Gravitation

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Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that every body in the universe attracts every other body with a force which is
directly proportional tot he product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of distance between their centres.
The force acts along the line joining the centres of the two bodies.
om
Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 that have a distance r between their centres as shown in fig. 15.1. According to
i.c
Newton’s law of gravitation, the magnitude of attractive force (F) between the two bodies is
F v m1 m2 ... (i)
1
and Fv ... (ii)
r2
Combining eqs. (i) and (ii), we have,
Fv
m1 m2
r2
ad
B
m1 m2
or F G ... (iii)
r2
where G is a constant of proportionality and is called universal gravitational constant. In SI units, the value of G is
et
G 6.67 u10 11 Nm 2 kg 2

&
As shown in fig. 15.1 mass m2 attracts mass m1 with a gravitational force F that is directed toward m2. And mass m1 attracts
& & &
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mass m2 with a force F that is directed toward m1. The forces F and F from action-reaction pair and are opposite in
direction but equal in magnitude.
(i) The gravitational force between two bodies is always attractive.
(ii) The value of G does not depend upon the nature and size of the masses. It also does not depend upon the nature of the
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medium between the two bodies. Indeed, G is truly universal; both observation and theory suggest that it has the same
value throughout the universe.
(iii) The gravitational force of attraction between two bodies is not altered by the presence of other bodies. Thus one mass
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will experience the same attractive force from a second body, independently of whether or not a third mass is placed
between them.
(iv) G is measured experimentally. The small value of G ( 6.67 u1011 N m 2 kg 2 ) tells us tat the force of attraction between
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ordinary sized objects is very small. For example, if m1 = 10 kg, m2 = 100 kg and r = 1 m, then magnitude of gravitational
attraction force between the two bodies is
m1 m 2 (10)(100)
F G (6.67 u10 11 ) u 6.67 u108 N
r2 (1) 2
Note that the force is extremely small. We can measure the gravitational force if one of the two interacting objects is
quite massive e.g., you and earth. The attractive force of earth on you can be easily measured. It is your weight.
Dimensional formula of G = [M–1 L3 T–2]
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m1m2
(v) F G
r2
If m1 = m2 = 1 and r = 1, then F = G
Hence universal gravitational constant is equal to the force of attraction between two bodies each of unit mass placed
unit distance (centre-to-centre) apart.
(vi) This law fails if the distance between the objects is less than 10 –9 m i.e. of the order of intermolecular distances.
Note. Strictly speaking, Newton’s law of gravitation is valid for point masses. However, in the circumstances listed below,
it can be used for real objects of masses m1 and m2 whose centres are a distance r apart.
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(a) It is value for two bodies of any size provided they each have spherical symmetry e.g., the sun and the earth is a good
approximation.
(b) It is valid when one body has spherical symmetry and the other is small compared with the separation of their centres
e.g., the earth and the brick.
(c) It is a good approximation when neither body has spherical symmetry but where both are small compared with the
i.c
separation of their centres e.g., two bricks a few metres apart.
Vector form of newton’s law of gravitation
We can write Newton’s law of universal gravitation in vector form as :
ad
B
et
& m1 m2
F12 G rˆ21 ... (i)
r212
.N
&
where F12 is the force on mas m1 exerted by mas m2 which is a distance r21 away ; r̂21 is a unit vector that points from m2 to m1
& &
along the line joining their centres. Therefore, rˆ21 r21 / r21 where r21 is the displacement vector as shown in fig. 15.3. (i). The
w
minu sign in eq. (i) is necessary since the force on m1 due to m2 points in the direction opposite to r̂21 . The displacement vector
&
r21 but it points in the opposite direction so that
& &
r12 r21
w
& &
By Newton’s third law, the force F12 acting on m2 due to m1 must have the same magnitude as F12 but acts in the opposite
direction [see fig. 15.3 (ii)] so that
w
& & m1 m2
F21 F12 G rˆ21
r212
& m1 m2
? F21 G rˆ12
r122
& &
Note. The law of universal gravitation should not be confused with Newton’s second law of motion F ma . The former
describes a particular force - the gravitational force of attraction - and how its value varies with the distance and masses
2
involved. On the other hand, Newton’s second law relates the force on a body - it can be any force - to the mass and acceleration
of that body.
Intertial and gravitational masses
Mass is the basic property of matter. We normally define the mass of a body as the quantity of matter contained in the body.
This notion of the mass of the body is not precise because the concept “quantity of matter” is itself not well defined. Mass
makes itself evident in two very different ways viz.
(i) According to Newton’s second law of motion. F = mi a. Here mass mi of an object is the proportionality factor between
the net force F applied on the object and the object’s acceleration a. Thus the mass of an object is that property of the
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object which causes it to resist a change in its linear velocity. In other words, the mass of a body is a measure of its
inertia. For this reason, the mass that appears in Newton’s second law of motion is called inertial mass. Suppose a
runaway grocery cart loaded with groceries is rolling out of control in a supermarket and you must stop the cart before
it crashes into a stack of cans. The force required to stop the cart depends on its inertial mass.
Applied force
? Inertial mass
Acceleration produced
i.c
F
or mi
a
(ii) We have see that the mass of an object also appears in Newton’s law of universal gravitation. The magnitude F of the
gravitational force on an object of mass mg due to another object of mass M is
?
F G
mg M
r2
Gravitational mass, mg
Fr 2
ad
B
GM
In this expression, the mass of an object is that property of the object that causes it to be attracted to another body by the
gravitational force. In other words, mass of a body is a measure of gravitational force on the body. For this reason, the
et
mass that appears in Newton’s law of gravitation is often called the gravitational mass. Suppose you are holding a bag
of groceries while waiting for your friend. The force you must exert while holding the bag depends on the gravitational
mass of the bag of groceries.
Conclusion. From the above discussion, we find that mass of a body makes itself evident in two very different ways. On the
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one hand, it is a measure of an object’s resistance to a change of velocity (inertial mass) and on the other hand, it is a measure
of an object’s gravitational attraction to other objects in its environment (gravitational mass). Thus the difficulty you encountered
in stopping the runaway cart has nothing to do with its gravitational mass. Similarly, the effort you exerted in holding the bag
of groceries has nothing to do with its inertial mass.
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Now it is not at all obvious that the inertial mass of a body should be equal to its gravitational mass. However, careful experiments
show that they are equal. For example, if we have to push twice as hard on body A as we do on body B to produce a given
acceleration, then the force of gravitational attraction between body A and some third body C is twice as great as the gravitational
attraction between body B and C, at the same distance. Therefore, we need not maintain the distinction between mi and mg and
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can put mi = mg.

Note. The following points may be noted about inertial mass of gravitational mass:
(a) Both are measured in the same units.
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(b) Both are scalar quantities.

(c) Inertial mass is not affected due to the presence of other bodies. However, gravitational mass is affected due to the
presence of other bodies.
Expression for Acceleration due to gravity
Consider earth to be a sphere of mass ME and radius RE. Suppose a body of mass m is placed on the surface of the earth as
shown in fig. 15.4. It is *legitimate to consider that the whole mass ME of the earth is concentrated at its centre. It is reasonable
to assume that the distance between m and ME is equal to radius RE of the earth. According to the law of gravitation, the force
of attraction acting on the body due to earth is given by ;
3
om
M Em
F G ... (i)
RE2
This attractive force which the earth exerts on the object is simply the weight (= mg) of the object i.e.,
i.c
F = mg ... (ii)
GM E m
From eqs. (i) and (ii), mg
RE2
or g
GM E
E E2
ad ... (iii)
Eq. (iii) gives the expression for acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth. The following points may be noted:
(i) Eq. (iii) shows that the value of go does not depend on the mass m of the body. Thus if two bodies of different masses are
B
allowed to fall freely, they will have the same acceleration. If they are allowed to fall from the same height, they will
reach the earth simultaneously.
(ii) Both G and ME are constant and RE (= distance between the centres of body and earth) does not change appreciably for
et
small variation in height near the surface of the earth. Therefore, the acceleration due to gravity of an object near the
surface of earth is approximately constant and does not depend on the mass of the object.
(iii) We can easily extend eq. (iii) to find the gravitational acceleration at the surface of any planet of mass M P and radius RP.
Mass and density of earth
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Using the law of universal gravitation and the measured value of the acceleration due to gravity, we can find the mass and
density of earth.
(i) Mass of earth. The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth is given by;
GM E
w
g
RE2
gRE2
w
? Mass of earth, ME ... (i)

G
Now g = 9.8 ms–2; RE 6.37 u106 m ; G 6.67 u10 11 N m 2 kg 2

w
(9.8) u (6.37 u106 ) 2

? Mass of earth ME 6 u 10 24 kg (approximately )
6.67 u1011
(ii) Density of earth. Let U be the average density of the earth. Earth is a sphere of radius RE.
§4 3 ·
? ¨ 3 S RE ¸ U
© ¹
4
4
? ME S RE3 U ... (ii)
3
4 3 gRE2
From eqs. (i) and (ii), S RE U
3 G
3g
? Average density of earth, U 4S RE G
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Now g 9.8 ms 2 ; RE 6.37 u106 m ; G 6.67 u10 11 N m 2 kg 2 .
3 u 9.8
? Average density of earth, U 4S u (6.37 u106 ) u 6.67 u10 11
5.5 u 103 kg m 3
i.c
This is the average density of the entire earth and is 5.5 times the density of water.
Variations in the value of g
The value of acceleration due to gravity (g) varies as we go above or below the surface of the earth. It also varies from place to
place on the surface of the earth.
ad
B
et
1. Variation of g with altitude. Consider earth to be a sphere of radius R and mass M. The acceleration due to gravity on the
surface of earth (point Q in fig. 15.5) is
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GM
g ... (i)
R2
Consider a point P at a height h above the surface of the earth. The acceleration due to gravity at point P is
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GM
gc ... (ii)
( R h) 2
Dividing eq. (ii) by eq. (i), we have,
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gc R2 R2
g ( R h) 2 § h·
2
R 2 ¨1 ¸
w
© R¹
g
gc 2
or § h· ... (iii)
¨1 ¸
© R¹
Therefore, g c g . Thus as we go above the surface of earth, acceleration due to gravity goes on decreasing. For example, at
a height equal to the radius of the earth (i.e., h = R = 6400 km), we have,
5
g g
gc 2
§ R· 4
¨1 ¸
© R¹
Eq. (iii) can be written as :
2
§ h·
gc g ¨1 ¸
© R¹
om
§ 2h h·
g ¨1 terms containing higher power of ¸
© R R ¹
If h is small compared to R, higher power of h/R can be neglected.
§ 2h ·
? gc g ¨1 ¸
i.c
© R¹
Eq. (iv) may be used when h is small as compared to R. However, if h is comparable to R, then eq. (iii) may be used. Note that
acceleration due to gravity is maximum at the surface of the earth.
Note. We can calculate the %age decrease in the value of g with height h as under:
From eq. (iv), we have,
gc
§ 2h ·
g ¨1 ¸
g gc
© R¹
2hg
ad
B
or
R
g gc 2h

et
or g R ... fractional decrease in g
? % age decrease in the value of g with height h is

g gc 2h
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u100 u100
g R
2. Variation of g with depth. Consider the earth to be a sphere of radius R and mass M. The acceleration due to gravity at point
Q on the surface of the earth is
w
GM
g
R2
If U is the density of the earth, then,
w
4
Mass of earth, M S R3 U
3
w
§4 ·
G ¨ S R2 U ¸
? g ©3 ¹
R2
4
or g S RG U ... (v)
3
6
om
Consider a point P which is inside the earth and at a depth h below the surface of the earth. Its distance from the centre O is
(R – h) as radius. The acceleration due to gravity gc at P is * only due to the sphere of radius (R – h).
GM c
? gc
( R h) 2
i.c
where M c = mass of inner solid sphere (shaded portion)
4
S ( R h )3 U
3
? gc
ª4
( R h) 2
Dividing eq. (vi) by eq. (v), we have,

º
G « S ( R h )3 » U
¬3 ¼
ad ... (vi)
B
gc Rh
g R
et
§ h·
or gc g ¨1 ¸ ... (vii)
© R¹
There g c g . Thus as we go below the surface of the earth, the acceleration due to gravity goes on decreasing and becomes
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zero at the centre of the earth (where h = R).

w
w
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Fig. 15.7 shows the variation of gc as a function of r where r is the distance from the centre of the earth.
R2
**Outside the earth, g c g
r2
For points outside the earth g c v 1/ r 2 . The maximum value of g c( g ) is obtained at the surface of earth where r = R.
7
r
***Inside the earth, g c g
R
Thus inside the earth, g c v r . In order words, inside the earth (assuming uniform earth density), g c varies linearly with the
distance fro the centre of the earth. It is easy to see that the value of g c( g ) is maximum at the surface of the earth and it is zero
at the centre of the earth. That is why the weight of a body at the centre of the earth is zero through its mass is constant.
Note. We can calculate the % age decrease in the value of g with depth h inside the earth as under.
From eq. (vii), we have,
om
§ h·
gc g ¨1 ¸
© R¹
hg
or g gc
R
i.c
g gc hg
or g R ... fractional decrease in g
? % age decrease in the value of g with depth h inside the earth is

g gc
g
u100
h
R
u100
ad
3. Variation of g with latitude. The value of acceleration due to gravity (g) changes due to the change in latitude. This is due
to two reasons: (i) shape of the earth and (ii) rotation of the earth about its own axis. The latitude at a place on the surface of
earth is defined as the angle which the line joining the place to the centre of the earth makes with the equatorial plane. It is
B
denoted by O . Thus referring to fig. 15.8, the latitude at place P POE O . It is clear that O 900 at poles and O 00 at
the equator.
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(i) Shape of the earth. The earth is not a perfect sphere. It flattens at the poles (where O 900 ) and bulges out at the equator
(where O 900 ). Its equatorial radius Re is nearly 21 km larger than the polar radius Rp. We know that value of g depends upon
the radius (R) of the earth.
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r P F A
w
N-pole C
P
R mg (180 - )
Equator
W O R E W E
O R B
w
S-pole
OE = R
S
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Fig. 15.8 Fig. 15.9
GM
g
R2
Since G and M are constant, g v 1/ R 2
Thus the value of g at a place on the surface of earth varies inversely as the square of the radius of earth at that place. The radius
of earth is least at the poles and greatest at the equator. Therefore, the value of g is maximum at the poles and least at the
equator. In fact, as we go from the equator toward the poles, 8 the radius of earth goes on decreasing and hence the value of g
goes on increasing. The value of g at the equator is 9.78 m s–2 whereas at poles, it is 9.83 ms–2.
(ii) Rotation of Earth. Earth is rotating about its own axis at an angular velocity Z (= one revolution per 24 hours). The line
joining the north and south poles is the axis of rotation. As a result of rotation, every point on the earth moves along a circular
path with the same angular velocity Z . A point at the equator moves in a circle of radius equal tot he radius of earth and the
centre of the circle is the same as the centre of the earth. For any other point on the earth the circle of rotation is smaller than
this.
Consider earth to be sphere of mass M and radius R. Suppose a particle of mass m is situated at point P on the surface of the
earth [see fig. 15.9]. Let O be the latitude of the point P i.e., POE O . Suppose g is the acceleration due to gravity in the
absence of rotational motion of the earth. In that case, the particle at P would have been attracted toward the centre O of the
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earth. Therefore true weight mg of the particle is directed toward O and is represented by the vector PO .
Due to rotation of earth, the particle at P moves along a circular path whose centre is C and radius r = (= CP). Since
OPC O , r R cos O . The centrifugal force on the particle due to rotational motion of the each acts along the radius of the
circular path and in outward direction. The magnitude of centrifugal force is given by;
i.c
FC mrZ 2
mRZ 2 cos O
)))&
The centrifugal force is represented by the vector PA . The apparent weight mgc of the particle is equal to the resultant of
)))&
actual weight (= mg) and the centrifugal force FC ( mrZ 2 cos O ) . Complete the parallelogram PABO. The diagonal PB of the
parallelogram represents the apparent weight mgc of the particle.
Now
or
( PB ) 2
( mg c) 2
ad
PO 2 PA2 2 PO u PA u cos (180 0 O )
( mg ) 2 ( mRZ 2 cos O ) 2 2 u mg u mRZ 2 cos O ( cos O )

B
1/ 2
ª R 2Z 4 cos 2 O 2 RZ 2 cos 2 O º
or gc g «1 »
¬ g2 g ¼
et
2S
Now R 6.4 u106 m ; Z rad / sec and g 9.8 ms 2
24 u 60 u 600
2
RZ 2 6.4 u 106 § 2S ·
.N
? u¨ ¸ 3.45 u 103
g 9.8 © 24 u 60 u 60 ¹
As RZ 2 / g is very small, R 4Z 4 / g 2 will be still smaller. Therefore, neglecting the factor containing R 2Z 4 / g 2 , we get,
w
1/ 2
ª 2 RZ 2 cos 2 O º
gc g «1 »
¬ g ¼
w
ª 1 2 RZ 2 cos 2 O º
g «1 u higher terms »
¬ 2 g ¼
w
Neglecting the terms containing higher powers of RZ 2 cos 2 O / g , we have,
ª RZ 2 º
gc g «1 cos 2 O »
¬ g ¼
or gc g RZ 2 cos 2 O ... (viii)

From eq. (viii), it is clear that acceleration due to gravity :
(a) decreases on account of rotation of the earth.
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(b) increases with the increases in the latitude of the place ( cos O decrease as O increases). This means that value of g
increases as we go from equator to the poles.
At equator. At equator O 00 so that cos O cos 00 1
? ge g RZ 2 ... minimum
Therefore, value of acceleration due to gravity is minimum at the equator. This is expected because the particle at the equator
executes a circle of maximum radius. Therefore, the centrifugal force is maximum.
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At poles. At poles, O 900 so that cos O cos900 0
? gp g
Hence the value of g is maximum at the poles. This is expected because the particle at the pole moves in a circle of zero radius.
Therefore, no centrifugal force acts on the particle. As a result, the value of gp remains the same whether the earth is at rest or
rotating.
i.c
Notes (i) g p ge g ( g RZ 2 ) RZ 2
? g p ge RZ 2
2S
Note that R 6.4 u 106 m and Z rad / s.
24 u 60 u 60
ad
(ii) When a body of mass m is moved from equator to pole, the increase in weight
m ( g p ge ) mRZ 2
B
et
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w
w
w
10
Orbital Velocity and Time Period of Earth Satellite

Satellite can be launched from earth’s surface to circle to earth. These are called earth satellites. In practice, the satellite is
carried by a rocket to a certain height and then given a suitable velocity in a direction parallel to the tangent of the orbit. The
satellite is kept in its orbit by the gravitational attraction of the earth.
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(i) Orbital Velocity. The velocity required to put a satellite into a given orbit is called orbital velocity. This velocity is imparted
i.c
in a direction parallel to the tangent of the orbit.
Suppose a satellite of mass m i to be put into circular orbit around the earth at a height h above its surface as shown in fig. 16.4.
Consider the earth to be a sphere of mass M and radius R. Then the radius of the orbit of the satellite is (R + h). Suppose v is
the magnitude of the orbital velocity required by the satellite at this height. This velocity will be imparted in a direction parallel
to the tangent of the orbit.
FC
( R h)
ad
The centripetal force required to keep the satellite in the circular orbit is
mv 2
... (i)
B
The centripetal force is provided by the gravitational force exerted by the earth on the satellite. According to Newton’s law of
universal gravitation, the magnitude of this force is
GMm
et
Fg ... (ii)
( R h) 2
mv 2 GMm
?
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Rh ( R h )2
GM
or v ... (iii)
Rh
w
The satellite at this speed will continuously move in a circular orbit of radius (R + h). Note that orbital speed of an earth satellite
is independent of the mass of the satellite and depends only upon its height h above the earth’s surface. Greater is the height h
of the satellite above the earth’s surface, smaller i the orbital speed of the satellite, two satellites of different masses revolving
in the same orbit around the earth will have the same orbital speed.
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The orbital speed can be written in another equivalent form. The acceleration due to gravity (g) on the earth’s surface is
GM
g or GM gR 2
w
R2
Putting GM = gR2 in eq. (iii), we have,
gR 2
v
( R h)
g
or v R ... (iv)
( R h)
11
Both eqs. (iii) and (iv) give the orbital speed of the satellite circling the earth at a height h above the earth’s surface.
Special Case. When the satellite orbits very close to the surface of the earth, h = 0. Therefore, eqs. (iii) and (iv) becomes:
GM
v ... (v)
R
and v gR ... (vi)

Both eqs. () and (vi) can be used to find the orbital speed of the satellite close to the surface of the earth.
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Now, v gR
R 6.4 u106 m ; g 9.8 ms 2
? v 9.8 u 6.4 u106 8 u103 ms 1 8 km s 1 (approx.)

Thus the orbital speed of the satellite close to earth’s surface is about 8 km s–1. In practice, the satellite is carried by a rocket to
i.c
the rocket to the height of the orbit and then given an impulse, by firing jets, to deflect it in a direction parallel to the tangent of
the orbit. Since this motion may continue indefinitely, we may say that the orbit is stable.
Note. The orbital velocity of a satellite revolving around any planet is
GM P
vP
( RP h )
Here MP = mass of the planet; RP = radius of the planet. ad

Note that vP depends upon MP, RP and h ( = height of satellite above the planet’s surface).
(ii) Time period of satellite. The time taken by the satellite to complete one revolution around the earth is called time period
B
of the satellite. It is denoted by T.
Circumference of the orbit

T
et
Time period, Orbital speed
2S ( R h)
or T ... (vii)
v
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Putting the value of v given by eq. (iii), we have,
2S ( R h) ( R h) 3
T 2S
[Gm / R h]1/ 2 GM
w
( R h) 3
? T 2S ... (viii)
GM
w
Putting the value of v given by eq. (iv) in eq. (vii)
2S ( R h) 2S ( R h )3
T
w
g R g
R
Rh
2S ( R h) 3
? T ... (ix)
R g
Time period of the satellite can also be given in yet another form.
12
4
Mass of earth, M = volume u Density = S R3 u U
3
Putting the value of M in eq. (viii), we have,
( R h)3 1 3S ( R h)3
T 2S u
G 4
S R3 U G U R3
3
om
3S ( R h)3
? T ... (x)
G U R3
Any of the three eqs. (viii), (ix) and (x) can be used to find the time period of the satellite. It is clear from these equations that
the time period of the satellite depends only upon its height above the earth’s surface. The greater is the height of a satellite
above the earth’s surface, the greater is its period of revolution. It is for this reason that the moon, which is at a height of
i.c
3.84 u 105 km above earth, completes one revolution in about 27 days while an artificial satellite circling close to the earth’ss
surface completes 10 to 20 revolutions in a day.
Special case. When the satellite orbits very close to the surface of the earth, h 0 . Therefore, eqs. (viii), (ix) and (x) respectively
become:
T
2S
2S
R3
GM
R
ad ... (xi)
... (xii)
B
g
3S
et
T ... (xiii)
GU
R
Now T 2S
.N
Here R 6.4 u 106 m ; g 9.8 ms 2
6.4 u 06
? 2S
w
T 5075 seconds 84 minutes.

9.8
Thus the orbital speed of a satellite revolving very near to the earth’s surface is about 8 km s –1 and its period of revolution is
nearly 84 minutes.
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(iii) Height of Satellite above earth’s surface. The time period of the satellite is given by eq. (ix) as:
2S ( R h) 3
T
w
R g
Squaring both sides, we get,
4S 2 ( R h)3
T2
R2 g
gR 2T 2
or ( R h) 3
4S 2
13
1/3
§ gR 2T 2 ·
or Rh ¨ 2 ¸
© 4S ¹
1/3
§ gR 2T 2 ·
or h ¨ 2 ¸
R
© 4S ¹
If we know the time period T of the satellite, radius R of earth and acceleration due to gravity (g) at earth’s surface, the height
h of the satellite above earth’s surface can be calculated.
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Note. For potential energy and kinetic energy of a satellite, the reader should refer to chapter 17, article 17.8
Stationary Satellites
We have seen that time period of an artificial satellite circling the earth depends only upon its height above earth’s surface. The
time period of an artificial earth satellite orbiting very close to the surface of earth is 84 minutes i.e., the satellite will take 84
minutes to complete one revolution around the earth. Since the period of revolution of earth about its own axis is 24 hours, such
i.c
an artificial satellite will appear to the amoving w.r.t. the earth. If the height of an artificial satellite above earth’s surface is such
that its period of revolution is 24 hours, then the motion of the satellite will be synchronous with the earth’s axial rotation. As
a result, the satellite will remain stationary relative to the earth. In other words, the satellite will stay over the same place above
the earth while the earth rotates. Such a satellite is called geostationary or simply stationary satellite. The orbit of geostationary
satellite is sometimes called parking orbital. Most communication satellites are geostationary satellites so that information can
be transmitted from one part of the world to another.
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B
et
Fig 16.5. shows the orbit of geometry satellite. Note that the geostationary satellite revolves around the earth from *west to east
in a close circular orbit and coplanar with the equatorial plane.
(i) Height of parking orbit above earth’s surface. We know that time period T of an artificial earth satellite is given by ;
.N
2S ( R h) 2
T ... (i)
R g
w
Here R = Radius of earth = 6400 km

T = Time period = 24 hours = 24 u 60 u 60 s
h = Height of the artificial satellite above earth’s surface, corresponding to T = 24 hours
w
g = 9.8 ms–2 = 0.0098 km s–2
2S (6400 h)3
? 24 u 60 u 60
w
6400 0.0098
or h 36000 km
Thus a stationary satellite orbits around the earth at a height 36000 km above earth’s surface. Since the motion of the satellite
is synchronous with earth’s rotation about its axis, the satellite will always appear to be over the same place relative to an
observed on the earth. It is interesting to note [see eq. (i) above], that height of the parking orbit above earth’s surface does not
depend upon the mass of the satellite.
(ii) Speed of Satellite in parking orbit. Radius of parking orbit, RP = R + h = 6400 + 3600 = 42400 km. Speed of the satellite
in the parking orbit is
14
Circumference of parking orbit

v
Time period of satellite
2S RP 2S u 42400
or v 3.1 km s 1
24 hours 24 u 60 u 60
Thus a geostationary satellite revolves around the earth at a height of 36000 km above earth’s surface with an orbital speed of
3.1 km s–1.
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Placing the satellite in parking orbit. When a satellite is to be placed in the parking orbit, it is first carried to a height of
36000 k above earth’s surface. It is then given the necessary tangential velocity v (= 3.1 km s –1) by firing rocket engines which
ar aligned parallel to earth’s surface. In order to put a satellite in the parking orbit, the following conditions must be satisfied.
(i) It should revolve in an orbit concentric and coplanar with the equatorial plane.
(ii) Its motion should be synchronous with the axial rotation of the earth. In other words, the time period of the satellite should
be 24 hours.
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(iii) It should rotate in the same direction as the earth is rotating.
(iv) The height of the parking orbit should be 36000 km above the earth’s surface.
Escape Velocity
If a ball is thrown upwards from the surface of the earth, its speed decreases from the moment it is projected due to the retarding
effect of earth’s gravitational field. It would simply rise to a certain height, reverse direction and then fall back to earth. The
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height which the ball ultimately attains depends upon the speed with which it is projected - the greater the speed, the greater the
height. Ultimately, at a certain velocity of projection, the body will go out of the gravitational field and will never return to the
earth. The minimum projection velocity that achieves this is known as the escape velocity.
The escape velocity of a body is the minimum velocity with which it is to be projected so that it just overcomes the gravitational
pull of the earth (or any other planet). Since earth’s gravitational field extends to infinity (however weak it may be at large
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distances), escape velocity is obviously the velocity that must be given to an object for it to escape all the way to infinity.
In order to project a body with escape velocity, we give kinetic energy to it. Let us calculate this energy. Consider earth to be
a sphere of mass M and radius R. Suppose a body of mass m is projected upward with escape velocity Ve. When the body is at
et
point P at a distance x from the centre of the earth, the gravitational force of attraction exerted by the earth on the body [See fig.
16.8] is
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w
w
w
Mm
F G
x2
In moving a small distance 'x against this gravitational force, the small work done at the expense of the kinetic energy of the
body is given by :
15
Mm
'W F 'x G 'x
x2
Therefore, total work done (W) in moving the body from earth’s surface (where x = R) to infinity (where x f ) is given by :
f f
GMm
W ³
R x2
dx GMm ³ x 2 dx
R
f
ª 1º GMm
GMm « »
om
¬ x ¼R R
GMm
? W
R
If the body is to be able to do this amount of work (and so escape), it needs to have atleast this amount of kinetic energy at the
moment it is projected. Therefore, escape velocity Ve is given by:
i.c
1 GMm
mVe2
2 R
2GM
or Ve
g
GM
R2
R
ad or GM gR 2
... (i)
The escape velocity can be written in another equivalent form. The acceleration due to gravity at the surface of earth is
B
Putting GM gR 2 in eq. (i), we have,
et
2 gR 2
Ve 2 gR
R
? Ve 2 gR ... (ii)
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The escape velocity can also be expressed in terms of density and radius of the earth.
4
Mass of earth, M S R3 U
3
w
Putting the value of M in eq. (i), we have,
2G 4 8 2SU G
Ve u S R3 U SU GR 2 D
R 3 3 3
w
2SU G
? Ve D ... (iii)
3
w
Here D = 2R = diameter of earth.

Note that denser planet have greater escape velocities.
The escape speed from earth’s surface can be calculated from any of the eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii). Note that escape speed does not
depend on the mass of the body. It is the same for all masses. It may be noted that escape velocity has been derived by
neglecting resistance due to air. The following points may be noted:
(i) The escape velocity does not depend upon the direction of projection. This is because the kinetic energy a body
loses in reaching any particular height depends only on the height concerned and not the path taken to reach it.
(ii) The escape velocity is related in a simple way to the orbital velocity close to the surface of earth.
16
Ve 2 gR 2 v 1.41 v
where v = orbital velocity close to surface of earth = gR

The *escape speed is only 41% grater than the speed of a satellite close to the surface of the earth.
(iii) The escape velocity from the earth’s surface is
Ve 2 gR
9.8 ms 2 ; R 6.37 u106 m
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Now g
? Ve 2 u 9.8 u 6.37 u 10 6 11.2 u 103 ms 1 11.2 km s 1

Therefore, with an initial velocity of about 11.2 km s–1, a rocket will completely escape fro the gravitational attraction of the
earth. For example, it can be made to travel toward the moon so that eventually it comes under the gravitational attraction of the
moon. At present, “soft landings” on the moon have been made by firing retarding retro rockets.
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(iv) The molecules of air at normal temperature and pressure have average velocity of the order of 480 ms–1 which is much less
than the velocity of escape. Therefore, the gravitational attraction of earth keeps the atmosphere round the earth. The gravitational
attraction of the moon is much less than that of the earth and accounts for the lack of atmosphere round the moon.
(v) Since escape velocity depends upon the mass and radius of the planet, it is different for different planets.
Planetary Motion and Kepler’s Laws
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The study of planetary motion played a pivotal role in the development of physics. The German astronomer Johannes Kepler
(1571 - 1630) made a detailed study of the motion of planets about the sun. He worked out three empirical laws that govern the
motion of planets about the sun. These ar now known as Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. These laws were all empirical
and had no theoretical basis. So Kepler knew how the planets moved in their orbits, but not why they did so. We now discuss
each law in turn. Although we apply the laws here to planets orbiting the sun, they hold equally well for satellites (natural or
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artificial) orbiting the earth or any other massive central body.
Kepler’s Firs Law. The path of each planet about the sun is an *ellipse with sun at the one focus (see fig. 16.9) of the ellipse.
In other words, each planet moves around the sun in an elliptical path with sun at one focus. By using law of universal
et
gravitation, Newton showed that the general path of a planet under the influence of an inverse-square law of force is an ellipse
with the centre of force at one focus if the path is closed.
Kepler’s Second Law. Each planet moves in such a way that an imaginary line drawn fro the sun to the planet sweeps out equal
areas in equal periods of time (see fig. 16.10). The second law can be used to predict the speed of a planet in one part of its orbit
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if we know its speed in another part. For example, suppose a planet takes one month to go from A to B (see fig. 16.10). If we
draw the pie-shaped sectors AB and CSD so that each sector has the same area, then according to second law, the planet will
also take one month to go from C to D. Since are CD is longer than the arc AB and the times of travel are the same, the speed
along CD is greater than the speed along AB. In other words, a planet must be moving faster when it is closer to the sun and vice
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- versa.
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We have already discussed the relation between Kepler’s second law and angular momentum in chapter 13. The time rate of
area (dA/dt) swept out by a planet is directly proportional to the angular momentum of the planet about the sun i.e.,
dA
v Angular momentum of planet about the sun
dt
The dominant force on each planet is the gravitational attraction of the sun which is a radially directed force that exerts no
torque on the planet. Thus the torque on the planets in their orbits in zero and the angular momentum of any planet about the sun
17
is constant.
dA
? Constant
dt
This means that for a given planet, dA/dt is constant i.e., the time rate at which the planet sweeps out an area is constant. This
is Kepler’s second law (equal areas in equal times).
Kepler’s third law. The square of the period of any planet (time needed for one revolution about the sun) is directly proportional
to the cube of the planet’s average distance from the sun. If T is the period of the planet and r is its average distance from the
sun, then,
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T 2 v r3
T2
or Constant
r3
Thus T2/r3 is the same for all planets. Hence smaller the orbit of the planet around the sun, the shorter the time it takes to
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complete one revolution. If T1 and T2 are the periods of two planets and r1 and r2 are their respective average distances from the
sun, then,
T12 T22
r13 r23
or
T12
T22
r13
r23
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We know how that Kepler’s third law follows from the law of universal gravitation. We make the approximation that the orbits
of the planets are circles (Most of the planetary orbits are fairly close to a circle, which is a special case of an ellipse). It is also
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approximately true that the orbital speed is constant.
Consider a planet of mass m revolving around the sum of mass M in a circular orbit of radius r as shown in fig. 16.11. Suppose
v is the orbital speed of the planet and T is its time period. The sun’s gravitational force F on the planet is
et
GmM
F
r2
Because the mass of the sum is so much larger than the mass of the planet, we can assume (as Kepler did) that the sum lies at
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the centre of the orbit. Therefore, the centripetal force FC acting on the planet is
w
w
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2
mv 2 m § 2S r · 4S 2 mr
FC ¨ ¸
r r© T ¹ T2
This centripetal force is provided by the sun’s gravitational force on the planet.
GmM 4S 2 mr
?
r2 T2
18
T2 4S 2
or
r3 GM
The quantities 4S 2 , G and M are constant
T2
? Constant
r3
This is Kepler’s third law. We have derived Kepler’s third law only for uniform circular motion of the planet but the result is
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true for elliptical orbits if we use the average distance from the sun for r.
Note: Kepler worked out these laws without knowing their underlying causer is a remarkable example of perseverance. The
cause of planetary motion became clear only when Newton introduced laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation.
Derivation of Newton’s law of gravitation from Kepler’s third law
Newton was able to show that Kepler’s laws could be derived mathematically from his law of universal gravitation and his laws
of motion. Indeed, he used Kepler’s third law as evidence in favour of his law of universal gravitation.
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We now show that Newton’s law of universal gravitation follows from Kepler’s third law. We make the approximation that
orbits of the planets are circles. Consider a planet of mass m revolving around the sun of mass M in a circular orbit of radius r
(Refer back to fig. 16.11). Suppose v is the orbital speed of the planet and T is its time period. In time T, the planet travels a
distance 2S r .
or
T
v
2S r
v
2S r
T
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The centripetal force F required to keep the planet in the circular orbit is
2
mv 2 m § 2S r · 4S 2 mr
et
F ¨ ¸
T r© T ¹ T2
4S 2 mr
or F
T2
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This centripetal force is provided by the sun’s gravitational force on the planet.
According to Kepler’s third law.
T2
constant k or T2 kr 3
w
r3
Putting T 2 kr 3 in eq. (i), we have,
w
4S 2 mr
F
kr 3
4S 2 m
w
or F u 2 ... (ii)
k r
Note that F is the force exerted on the planet by the sun. We see that force on the planet is directly proportional to the mass of
the planet and inversely proportional to the square of distance of the planet from the sun. By the law of action and reaction, this
equals in magnitude to the force exerted on the sun by the planet. Since the force exerted by the planet on the sun is proportional
to the mass of the planet, the symmetry suggests that the force exerted by the sun on the planet is proportional to the mass M of
the sun i.e.,
4S 2
vM
k
19
4S 2
or v GM ... (iii)
k
where G is a constant of proportionality independent of the mass of the sun or planet. It is called universal gravitational
constant. From eqs. (ii) and (iii), we have,
mM
F G
r2
This is Newton’s law of universal gravitation.
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20
Gravitational Field, Energy and Potential

Introduction
Most of the forces we meet in everyday life are contact forces: you push or pull a lawn roller, a tennis racket exerts a force on
a tennis ball when they make contact or a ball exerts a force on a windows when they make contact. But the gravitational force
acts over a distance; there is a force even when the two objects are not in contact. For example, earth exerts a force on the
falling apple; it also exerts a force on the moon, 3.84 u 10 5 km away. And the sun exerts a gravitational force on the earth. Such
a description is termed as action at a distance because objects exert gravitational force on each other even though they are not
in contact.
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There is an alternative way of looking at gravity that avoids explicit reference to a force acting between distant objects. A 1 kg
object placed at some point near the surface of earth experiences a force of 9.8 N downward. A 2 kg object placed at the same
point experiences twice the force downward. We ascribe this force not to a direct interaction between the earth and each object
but rather to a gravitational field that exists around the earth. According to the field concept, a gravitational field surrounds
every body that has mass and theoretically it extends to infinity. Thus we can explain the force exerted by earth on the falling
apple by using field concept. The earth creates a gravitational field in the space surrounding it. The apple at a particular
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location near the earth feels a force because of earth’s gravitational field that exists there. It may be noted, however, that a field
should not be thought of as a kind of matter. It is a concept, invented by humans, to analyse the world. In this chapter, we shall
discuss the important concept of gravitational field, gravitational energy and gravitational potential.
Gravitational field
Consider an isolated body of mass M as shown in fig. 17.1. If a small test mass m is placed near it (say it point P), the mass m
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experiences a force of attraction. The question arises, how does M exert force on m? The answer is that M sets up gravitational
field in the space surround it. The gravitational field of M exerts a force on m placed at P.
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et
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The gravitational field due to a material body is the space around the body in which any other mass experiences a force of
attraction. Theoretically, the gravitational field due to a material body extends up to infinity. However, the effect of gravitational
field decreases as the distance from the body is increased. We represent the gravitational field of a mass by field lines. Fig. 17.2
shows the gravitational field of the earth. The lines with arrows are called field lines. Their direction is determined in the
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following way. If a small mass m (called the *test mass) is placed at a point such as A, it will be attracted toward the earth’s
centre as shown in fig. 17.2. The field lines show us the direction of gravitational force on the test mass. Since we know masses
are always attracted toward the earth’s centre, the gravitational field lines must be directed radially inward. The field lines
reveal an important feature. Note that field lines are closer together near the earth than they are at more distant points. Since we
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know that earth’s gravitational force is strongest close to the earth, the closeness of the gravitational field lines is a measure of
the strength of the gravitational field.
Gravitational field strength
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The gravitational field strength at a point in a gravitational field is defined as the force per unit mass acting on a test mass
&
placed at that point. It is a vector quantity and is denoted by E .
Consider an isolated body of mass M as shown in fig. 17.3. The mass M sets up gravitational field in the space surrounding it.
&
If a small test mass m placed at P experiences an attractive force F , then gravitational field strength at P is
&
& F
E
m
Since gravitational field strength is a force experienced per unit mass, its unit is N/kg. Note that gravitational field strength is
21
a vector quantity. Its direction is that in which a test mass would move under the influence of the field. It may be noted that
gravitational field strength is also called gravitational field intensity.
Notes.
(i) Gravitational field is directed towards the centre of gravity of the body. Clearly, for a spherical body, it will be directed
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towards the geometric centre.
(ii) Its units are N/kg or ms–2 and the dimensional formula is [M0LT–2]
Gravitational field strength due to earth
Consider earth to be a sphere of radius R and mass M as shown in fig. 17.4. Suppose we want to find the gravitational field
strength due to earth at point P distant r from the centre O of the earth. If a test mass m is placed at point P, then gravitational
force exerted by earth on the test mass is
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GMm
F ... Law of gravitation
r2
By definition, the magnitude of gravitational field strength at point P is
F GMm 1
?
E
E
m
GM
r2
r2
u
m
ad
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The direction of gravitational field is along PO i.e., gravitational field is directed toward the centre of the earth. We have
already seen in the previous chapter that acceleration due to earth’s gravity at any point P at a height h above the surface of earth
is
et
GM
gc
( R h) 2
where R + h = distance of point P from the centre of earth = r
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GM
? E gc
r2
Note that symbol g c is used for gravitational field strength as for acceleration due to earth’s gravity. This is because they are
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one and the same thing i.e., the field strength at a point in a gravitational field is equal to the gravitational acceleration of any
mass placed at that point. At the surface of earth, r = R so that gravitational field strength at a point on the surface of earth is
w
c
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22
GM
Gravitational field strength = g
R2
Note that g is the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of earth.
Fig. 17.5 shows the graph between gravitational field strength as a function of distance from the centre of the earth. It is
assumed that the density of the earth is uniform. Inside the earth, g c is directly proportional to the distance from the centre.
Therefore, g c increases linearly from zero at the centre to g ( GM / R 2 ) at the surface. Outside earth’s surface, g c is inversely
proportional to the square of distance from the centre of earth. Note that g c( g GM / R 2 ) is maximum at the surface of
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earth.
Note: We know that
GM
E
r2
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Clearly, the intensity (or strength) of gravitational is zero at infinity.
Gravitational Potential Energy
In chapter 12, we considered the gravitational potential energy of a body near the surface of the earth. It was proved that
gravitational potential energy of a body of mass m raised through a height h is
Gravitational P.E. = mgh
ad
This expression mgh for gravitational potential energy is an approximation based on the assumption that g is constant - an
assumption that is approximately valid near the surface of earth. If we wish to determine the gravitational potential energy of an
object that is far removed from the earth’s surface, then eq. (i) is inadequate. We cannot expect eq. (i) to be appropriate for
describing the potential energy of the earth-moon system or even of an artificial satellite orbiting the earth. In eq. (i), we
arbitrarily assume that gravitational potential energy of a body is zero at the earth’s surface. Since the gravitational force is
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attractive, the gravitational potential energy will be zero at infinity. In other words, gravitational potential energy of a body near
the earth’s surface is negative and becomes less negative (i.e., grater) as it moves away from the earth. The maximum potential
energy is zero, the value obtained at infinite distance from the earth’s centre.
et
General expression for gravitational potential energy

The gravitational potential energy of a body at a point in the gravitational field is defined as the amount of work done in
bringing the body from infinity to that point. Because work is obtained (not done) in bringing the body from infinity to the
desired point, the gravitational potential energy is always negative.
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We now derive the general expression for gravitational potential energy of a body in the gravitational field of the earth.
Consider the earth to be a sphere of radius R and mass M . Suppose a body of mass m is situated outside the earth at a point A
at a distance r from the centre of earth [see fig. 17.6]. It is desired to find the *potential energy of the body at point A(OA = r).
By definition, the gravitational potential energy UA of the body at point A is
23
UA = W.D. in bringing the body from infinity to point A.

Suppose at any instant the body is at point B at a distance x from the centre of the earth (i.e., OB = x). The gravitational force
exerted by earth on the body at B is
GMm
F
x2
Small amount of work done when body moves from B to C (where BC = dx) is
GMm
om
dW F dx dx
x2
Total work done by the gravitational force when the body of mass m moves from infinity to point A is
r r
GMm 1
W
f
³ x2
dx GMm ³
f x
2
dx
i.c
r
x 1 ª1 1 º GMm
GMm GMm « »
1 f ¬r f¼ r
GMm
or W
UA
r
r
ad
Therefore, gravitational potential energy (UA) of a body of mass m at a distance r from the centre of the earth is
GMm
... (i)
B
Eq. (i) reveals that a body’s gravitational potential energy is negative near the earth’s surface and becomes less negative
(i.e., greater) as it moves away from the earth. The maximum gravitational potential energy of a body is zero at r f . This is
in agreement with out previous observation that objects have more gravitational potential energy as they move away from the
et
earth.
Important Points
(i) The negative potential energy indicates that work is done by the gravitational force as the body moves toward the
earth. Therefore, the potential energy of the body decreases. It follows that a body at infinity would ‘fall’ towards the
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earth; a body on the earth does not ‘fall’ to infinity.

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(ii) The gravitational potential energy of a body of mass m at a distance r 1 from the centre of earth is [see fig. 17.7]
GMm
U1
r1
The gravitational potential energy of the body at a distance r 2 from the centre of earth (r2 > r1) is
24
GMm
U2
r2
Change in potential energy is
§ GMm · § GMm · ª1 1 º
'P.E. U 2 U 1 ¨ ¸¨ ¸ GMm « »
© r2 ¹ © r1 ¹ ¬ r1 r2 ¼
Since r1 < r2, the change in potential energy is positive. It means that if the body is moved away from the earth, the gravitational
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potential energy of the body increases. Conversely, the gravitational potential energy of a body decreases as it is brought closer
to the earth.
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(iii) ad
We now show that near the sum of earth, the gravitational potential energy of a body of mass m is mgh where h is the
height of the body above the surface of earth. Consider a body of mass m at rest on the surface of earth (point A in fig.
17.8). The gravitational potential energy of the body at the surface of earth is
B
GMm
UA (R radius of earth)
R
et
We then lift it to a height h (point B) above the surface of the earth. The gravitational potential energy of the body now is
GMm
UB
( R h)
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? Increase in potential energy of the body is
§ GMm · § GMm ·
' P.E. U B U A ¨ ¸¨ ¸
© Rh ¹ © R ¹
w
§1 1 ·
GMm ¨ ¸
© R Rh¹
w
ª h º
? 'P.E GMm « » ... (ii)
¬ R ( R h) ¼
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If R >> h (i.e., the body is closed to the surface of earth), h can be neglected as compared to R.
GMmh
? 'P.E .
R2
GM
We know that g
R2
Therefore, the above expression becomes:
25
' P.E. mgh

Thus for changes in position near earth’s surface eqs. (ii) and (iii) both give the same answer. For motion over distances that are
not small compared with the earth’s radius, you must use eq. (ii).
Escape velocity from energy principle
If you fire projectile upward, it slows down, stops momentarily and return to earth. However, there is a certain initial velocity
that will cause it to move upward forever, theoretically coming to rest only at infinity. This initial velocity is called escape
velocity. Consider a body of mass m leaving earth with escape velocity Ve.
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1
Initial K.E. of body = mVe2
2
GM * m
Initial P.E. of body = ( r R)
R
§1 2 · § GMm ·
Total initial energy = ¨ mVe ¸ ¨
i.c
¸
© 2 ¹ © R ¹
When the projectile reaches infinity, it stops and thus has no kinetic energy. It also has zero potential energy because potential
energy of a body is zero at infinity. From the principle o conservation of energy, its total energy at the earth’s surface must also
have been zero.
or
§1
1
2
m Ve2
2·
¹ ©
§ GMm ·
¨ 2 mVe ¸ ¨ R ¸
©
GMm
R
¹
0
ad
B
2GM
or Escape velocity, Ve ... (iv)
R
et
GM
As g , therefore, GM = gR2. Putting Gm = gR2 in eq. (iv), we have,
R2
.N
2
Ve u gR 2 2 gR ... (v)
R
The reader may note that eqs. (iv) and (v) represent the same equations for escape velocity derived earlier. here the derivation
is based on energy principle and gives more insight to the problem.
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Upward Projected Body

Consider a body of mass m projected vertically upward from the surface of earth with an initial velocity v 0. Let the body attain
a maximum height h. Suppose earth is a sphere of radius R and mass M. It is desired to find the relationship between v 0 and h.
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Initially, the body has kinetic energy (K.E.) as well as potential energy (P.E.) given by;
1 2
Initial K.E. of the body = mv0
2
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GMm
Initial P.E. of the body ( r R radius of earth )
R
1 2 § GMm ·
Total initial energy of the body = mv0 ¨ ¸
2 © R ¹
At maximum height h, the K.E. of the body is zero and its distance from the centre of the earth is r = R + h.
26
GMm GMm
? Total final energy of the body 0
( R h) ( R h)
According to principle of conservation of energy, the total energy of the body remains the same.
1 2 § GMm · GMm
? mv0 ¨ ¸
2 © R ¹ ( R h)
1 2 GM GM
v0
om
or 2 R ( R h)
ª1 1 º
or v02 2GM « »
¬ R ( R h) ¼
ª1 1 º
i.c
v0 2GM «
h) »¼
or
¬ R ( R
2GMh
or v0 ... (i)
R ( R h)
Now g = GM/R2 so that GM = gR2. Putting GM = gR2 in eq. (i), we have,
v0
2h
R ( R h)
u gR 2
2 ghR
( R h)
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B
2 ghR
v0 ... (ii)
( R h)
et
Both eqs. (i) and (ii) give the relationship between the initial velocity v0 and the maximum height h to which the body can
ascend.
Special case. If h << R (i.e., the height o the body is close to earth’s surface), then h may be neglected as compared to R so that
.N
eq. (ii) becomes:
v0 2 gh ... (iii)
This is the same equation which we derived earlier for a uniform gravitational field. Note that eq. (ii) is correct for all heights.
However, eq. (iii) is approximately true if the height attained by the body is small.
w
K.E. and P.E. of a Satellite

A satellite in orbit round the earth has both kinetic energy (K.E.) and potential energy (P.E.). Consider earth to be a sphere of
radius R and mass M. Suppose a satellite of mass m moves round the earth in a circular orbit at a height h above the surface of
w
the earth. The radius of the orbit of the satellite is (R + h). If v is the speed of the satellite in the orbit, then,
1 2
K.E. of the satellite = mv
2
w
The gravitational force exerted by the earth on the satellite is
GMm
F
( R h) 2
This gravitational force provides the necessary centripetal force (= mv2/R + h) to the satellite to move in the circular orbit of
radius (R + h).
27
mv 2 GMm
? Rh ( R h )2
GMm
or mv 2
Rh
1 2 GMm
or mv
2 2( R h)
om
GMm
? K.E. of satellite, K ... (i)
2( R h)
Eq. (i) gives the K.E. of the satellite at a height h above the surface of the earth.
The potential energy of the satellite at a height h above the earth’s surface is
i.c
GMm
P.E. of satellite ... (ii)
( R h)
GMm § GMm ·
? Total energy of satellite, E ¨ ¸
2( R h) © R h ¹
or
The following points may be noted:

E
GMm
2( R h ) ad
B
(i) P.E. of satellite = 2 u K .E. of satellite
(ii) The total energy of the satellite in the orbit is negative. It has a special meaning. At infinity ( R h f ) , the
et
potential energy as well as kinetic energy is zero. Therefore, total energy is zero. The kinetic energy can never be negative.
Therefore, a negative total energy means that in order to send the satellite to infinity, we have to give energy to the satellite i.e.,
positive work must be done to free the satellite from the gravitational force. Unless a revolving satellite gets extra energy, it
would not leave its orbit i.e., it will go on revolving in a closed orbit. We say that the satellite is bound to the earth.
.N
Binding energy of satellite. It is the energy required to remove the satellite from its orbital around the earth to infinity. At
infinity, the total energy of the satellite is zero.
? Binding energy of satellite = 0 – (Total energy of satellite)
§ GMm ·
w
GMm
¨ ¸
© 2( R h) ¹ 2( R h)
Gravitational potential
w
The gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational field is defined as the amount of work done in bringing a body of unit
mass from infinity (where the potential is zero) to that point i.e.
W
w
V
m
where V = gravitational potential at some point.
W = W.D. in bringing mass m from infinity to that point.
The SI unit of gravitational potential is J kg–1 and its dimensional formula is [M0L2T–2]. Suppose we want to find the gravitational
potential at a point P (outside the earth) at a distance r from the centre of the earth. We know that the amount of work done in
bringing a body of mass m from infinity to point P is
GMm
W
r
28
? Gravitational potential at point P in earth’s gravitational field is

GMm 1 GM
VP u
r m r
GM
or VP
r
Note that gravitational potential is always negative; it is zero at infinity. It follows that a body at infinity would ‘fall’ towards the
earth; a body on the earth does not ‘fall’ to infinity.
om
(i) The gravitational potential (like gravitational potential energy) is a scalar quantity.
(ii) The gravitational potential at earth’s surface is
GM
V (r = R = radius of earth)
R
(iii) The gravitational potential energy of a body of mass m at a point where the gravitational potential is V i given by;
i.c
GMm
Gravitational P.E. = mV
r
where r = R + h = Distance of mass m from the centre of earth
P.E. at earth surface =
P.E. at centre of earth

GMm

R
3 G * Mm
2 R
( h
ad
0)
B
(iv) For large distances from the earth (e.g. when a rocket travels from earth to moon), the change in potential energy of the
rocket can only be calculated by using the following relation ;
Change in gravitational P.E. = mass u change in gravitational potential
et
For small distance above the earth, however, the gravitational force on a mass is fairly constant. So the change in potential
energy in this case can be calculated using force u distance or mgh.
Relation between gravitational field and potential
.N
Suppose that a particle of mass m is moved by a force F from A to B in the gravitational field E (see fig. 17.12). Suppose that
AB 'r where 'r where 'r is so small that F can be considered constant between A and B.
Work done 'W is gong from A to B is
'W F 'r
w
F
By definition, E
m
w
The minus sign is necessary because E and F are oppositely directed

? 'W mE 'r
'W
w
By definition, gravitational potential 'V

m
'W 'V
? E 'r or 'V E 'r or E
m 'r
'V
In the limit, E
dr
The quantity dV/dr is called potential gradient i.e. rate of change of gravitational potential with distance.
29

Gravitation

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G 6.67 u10 11 Nm 2 kg 2

can put mi = mg.

(b) Both are scalar quantities.

? Mass of earth, ME ... (i)

Now g = 9.8 ms–2; RE 6.37 u106 m ; G 6.67 u10 11 N m 2 kg 2

(9.8) u (6.37 u106 ) 2

or g R ... fractional decrease in g

? % age decrease in the value of g with height h is

Dividing eq. (vi) by eq. (v), we have,

zero at the centre of the earth (where h = R).

? % age decrease in the value of g with depth h inside the earth is

Fig. 15.8 Fig. 15.9

( mg ) 2  ( mRZ 2 cos O ) 2  2 u mg u mRZ 2 cos O (  cos O )

Neglecting the terms containing higher powers of RZ 2 cos 2 O / g , we have,

or gc g  RZ 2 cos 2 O ... (viii)

Orbital Velocity and Time Period of Earth Satellite

and v gR ... (vi)

R 6.4 u106 m ; g 9.8 ms 2

? v 9.8 u 6.4 u106 8 u103 ms 1 8 km s 1 (approx.)

Here MP = mass of the planet; RP = radius of the planet. ad

Circumference of the orbit

Time period, Orbital speed

Putting the value of v given by eq. (iii), we have,

Putting the value of v given by eq. (iv) in eq. (vii)

Here R 6.4 u 106 m ; g 9.8 ms 2

T 5075 seconds 84 minutes.

Here R = Radius of earth = 6400 km

g = 9.8 ms–2 = 0.0098 km s–2

Circumference of parking orbit

Putting the value of M in eq. (i), we have,

Here D = 2R = diameter of earth.

where v = orbital velocity close to surface of earth = gR

9.8 ms 2 ; R 6.37 u106 m

? Ve 2 u 9.8 u 6.37 u 10 6 11.2 u 103 ms 1 11.2 km s 1

The quantities 4S 2 , G and M are constant

Gravitational Field, Energy and Potential

General expression for gravitational potential energy

UA = W.D. in bringing the body from infinity to point A.

earth; a body on the earth does not ‘fall’ to infinity.

? Increase in potential energy of the body is

' P.E. mgh

Upward Projected Body

eq. (ii) becomes:

K.E. and P.E. of a Satellite

The gravitational force exerted by the earth on the satellite is

The following points may be noted:

? Gravitational potential at point P in earth’s gravitational field is

P.E. at earth surface = 

P.E. at centre of earth

The minus sign is necessary because E and F are oppositely directed

By definition, gravitational potential 'V

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G 6.67 u10 11 Nm 2 kg 2

Now g = 9.8 ms–2; RE 6.37 u106 m ; G 6.67 u10 11 N m 2 kg 2

( mg ) 2 ( mRZ 2 cos O ) 2 2 u mg u mRZ 2 cos O ( cos O )

or gc g RZ 2 cos 2 O ... (viii)

R 6.4 u106 m ; g 9.8 ms 2

? v 9.8 u 6.4 u106 8 u103 ms 1 8 km s 1 (approx.)

Here R 6.4 u 106 m ; g 9.8 ms 2

9.8 ms 2 ; R 6.37 u106 m

? Ve 2 u 9.8 u 6.37 u 10 6 11.2 u 103 ms 1 11.2 km s 1

P.E. at earth surface =