio
high pore pressure - slow dissipation of water (low permeability)

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 Advantages of CPT
1. It provides a continuous, or virtually continuous record of ground conditions.
2. It avoids the disturbance of the ground associated with boring and sampling,particularly that which
occurs with the Standard Penetration Test (SPT).
3. It is significantly cheaper.
4. It is faster by a factor of about 10.

 Disadvantages of CPT
1. Relatively high capital investment.
2. Requires skilled operators.
3. No soil sample recover, during a CPT.
4. Penetration can be restricted in gravel/cemented layers.

Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

The standard penetration test (SPT) is an in-situ dynamic penetration test designed to provide information on
the geotechnical engineering properties of soil. This is simple and relatively cheaper as compare to the other
penetration tests. This test method is used for the determination of shear strength and stiffness of the ground
and soil. The test procedure is described in the British Standard BS EN ISO 22476-3 and ASTM D1586.

Working Principle

The test uses a thick-walled sample tube, with an outside diameter of 50 mm and an inside diameter of
35 mm, and a length of around 650 mm. This is driven into the ground at the bottom of a borehole by blows
from a slide hammer with a weight of 63.5 kg (140 lb) falling through a distance of 760 mm (30 in). The sample
tube is driven 150 mm into the ground and then the number of blows needed for the tube to penetrate each
150 mm (6 in) up to a depth of
450 mm (18 in) is recorded.
The sum of the number of
blows required for the second
and third 6 inch of penetration
is termed the "standard
penetration resistance" or the
"N-value". In cases where 50
blows are insufficient to
advance it through a 150 mm
(6 in) interval the penetration
after 50 blows is recorded.

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This test works on the dropping of hammer of specific weight and at specific height with limited no of blows.

Soil Properties Obtained

The main purpose of the test is to provide an indication of the relative density of granular deposits, such as
sands and gravels from which it is virtually impossible to obtain undisturbed samples. This test method
provides a disturbed soil sample for moisture content determination and laboratory identification. Sample
quality is generally not suitable for advanced laboratory testing for engineering properties. The process of
driving the sampler will cause disturbance of the soil and change the engineering properties. Use of the thin
wall tube sampler may result in fewer disturbances in soft soils.

Advantages of SPT
1- Relatively quick and simple to perform.
2- One procedure.
3- Equipment and expertise for the test are widely available.
4- Provides a representative soil sample.
5- Provides useful index of relative strength compressibility of soil.
6- Able to penetrate dense layers, gravel, and fill.
7- The SPT is an in-situ test that reflects soil density, soil fabric, stress and strain history effects, and
horizontal effective stress which are known to influence the liquefaction resistance but are difficult to
obtain with undisturbed sample.
Disadvantages of SPT
1- Limited applicability to cohesive soils, gravels, cobbles boulders.
2- The test is not applicable in soft clays and silt.
3- In addition to overburden pressure and relative density the SPT-N values is also the function of soil
type, particle size, and stress history of the deposit.
4- Samples that are obtained from SPT are disturbed.

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