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Composite Structures xxx (2007) xxx–xxx

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An experimental investigation on shear behaviour of RC

T-beams strengthened with CFRP using photogrammetry
T.K. Lee a, R. Al-Mahaidi b,*

a
Maintenance Technology Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Vic. 3800, Australia
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Vic. 3800, Australia

Abstract

Photogrammetry is used to investigate the load-deformations characteristics of reinforced concrete T-beams strengthened with carbon
fibre reinforced polymer ‘CFRP’ plates. The technique is used to determine the displacement of a range of points on the beams’ surfaces
at selected load levels up to and after failure. Approximately 1500 targets were placed on each beam on the concrete surface as well as on
the L-shaped CFRP plates. The aims of the photogrammetric measurements are to determine the shear crack width development with
load and movements of the L-shaped CFRP plates relative to the concrete layer. Comparisons are carried out to determine the difference
in the deformation mechanism across the four experimental T-beams tested. Load–slip relationships of the L-shaped CFRP plates pro-
cessed from the photogrammetric measurements are compared against experimental results of the T-beams.
Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Photogrammetry; Non-contact measurements; CFRP; RC beams; Retrofitting

1. Introduction out on shear strengthening using L-shaped cured laminate

An innovative method of post-strengthening concrete
structures is the external bonding of fibre reinforced poly-
mers (FRP). The relative simplicity in the application com-
bined with the FRP’s superior corrosion resistance and
strength to weight ratio have led to gradual replacement
of conventional construction materials such as steel as
the preferred medium for strengthening. Its light weight
meant easier handing and application, which eliminates
the need for mechanical lifting or anchoring devices. This
in turn minimizes disruption to services for the duration
of the strengthening and maintenance process. Changes
in the dimensions of the retrofitted structures are only of
the order of a few millimetres.
Most previous studies of strengthening using advanced
FRP materials have investigated flexure. There has not
been as much research done in the field of shear strength-
ening of reinforced concrete beams. Investigation carried
*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: al-mahaidi@eng.monash.edu.au (R. Al-Mahaidi).
plates has been reported by EMPA [1,2], Czaderski [3],
Al-Mahaidi et al. [4], Lee and Al-Mahaidi [5,6] and Lee
[7]. In the present study, advanced photogrammetry mea-
surement technique is used to determine the shear deforma-
tion mechanisms of concrete T-beams retrofitted with
carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) strips.
2. Photogrammetry technique
Photogrammetry is the process of obtaining precise
measurements about physical objects by means of photog-
raphy. There are several categories depending on the
required applications. In this technique, images are taken
from camera stations or sensors positioned at close range
to the object. An in-depth review of the methodology will
not be carried out as it is beyond the scope of the present
investigation. The method has been proven to be effective
and has become a standard technique for precision indus-
trial inspection. For further details, readers are referred
to the numerous publications available such as Kraus
et al. [8], Atkinson [9], Armer [10] and Mikhail et al. [11].

0263-8223/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.compstruct.2006.12.012

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2 T.K. Lee, R. Al-Mahaidi / Composite Structures xxx (2007) xxx–xxx
Instead, an overview of the photogrammetry system used
in the experimental program is presented here.
Monitoring points or targets were placed at selected
locations on the beams’ surface. The targets are dull
coloured (black) rectangular labels with adhesive backing
and a highly reflective circular dot in the centre. The cen-
troid of the dot defines the position of the target. For each
beam, using a specifically designed camera, three-dimen-
sional digital photogrammetric measurements were made
at 12 camera locations or epochs at selected load levels.
The camera consists of a flash and digital data measure-
ment device that records and stores information about
the positions of the individual targets. The information is
then processed in a separate computer workstation and
results of the displacements of the individual targets are
available within minutes of the imagery being recorded.
The accuracy of the system is dependent mainly on the
camera hardware, scale of the object and geometry of the
survey. The camera hardware is related to factors such as
resolution and lens specification. In the photogrammetry
survey, co-ordinates of the targets are defined only in a rel-
ative sense. In processing the information, the results are
scaled to correspond to the actual size of the object. The
precision hence accuracy of the results are scaled accord-
ingly. Geometry of the survey relates to the number of
epochs and their position. Typically, precision and accu-
racy of the data increases as the number of epochs used
increases. A detailed review of the mathematical formula-
tion is not presented as it is beyond the scope of the present
study. Readers are referred to the numerous publications
available on digital close range photogrammetry in the lit-
erature. In the present investigation, the accuracy of the
surveys surpasses 1:100,000. The length of the beams was
6 m, which equates to an accuracy of ±0.06 mm.
In the present study, photogrammetry was used to deter-
mine the displacement of a range of points on the beams’
surface at selected load levels up to and after failure.
Approximately 1500 targets were placed on each beam
on the concrete surface as well as on the L-shaped CFRP
plates. The aims of the photogrammetric measurements
were to determine the shear crack width development with
load and movements of the L-shaped CFRP plates relative
to the concrete layer. Comparisons are carried out to deter-
mine the difference in the deformation mechanism across
the four T-beams. Load–slip relationships of the L-shaped
CFRP plates processed from the photogrammetric mea-
surements are compared against experimental results based
on direct-contact measurement devices such as linear vari-
able displacement transducers (LVDTs) and strain gauges.
Four large-scale beams were fabricated and tested to fail-
ure. Three of the beams were strengthened with L-shaped
CFRP laminate strips spaced at 0.75D, 0.60D and 0.50D
where D is the overall depth of the beam. The control beam
has no external CFRP reinforcement. The beams used in
the present study were designed to have high flexural capa-
city with the aim of determining the limits of the strength-
ening system. The experimental results are reported.
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Struct (2007), doi:10.1016/j.compstruct.2006.12.012
The approximate location of the photogrammetry mon-
itoring points on one of the beams tested is illustrated in
Fig. 1. Each target was approximately 25 mm wide by
12.5 mm high. Fig. 2 shows a photograph of the photo-
grammetry survey setup for beam ‘0.75D’. Several targets
were placed at the supports and actuators for cross check-
ing against results obtained using stringpots.
3. Load–deflection response
The load versus mid-span displacement behaviour of
each T-beam is illustrated and compared in Fig. 3. The load
shown in the diagrams corresponds to the measured support
loads at the span where failure occurred. The displacement
shown corresponds to readings from stringpots attached to
the bottom of the beams at mid-span. At the early stages of
loading, it can be observed that the stiffness of all the
beams were almost similar to each other. At higher load
levels, the strengthened beams exhibited a stiffer response
compared to the control beam. The CFRP reinforcement
had impeded shear crack propagation and growth.
Fig. 4 compares the load–deflection behaviours, at
selected locations of the T-beam ‘0.75D’, obtained using
photogrammetry measurements and stringpots. The figure
shows the support load versus mid-span deflections. The
displacements of single photogrammetry targets closest to
the soffit of the beams at the mid-span and load points were
compared with displacement results obtained from the
stringpots under the beams. For the photogrammetry sur-
vey, only the vertical co-ordinates of the targets, the y-val-
ues, were used in determining the displacements at different
load levels. The displacements of the targets were obtained
by subtracting the corresponding values at each load level
by the reference values taken at 0 kN. The photogramme-
try results obtained at post failure are not included in the
figures. The discrete points in the graphs designated as ‘x’
represent the load level at which photogrammetry measure-
ments were taken. Straight broken lines are plotted
between two consecutive points to give the full load–deflec-
tion curves.
It can be observed that the photogrammetry measure-
ments are in close agreement with the stringpot results.
Slight differences exist due to the photogrammetry targets
located at a higher level than the points where the string-
pots were attached.
4. Shear crack width development
Two major shear cracks were observed in the webs of
the failure span of all the beams except for beam ‘0.75D’.
In the latter, three major shear cracks formed. The devel-
opment of shear crack widths along the web depth at differ-
ent load levels are determined from the photogrammetry
measurements. The crack patterns have been reproduced
alongside the L-shaped CFRP plates and photogrammetry
targets, drawn as ‘+’ signs, in Fig. 5. Each major shear
crack is assigned a number ‘1’ or ‘2’ and in the case of beam
 ARTICLE IN PRESS

T.K. Lee, R. Al-Mahaidi / Composite Structures xxx (2007) xxx–xxx 3

CL
LOAD
POINT

y
Origin
(0,0,0) SUPPORT
x
z
(out of page +)

Fig. 1. Locations of targets on beam ‘0.75D’.

450

West Support Load (kN)

400
350
300
250
200
150 Stringpot
100
Photogrammetry
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Deflection at Midspan (mm)

Fig. 4. Support load (shear load) versus deflection response of beam

0.75D from stringpot and photogrammetry measurements.
Fig. 2. Photogrammetry targets location of beam ‘0.75D’.

angle formed at the intersection of the straight line joining

the centres of the target pairs and shear crack is as close as
450 possible to 90°. It can be observed from Fig. 5 that several
400 targets were intersected by the shear cracks. The displace-
350 ments of these targets are examined individually to deter-
Shear Load (kN)

300 mine which side of the shear crack they had shifted with.
250 In the present investigation, majority of these targets dis-
200 placed relative to both sides of the shear crack. These tar-
150 Control beam (West span) gets were omitted and the next nearest target was used
100 Beam ‘0.75D’ (West span) instead. In the graphs, some curves appear as discontinu-
Beam ‘0.60D’ (West span)
50 Beam ‘0.50D’ (East span) ous lines as targets on the L-shaped CFRP plates were
0 not considered. The crack width at a given depth was
0 5 10 15 20 25
approximated using Eq. (1), where x and y refers to the
Midspan displacement (mm) horizontal and vertical co-ordinates of the targets. The sub-
Fig. 3. Load–deflection behaviour of T-beams. scripts ‘L’ and ‘R’ refer to the location of the targets, that
is, left and right of the shear crack. The shear load level at a
given time is denoted by ‘i’ where ‘0’ corresponds to the ini-
‘0.75D’, the third shear crack assigned number ‘3’. At a tial photogrammetry survey taken at the time of zero load-
given load level, the crack width at a particular beam depth ing. The out of plane displacements were not taken into
is approximated using the displacement records of two tar- account in the equation. Displacements in this direction
gets. In the drawings, red lines joining the centres of two were minor and have an insignificant effect on the crack
targets indicate the target sets used to obtain the crack width. At a given target pair location, the depth of the
width profile along the beam depth. Target pairs are chosen shear crack is taken as the point of intersection between
as close as possible to the shear cracks and such that the the line joining the centres of the target pair and the shear

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300

Beam Depth (mm)

250 32 kN
96 kN
200 117 kN
143 kN
150 175 kN
1 2 199 kN
100 228 kN
233 kN
50
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
Crack Width (mm)

35 kN
300 85 kN

Beam Depth (mm)

126 kN
250
175 kN
3 200 230 kN
257 kN
2 150 284 kN
3
1 100 316 kN
349 kN
50
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
Crack Width (mm)

Fig. 6. Crack width development of shear crack ‘2’ across the depth of
web: (a) control beam and (b) beam 0.75D.
1

1 levels at the failure span at the time each survey was exe-
2 cuted. In all of the beams, the plot show that the shear
cracks either had not formed or remained relatively small
at low shear load levels. At higher load levels, the crack
widths can be observed to increase with load. The increase
in crack width between two consecutive load levels is signif-
icantly more in the control beam than in the strengthened
beams. At the final survey, the maximum average crack
width developed in the control beam, beams ‘0.75D’,
2 1 ‘0.60D’ and ‘0.50D’ was 4.4, 2.1, 1.7 and 2.5 mm, respec-
tively. Despite being subjected to a higher load level, the
1 crack widths were smaller in the strengthened beams com-
2 pared to the control beam. The implication is that the effect
of aggregate interlock is enhanced in the strengthened
beams. Therefore, the existing capacity of the beams, which
Fig. 5. Location of targets used in approximating the shear crack width: is the contribution from the concrete, is increased. The con-
(a) control beam, (b) beam 0.75D, (c) beam 0.60D and (d) beam 0.50D. tribution to the shear capacity of the strengthened T-beams
does not come entirely from the external shear reinforce-
ments but also from the concrete through the effect of
crack, measured from the soffit of the beam which is
aggregate interlock.
assumed to be at zero depth.
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Fig. 7 compares the crack width development of shear
Widthi 
2
ððxL;i  xL;0 Þ  ðxR;i  xR;0 ÞÞ þ ððy L;i  y L;0 Þ  ðy R;i  y R;0 ÞÞ
2 cracks ‘2’ at similar load levels across all the beams. The
locations of the major shear cracks ‘2’ formed at roughly
ð1Þ
similar locations in all of the beams. The shear load levels
Fig. 6 illustrates the shear crack width profile along the of each beam are shown in the figure. For a given load, the
web depth of the control beam and the 0.75D beam at var- crack width is smaller in the strengthened beams compared
ious stages of loading. The crack width was approximated to the control beam. The crack widths have been reduced
based on data sets where targets on the concrete overhang by at least half in the strengthened beams. It is difficult
in the failure span are held stationary. The load levels to determine distinct difference in the crack widths of
shown in the plots correspond to the average support load beams ‘0.60D’ and ‘0.50D’ at any given load. Nevertheless,

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450
300
400
Beam Depth (mm)

250 350

Shear load (kN)

300
200 250
200
150 Control Beam
Control Beam (175 kN) 150
Beam '0.75D' (175 kN) Beam ‘0.75D’
100 Beam '0.60D' (181 kN) 100 Beam ‘0.60D’
Beam '0.50D' (183 kN) 50 Beam ‘0.50D’
50 0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
Crack Width (mm) Average crack width (mm)

450
300 400
350
Beam Depth (mm)

Shear load (kN)

250
300
200 250
200
150 Control Beam
Control Beam (228 kN) 150
Beam '0.75D' (230 kN) Beam ‘0.75D’
100 100 Beam ‘0.60D’
Beam '0.60D' (216 kN)
Beam '0.50D' (225 kN) 50 Beam ‘0.50D’
50 0
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00
Crack Width (mm) Average crack width (mm)

Fig. 7. Comparison of ‘shear crack 2’ widths: (a) shear load  180 kN and Fig. 8. Comparison of average shear crack width development: (a) shear
(b) shear load  225 kN. crack 1 and (b) shear crack 2.

the crack widths are generally smaller than the crack
widths in beam ‘0.75D’.
Using advanced photogrammetry measurements, it has
been shown quantitatively that the presence of the external
L-shaped CFRP reinforcement has restricted the shear
crack width development and propagation. This implies
that the effect of aggregate interlock becomes more signif-
icant, hence, increasing the contribution of the concrete
to the existing shear capacity of the beam. During loading,
the crack widths in the strengthened beams are significantly
smaller compared to the control beam. There is no clear
difference in crack widths between beam ‘0.60D’ and beam
‘0.50D’ but they are generally smaller compared to beam
‘0.75D’.
Fig. 8 compares the average crack width development
of shear cracks ‘1’ and ‘2’ across the four T-beams.
Beyond the service load level, it can be observed clearly
that at any given load level, the average crack widths of
both shear cracks ‘1’ and ‘2’ were larger in the control
beam compared to all of the strengthened beams. At
high load levels, the average crack widths were smaller
in beam ‘0.75D’ compared to beams ‘0.60D’ and
‘0.50D’. The average crack width developments in beams
‘0.60D’ and ‘0.50D’ were fairly similar for most of the
loading. The smaller crack widths imply that the effect
of aggregate interlock is enhanced in the strengthened
beams compared to the control beam. In addition, it fol-
lows that concrete contribution to the shear capacity in
beams ‘0.60D’ and ‘0.50D’ is slightly higher compared
to beam ‘0.75D’.
5. CFRP–concrete slip
From the photogrammetry measurements, it is possible
to acquire the slip or relative displacement between the
L-shaped CFRP reinforcement and concrete at various
points of the web depth. In this section, slip is defined as
the relative movement between the CFRP and concrete
layer. Displacement records of the two columns of targets
on the concrete surface next to the individual L-shaped
CFRP reinforcement and on the CFRP themselves were
used to determine the slip behaviour. The slip was approx-
imated using Eq. (2), where the subscripts ‘cfrp’ and ‘conc’
refer to targets on the L-shaped CFRP reinforcement and
concrete surface respectively. The shear load level at a
given time is denoted by ‘i’ where ‘0’ corresponds to the ini-
tial photogrammetry survey taken at the time of zero load-
ing. Since the load was carried primarily by the L-shaped
CFRP reinforcement along its length, only the vertical
component (y-direction) of the targets’ displacement
records was considered in the equation. At each CFRP
location, two slip behaviour profiles can be obtained, one
from each side of the CFRP. The displacement data of tar-
gets on one side of the CFRP are used in conjunction with
the displacement data of targets on the concrete of the
same side to produce the slip profile. Ideally, slip should
be measured between the CFRP and the concrete layer
immediately below it. Nevertheless, the concrete layer next
to the CFRP reinforcement closely represents the behav-
iour of the concrete layer directly under the CFRP. In
the figure, the label CFRP ‘1’ refers to the external shear
reinforcement first from the support with increasing num-

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bers being the ones that follow. The results presented in the
figures herein are based on data sets where targets on the
concrete overhang in the failure span are held stationary.
Slipi  ðy cfrp;i  y cfrp;0 Þ  ðy conc;i  y conc;0 Þ ð2Þ
In addition to photogrammetry measurements, LVDTs
were also used for measuring slips as shown in Figs. 9
and 10. The comparisons of results obtained from the
two measurement methods are shown in Fig. 11. Since
the LVDTs and targets were placed on opposing sides of
the beams, targets located at heights similar or closest to
the LVDTs’ are adopted for the comparison. The height
of the targets and LVDTs are illustrated in the figures. In
the T-beams, the LVDTs were mounted onto the concrete
surface hence slip was measured with reference to the con- Fig. 10. LVDTs for slip measurement for beam ‘0.60D’.
crete. The steel fixtures on the CFRP were adhered to two
locations along the width. In the case of the photogramme-
try measurements, the displacement data of three targets
per location were used to calculate slip for comparison with Despite the LVDTs and photogrammetry targets being
slip obtained from the LVDTs, one on the concrete and located at different sides of the beams, the figures show that
two on the CFRP. The slip adopted in the figures corre- the slip behaviour obtained from both measurement
sponded to the average of the slip between the targets on systems are comparable. The general trends in the slip
both sides of the CFRP with respect to the target on the behaviour are similar although the photogrammetry mea-
concrete. The slip was approximated using Eq. (2), how- surements are less accurate compared to the LVDTs mea-
ever, with reference to the concrete instead. surements. Both measurement systems showed small slip

CL
1

Beam ‘0.75D’
CL
1 2

Beam ‘0.60D’
CL

1 2

Beam ‘0.50D’
Fig. 9. Locations of LVDTs for measuring slip.

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Fig. 11. Comparison of slip measured with LVDT and photogrammetry:
(a) beam ‘0.75D’, (b) beam ‘0.60D’ and (c) beam ‘0.50D’.
values at low load levels followed by a large increase after
shear cracks had formed.
Using advanced photogrammetry measurements, it has
been shown that majority of the CFRP reinforcement at
the failure shear span exhibited high slip values at the time
of the final survey. By using the slip range obtained from
the bond specimens as an indicator of debonding, the high
slip values observed in the T-beams indicated that the
CFRP reinforcement had debonded. At low shear load lev-
els, there was negligible slip between the CFRP reinforce-
ment and concrete until when shear cracks have begun to
form. The magnitude of slip is larger near locations where
the shear cracks had crossed the CFRP reinforcement com-
pared to locations further away from the shear crack. At
high shear load levels, slip was significant near the bend
zone of several CFRP in all of the beams. The slip behav-
iour obtained from both the photogrammetry targets and
LVDTs are comparable despite being located at different
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7
sides of the beams. This implies that debonding occurred
quite uniformly at both sides of the beam at the same
CFRP location.
6. Average strains in CFRP
The average strain development in the CFRP reinforce-
ment could be obtained from the photogrammetry mea-
surements. The strain on one side of the CFRP
reinforcement at a given time was calculated by dividing
the difference in the vertical displacements of only the top
and bottom most targets by the initial difference in height
between the two targets. The strain in the CFRP is then
the average of the values of both sides of the CFRP. In cal-
culating strain, the low accuracy of the photogrammetry
system necessitates the use of relatively large gauge lengths.
Since the accuracy of the system used is 0.06 mm, taking
the strain over a gauge length of 279 mm (distance between
the top and bottom rows of targets) results in strain accu-
racy of ±215le, which equates to a force in the CFRP of
approximately ±1.6 kN.
Fig. 12 illustrates the average strain development in the
individual CFRP reinforcement at the failure shear span of
the strengthened beams. It is evident that the average strain
obtained remained fairly small at the initial stages of load-
ing. Upon the formation of shear cracks, the average strain
increased significantly with the shear load level.
In beam ‘0.75D’, a significant increase in the tensile
strain occurred first in CFRP 2 and 3. This implied that
a significant proportion of the shear load was transferred
through this section of the shear span. The low average
strain in CFRP ‘1’ throughout loading indicated that only
small amount of shear force was transferred. Therefore,
this section of the shear span is a non-critical region. At
the time of the final survey, CFRP ‘2’ and ‘3’ exhibited very
high average strain values. This is consistent with the
observation of anchorage failure at the bend zone of the
two CFRP. CFRP ‘3’ exhibited the highest average strain
at the time of the final survey. This is similar to the results
obtained from the strain gauges whereby the average strain
values of the gauges on CFRP ‘3’ were the highest at the
peak load. It is possible that failure had occurred first at
the anchorage of CFRP ‘3’. The average force in CFRP
‘3’ at the time of the final survey was approximately
44.7 kN.
In beam ‘0.60D’, the first significant increase in tensile
strain occurred in CFRP ‘3’ followed by CFRP ‘4’ and then
CFRP ‘2’. The strain in CFRP ‘1’ remained relatively small
for most of the loading until approximately 310 kN,
beyond which the strain increased slightly. CFRP ‘3’ exhib-
ited the highest average strain at the time of the final sur-
vey, which is consistent with the observation of
anchorage failure at the bend zone of the CFRP reinforce-
ment. The average force in the CFRP was approximately
41.9 kN. It is also consistent with the observation that
the strain gauges on CFRP ‘3’ exhibited the highest average
strain at the peak load.
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8 T.K. Lee, R. Al-Mahaidi / Composite Structures xxx (2007) xxx–xxx

450 7. Conclusions
400
350 Advanced photogrammetry measurement technique was
Shear Load (kN)

300 used to determine the shear deformation mechanisms of

250 reinforced concrete T-beams retrofitted with CFRP L-
200 CFRP 1 strips. The measurements included crack width develop-
150 CFRP 2 ment, slip behaviour between the CFRP reinforcement
100 CFRP 3 and the concrete and average strain of the CFRP reinforce-
50 CFRP 4 ment. It has been shown that the presence of the external
0 CFRP shear reinforcement did not alter the basic shear
-500 1000 2500 4000 5500 7000
deformation mechanism of the T-beams investigated
Average Strain (x10-6)
herein. The deformation mechanisms in the strengthened
beams were still similar to the control beam except that
450
the width of the shear cracks was smaller.
400
The width of two major shear cracks in the web of the T-
Shear Load (kN)

350
300 beams was compared and it has been shown quantitatively
250 that the crack widths were significantly smaller in the
200 CFRP 1 strengthened beams compared to the control beam. There
CFRP 2 was no clear difference in the crack widths of the beams
150
CFRP 3 with CFRP reinforcement spacing of 0.60D and 0.50D.
100 CFRP 4
50 CFRP 5 However, they were smaller than the crack widths in beam
0 ‘0.75D’. The smaller shear crack widths in the strengthened
-500 1000 2500 4000 5500 7000 beams imply that the effect of aggregate interlock is more
Average Strain (x10-6) significant; therefore, the concrete contribution to the exist-
ing shear capacity of the beams increases.
450 In all of the beams, it was shown that the slip was insig-
400 nificant at low load levels. It remained so until shear cracks
350
Shear Load (kN)

begun to form. The slip was observed to be higher near

300
250
200
150
100
50
0 cally loaded CFRP reinforcement had debonded in all of
-500 1000 2500 4000
Average Strain (x10-6)
Fig. 12. Average strain development in CFRP: (a) beam ‘0.75D’, (b) beam
‘0.60D’ and (c) beam ‘0.50D’.
In beam ‘0.50D’, the increase in tensile strain occurred
first in CFRP ‘2’ followed by CFRP ‘3’ and then CFRP
‘4’. The strain in CFRP ‘1’ remained relatively small for
most of the loading until approximately 275 kN, beyond
which the strain increased slightly. CFRP ‘3’ exhibited
the highest average strain at the time of the final survey
with an average force of approximately 55.9 kN. The aver-
age strain as measured by the strain gauges on CFRP ‘3’
was also the highest at the peak load.
The general trends in the CFRP load–strain behaviour
from the photogrammetry measurements and strain gauges
are consistent with each other. The average strain in the
CFRP reinforcement remained fairly small at the initial
stages of loading, which increased significantly with load
upon the formation of shear cracks. The locations of the
CFRP reinforcement subjected to the most load obtained
from photogrammetry measurements are consistent with
observations from strain gauges in all of the beams.
locations where the shear cracks had intercepted the CFRP
CFRP 1 reinforcement compared to locations further away. The
CFRP 2 shape of the slip profile along the web depth from the shear
CFRP 3 crack is almost exponential. At the time of the final survey,
CFRP 4
CFRP 5 the slip profiles indicated that significant portions of criti-
5500 7000 the beams. At high shear load levels, slip was observed to
be significant near the bend zone of several CFRP in all
of the beams. Comparisons of the slip measured using pho-
togrammetry and LVDTs were carried out and it was
found that both measurement systems gave similar results.
This indicated that debonding had occurred quite uni-
formly at both sides of the beam at the same CFRP
location.
The average strain development in the individual CFRP
reinforcement at the failure shear span was also reported.
Similar to the observations of strain gauges on the CFRP
reinforcement, the average strain obtained from the photo-
grammetry measurements remained fairly small at the ini-
tial stages of loading. Upon the formation of shear
cracks, the average strain can be observed to increase sig-
nificantly with the shear load level. The locations of the
CFRP reinforcement subjected to the most load obtained
from photogrammetry measurements are consistent with
observations from strain gauges.
In the present study, the photogrammetry measurement
technique has provided much valuable information regard-
ing behaviour of the different components of the beams
with minimal preparation. To get similar amount of infor-

Please cite this article in press as: T.K. Lee, R. Al-Mahaidi, An experimental investigation on shear behaviour of RC ..., Compos
Struct (2007), doi:10.1016/j.compstruct.2006.12.012
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
T.K. Lee, R. Al-Mahaidi / Composite Structures xxx (2007) xxx–xxx
mation using conventional measurement devices may prove
to be too cumbersome and time consuming.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Australian Research Council,
DEST, Sika Australia Pty. Ltd. and Sika AG, Switzerland
for providing partial funding and the materials required for
this research.
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