Topic 5: Ecology & Evolution

5.1 Communities and Ecosystems

Define ecology, ecosystem, population, community, species and habitat.
 Ecology - the study of relationships between living organisms and between organisms
and their environment.
 Ecosystem - a system made up of organisms as well as the abiotic factors in the area.
 Population - a group of organisms of the same species who live in the same area at the
same time
 Community - a group of populations living and interacting with each other in an area
 Species - a group of organisms which can interbreed and produce fertile offspring
 Habitat - the environment in which a species normally lives or the location of a living
organism

Define autotroph (producer), heterotroph (consumer), detritivore and saprotrophs

(decomposer).
 Autotrophs - also known as producers, they can make their own food - main producers
are photosynthesizers, which utilize the sun's energy and convert it into chemical
energy, which they use to build their bodies. Considered net producers of O2.
 Heterotroph - are consumers, they feed on ready-made organic material, they cannot
synthesize their own food, and they are considered net producers of CO2.
 Detritivore - organisms that feed on the detritus (thus detritivore) and decomposing
organic material of living organisms (e.g. dung beetle).
 Saprotrophs or decomposers- organisms that feed on dead organisms and products of
living organisms. They secrete enzymes on these materials that cause decomposition,
and then they absorb the resulting simple compounds into their bodies. So they do not
ingest whole food, but rather, they absorb decomposed and digested food. Examples are
bacteria and fungi.

Describe what is meant by a food chain giving three examples, each with at least three
linkages (four organisms).
 A food chain is a linear and simple feeding relation, where one organism has one type of
food and is eaten by one type of organism. For example:
1. Mosquito larva --->beetle --->mouse--->snake
2. Plankton---->krill---->mullet--->shark
3. Earwig---->lizard--->shrew-->owl
4. Clams---->starfish--->sea otters--->orcas
5. Periwinkle plant--->moth--->frog--->snake---->hawk
Describe what is meant by a food web
 A food web is more complex than a food chain and it includes a larger variety of
organisms. Each of which feed on a variety of other organisms and they are in turn fed
on by more organisms. Therefore, if one species becomes extinct the ecosystem will still
be able to exist. A drawing will be inserted at a later date of a food web.

Define trophic level.

 Trophic Level: Position in the food chain, determined by the number of energy-transfer
steps to that level; a functional classification of taxa within a community that is based on
feeding relationships (e.g., plants make up the first trophic level, herbivores make up
the second).

Deduce the trophic level of organisms in a food chain and a food web.
 Plants or any other photosynthetic organisms are the producers. Primary consumers
are the species that eat the producers. Secondary consumers are the species that eat
the primary consumers and tertiary consumers in turn eat the secondary consumers. 

Construct a food wed containing up to 10 organisms, using appropriate information.

State that light is the initial energy source for almost all communities.
 Light is the initial energy source for almost all communities.

Explain energy flow in a food chain. 

 Energy losses between trophic levels include material not consumed or material not
assimilated and heat loss through cell respiration. Also, energy flows (basically) from
the sun to producers to herbivores to carnivores.
State that when energy transformations take place, including those in living organisms, the
process is never 100% efficient, commonly between 10-20%.
 When energy transformations take place, including those in living organisms, the
process is never 100% efficient, commonly between 10-20%.

Explain what is meant by a pyramid of energy and the reasons for its shape.
 A pyramid of energy shows the flow of energy from one trophic level to the next in a
community. The units of pyramids of energy are therefore energy per unit area per unit
time.

Explain that energy can enter and leave an ecosystem, but that nutrients must be recycled.
 Energy can enter and leave an ecosystem but nutrients must be recycled. Sun light is the
main source of energy on this planet. It is absorbed by photosynthesizing organisms,
which convert light to chemical energy. Nutrients must be recycled by obtaining them
from other organisms or products of organisms
Draw the carbon cycle to show the processes involved.

Explain the role of saprotrophic bacteria and fungi (decomposers) in recycling nutrients.
 These organisms feed on dead organisms and products of living organisms. They secrete
enzymes on these materials that cause decomposition, and then they absorb
decomposed and digested foods. They absorb only what they need to survive, the
remainder of the nutrients are reabsorbed into the ecosystem. They are essential as
they unlock these nutrients, readying them for reabsorption. Examples include many
species of bacteria and fungi. These are essential organisms to an ecosystem, since they
cause recycling of materials between biotic and abiotic parts of the ecosystem.
5.2 The Greenhouse Effect
Draw and label a diagram of the carbon cycle to show the processes involved.
Analyse the changes in concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide using historical
records.

 The enhanced greenhouse effect and rapidly increasing growth in the level of atmospheric
CO2 since 1958 measured at Mauna Loa, Hawaii is crucial evidence that the Earth is
becoming warmer annually. Although there are many different reasons of global warming,
scientists have found that human additions cause the significant increase in global warming.
Before 1960s, the U.S. and other countries were not industrialized compared to 2010; there
weren’t many factories and cars back a couple of decades ago. However, improvement in
technologies, increasing demands on automobile production, booming in population, and
increasing number of factories built are responsible for carbon dioxide emission in the
atmosphere. Ususally, infra red radiation, which is a longer wave radiation, or heat,
produced by the earth after receiving light from visible light, which is considered as short
wave radiation

 When there is an increase of carbon dioxide and other gases, the infra red radiation get trap
in the atmosphere.
Explain the relationship between rises in concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide,
methane and oxides of nitrogen and the enhanced greenhouse effect.
 Greenhouse gases are the gases in the atmosphere that absorb infra-red radiation.
Greenhouse gases are concentrated between the atmosphere and the earth.
 Sun is a vital source for any living organism because it supplies energy that living organisms
need. Light wave is composed of two different types:
1) Visible light, which is considered as short wave radiation.
2) Red radiation, which is a longer wave radiation- heat.
 Gases that absorb infra-red radiation are called as greenhouse gases. As the temperature of
the earth increases through heating, the Earth radiates infra-red radiation back toward the
space. However, heat does not escape from the Earth; some heat is absorbed by the clouds,
and some heat is absorbed by gases in the atmosphere. Think of the Earth as a greenhouse;
without greenhouse gases, the Earth would be very cold.
 Both water vapour and methane are naturally occurring greenhouse gases.
 Some of the activities that people do that contribute to increase in waste gases are:
1) Burning fossil fuel (e.g. gasoline in cars) and using catalytic converters for their
exhaust systems;
2) Using organic and commercial fertilizers to help crops grow better.
3)  Industrial processes (e.g the production of nitric acid.)
 Methane is another major greenhouse gas. Following human activities can cause increase in
greenhouse gases:
1) Cattle Ranching- cows and bulls produce methane in their digestive tracts and
release it into the atmosphere.
2) Waste disposal in landfills- Organic wastes such as uneaten food materials
decompose and release methane.
3)  Production and distribution of natural gases- When it is made, bottled or piped to
homes, leaks in containers and conduits release methane into air.
 What does it mean to have enhanced green house effect?
 Sunlight enters Earth’s atmosphere because the gases of the atmosphere are
transparent to light.
 Most of the sunlight reflects off the surface of Earth and travels back out of the
atmosphere- that is why astronauts can see Earth from space.
 Greenhouse gases retain some of the heat and trap it in the atmosphere.
 The end result of Earth’s natural greenhouse effect is that the atmosphere is warmer
than outer space.
 Even though, having some percentage of atmospheric carbon dioxide, methane, and oxides
of nitrogen is necessary for maintaining the substantial temperature on Earth, rapid
increase of these gases will cause increase in Earth temperature; if the temperature
increases, global warming can happen real fast.
Outline the precautionary principle.
 'Better safe than sorry'; when an activity raises threats of harm, measures should be
taken, even if a cause-and-effect relationship has not been established scientifically.
Evaluate the precautionary principle as a justification for strong action in response to the
threats posed by the enhanced greenhouse effect.
 The principle holds that those who wish to continue producing excess greenhouse gases
should prove that there are no harmful effects before continuing. There will be some people,
who work in industries like farming, manufacturing, transporting, and others, will question
why they should be investing money to find new ways of reducing the greenhouse gases in
their businesses when there is no solid evidence of global warming due to the greenhouse
gases. Therefore, in order to save production cost, yet increase the sales cost, industrial
workers will definitely bring out cheap and environmental harming methods. Despite the
problem and possible harming, ecologically informed consumers will definitely choose
products that are ecologically friendly.

Outline the consequences of a global temperature rise on arctic ecosystems.

 Effects include increased rates of decomposition of detritus previously trapped in

permafrost, expansion of the range of habitats available to temperate species, loss of ice
habitat, changes in distribution of prey species affecting higher trophic levels, and
increased success of pest species, including pathogens.
5.3 Populations
Outline how population size can be affected by natality, immigration, mortality, and
emigration.
 If (natality + immigration) > (mortality + emigration) then a population is increasing.
These factors determine whether a population is increasing or decreasing.

Draw a graph showing the sigmoid (s-shaped) population curve.

Explain reasons for the exponential growth phase, the plateau phase, and the transitional
phase between these two phases.
 During the Exponential phase the population increases exponentially because the
natality rate is higher than the mortality rate. The resources needed by the population
such as food and space are abundant, and diseases and predators are rare.
 During the Transitional Phase, the birth rate begins to decrease. Natality is still larger
than mortality, but the difference between them is slowly decreasing.
 During the Plateau phase, available resources become so low that no further
reproduction can take place. Mortality starts to become larger than natality. A species
may have reached itsCarrying Capacity.

List three factors which set limits to population increase.

 Available resources.
 Disease
 Space available
 Predators
Distinguish between r-strategies and k-strategies.
 R-selected species: large numbers of offspring; short generation time; little maternal
care; generally smaller in size; higher biotic potential; example is mice.
 K-selected species: smaller numbers of offspring; longer gestation period; increased
maternal care; longer period of immaturity; generally larger organisms; lover biotic
potential; example is humans.

Discuss the environmental conditions that favour either r-strategies or k-strategies.

K-selected
 Require more resources
 are long-lived;
 are large, therefore need large habitats;
 slow maturation, therefore require longer protection from predators;
 more care for offspring / small number of offspring;
 require stable habitat;
 usually have stable population size;
 perform better in an environment with high levels of competition/no vacant niches;
 examples are: elephants / parrots / whales / Arctic tern / tortoise / other correct example;

R-selected
 require less resources
 unstable environments; reproduce as quickly and as much as possible

Describe one technique used to estimate the population size of an animal species based on a
capture-mark-release-recapture method.
i. Collect sample of population
ii. Capture
iii. Count and mark captured organisms
iv. Release and reintegrate
v. Recapture (blind)
vi. Count marked & unmarked
vii. Estimate population

Describe methods used to estimate the size of commercial fish stocks.

 Catch-Mark-Release (Lincoln-Peterson Index); clip a fin to mark.

 Sonar methods (possibly the ships would run transects across the ocean-then they would
multiply this number by the area they didn’t cover).
 Gill nets (nets are set in areas known to be inhabited by certain species. The net has a
certain cross-sectional area and is laid out for a certain time period. The number of fish
caught should be proportional to the total population.
Outline the concept of maximum sustainable yield in the conservation of fish stocks.
 The maximum number of fish that can be caught by commercial fishing fleets per year and
still sustain a relatively large population. In other words, if you exceed the maximum
 sustainable yield of a certain species, the population would “crash” and become locally rare
or possibly even extinct. (ex. Chilean Sea Bass became very rare after they became popular
in restaurants-this led to increased fishing pressure (because they became more valuable)
and their maximum sustainable yield was exceeded.

Discuss international measures that would protect the conservation of fish.

 International agreements on quotas (maximum # caught) for specific species
 Increased scientific research on the life histories of fish species
 Increased efforts to monitor the populations of specific fish species

5.4 Evolution
Define evolution.
 Evolution is the accumulation of changes in the heritable characteristics of a population.

Outline the evidence for evolution provided by the fossil record, selective breeding of
domesticated animals and homologous structures.

Fossil Records:
 Fossils contain isotopes of elements that accumulated in the living organisms. If the
isotopes are unstable, they will lose protons and break down over time. Since each
radioactive isotope has a fixed half-life it can be used to date fossils based on the
relative concentrations of the reactant and product of the decay. Half life is the amount
of time it takes for half of a sample of a certain substance to break down. Carbon-14 has
a half life of 5000 years so useful or dating fossils less than 100,000 years old.
Potassium-40 has a half-life ( The number of years it takes for 50% of a sample to
decay) of 1.3 billion years so useful for long-term dating. Error of less than 10%.

Selective breeding:
 Selective breeding of domesticated plants and animals have results that are similar to
laboratory experiments and sometimes go beyond what is seen in nature. The gradual
evolution of corn through selective breeding by Native Americans is recorded in
archaeological sites, in a fashion similar to the record of the evolution horses, etc.,
recorded in fossil.

Homologous Structures:
 Homologous anatomical structure is a test for common ancestry. Descent with
modification is evident in anatomical similarities between species grouped in the same
taxonomical category. For example, the forelimbs of mammals have been modified to fit
their function. However similarities in these structures demonstrate that they all
originate from a common ancestor.
 A pentadactyl limb describes the same skeletal
elements that make up the forelimbs of humans, cats, whales, bats and all other
mammals. They have evolved for different functions but the relationships between the
bones in the limb are all remarkably similar.
 Even distantly related organisms go through similar
stages in their embryonic development. Many of them cannot be told apart in the
embryonic stage despite looking entirely different as adults. All vertebrate embryos go
through a stage in which they have gill pouches on the sides of their throats. This is all
easily explained by evolution.

State that populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support.
  This increases the chance of survival of the population as a whole--a single death is less
disastrous in a population of 1,000 than it is in a population of 10.
Explain that a consequence of potential overproduction of offspring is a struggle of survival.
Populations of living organisms tend to increase exponentially.
1. More offspring are produced than the environment can support. There is a struggle for
important resources such as food and space. Intraspecific competition. Some
individuals survive and others die.
2. Characteristics in organisms differ from one another. Some have characteristics which
make them better suited to survive in their environment. These are the most likely to
survive.

State that the members of a species show variation.

 Members of a species show variation.

Explain how sexual reproduction promotes variation in a species.

Variation is essential for natural selection and therefore for evolution. Although mutation is the
original source of new genes or alleles, sexual reproduction promotes variation by allowing the
formation of new combinations of alleles. Two stages in sexual reproduction promote variation.
1) Meiosis allows a huge variety of genetically different gametes to be produced by each
individual
2) Fertilization allows alleles from two different individuals to be brought together in one
new individual.

Explain how natural selection leads to the increased reproduction of individuals with
favourable heritable variation.
 The much better-adapted individuals pass on their characteristics to more offspring
than the less well adapted individuals. The results of natural selection therefore
accumulate. As one generation follows another, the characteristics of the species
gradually change, the species evolve.

Explain two examples of evolution in response to environmental change; one must be

multiple antibiotic resistance to bacteria.
 Before Penicillin was invented, bacteria were the leading cause of death. However, once
it began to be used, since it's an antibiotic, some individuals of bacteria may carry the
gene Penicillinase, which codes for an enzyme that deactivates Penicillin, making them
resistant to an antibiotic such as Penicillin. Thus, when it is indeed used, they will be the
only ones left to reproduce and new bacteria will also be resistant to the antibiotic.
 The Peppered Moth is another example of evolution in response to environmental
change. When Britain began industrialising, soot would come from factories and land on
trees. A species of peppered moth with a lighter colour vanished and those with a
darker colour flourished because they could hide themselves easily.
5.5 Classification
Describe the values of classifying organisms.
 It is easier to find out which species an organism belongs to when you have other
organisms to compare it too.
 You can make assumptions about characteristics of a species in general.
 Evolutionary links, you can make assumptions about traits of a common ancestor. You
can also predict how they evolved.

Outline the binomial systems of nomenclature.

 Called binomial because two names are used:
1. First name is genus, with first name being a capital.
2. Second name is species, with no capital.
 Italics are used when the name is printed; name is underlined if it is handwritten.

List the seven levels in the hierarchy of taxa- kingdom, phylum, class, order family genus
species- using an example from two different kingdoms for each level. (King Philip Comes
Over For Good Soup)
 Kingdom: Animalia | Plantae
 Phylum: Chordata | Conferophyta
 Class: Mammalia | Pinopsida
 Order: Cetacea | Pinales
 Family: Balaenopteridae | Taxodiaceae
 Genus: Baleaenoptera | Sequoia
 Species: musculus | sempervirens

Distinguish between the following phyla of plants, using simple external recognition
features: Bryophyta, Filicinophyta, Coniferophyta and Angiospermophyta.
 Bryophyta: mosses, liverworts and hornworts
 Filicinophyta: ferns
 Coniferophyta: conifers and pines
 Angiospermophyta: flowering plants and grasses

Distinguish between the following phyla of animals, using simple external recognition
features: porifera, cnidaria, platyhelminthes, annelida, mollusca and arthropoda. 
 Porifera: sponges
 Cnidaria: jelly fish, sea anemones, corals
 Platyhelminthes: flatworms
 Annelida: round, segmented worms
 Mollusca: snails, slugs, and octopus
 Arthropoda: insects, crustaceans, spiders, scorpions, millipedes

Apply and/or design a key for a group of up to eight organisms. Shape, number, color, etc.
 Keys are most commonly used to identify plants, insects, and birds. These are often area
specific, for example, the Plants of Northern Europe. Keys are usually constructed in the
following ways:
 The key consists of a series of numbered stages
 Each stage consists of a pair of alternative characteristics
 Some alternatives give the nest stage of a key to go to
 Some alternatives give the identification
 Example below:
Option G: Ecology & Conservation
Construct a pyramid of energy, give appropriate information.

 Always start with the sun.

 Autotrophs convert sunlight
into energy.
 Primary consumer consume
autotrophs for energy.
 Secondary consumers
consume primary
consumers.
 Tertiary consumers consume
secondary consumers.
 10% rule.

Distinguish between primary and secondary succession.

 Primary succession
1. Begins in a place with no soil, due to flooding, volcanic activity, landslides, etc.
2. Starts with the arrival of organisms that do not need soil to survive (lichen);
these are called pioneer species.
3. Soil starts to form thanks to pioneer species; as the habitat becomes more
hospitable, animal species follow their food sources and denning habitats.
 Secondary succession
1. Begins in a place that already has soil and was once a habitat to organisms.
2. Occurs faster and has different pioneer species than primary succession.

Outline the changes in species diversity and productions during primary succession.
 Seral stages
1. Pioneer species; require no or little soil.
2. Small annual plants; slowly increase, more soil created.
3. Small perennials; smaller then increasing in size; ferns.
4. Small woody shrubs.
5. Small trees.
6. Evergreens/deciduous forests.
7. Climax community
Explain the effects of living organisms on the abiotic environment, with references to the
changes occurring during primary succession.
 Living organisms can help with soil development, as a plant grows, their roots grow
deeper down and break rock into small particles, helping soil formation. Plants enrich
the soil with minerals as they die and decompose. The plant roots hold the soil particles
together, preventing soil erosion and retain nutrients. The water that evaporates from
many plant leaves condenses and comes down in the form of rain. The presence of
organic materials in the soil and the presence of roots and root hair help in the retention
of water and slows down drainage.

Distinguish between biome and biosphere.

 Biome: A large naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying a major
habitat.  
 Biosphere: The regions of the surface and atmosphere of the earth or other planet
occupied by living organisms; composed of biomes.

Explain how rainfall and temperature affect the distribution of biomes.

 The unequal heating of the earth, caused by the earth’s tilt and spherical shape, gives rise to
earth’s major climate zones. It sets up conditions that produce global air and water
movements (trade winds and ocean currents) that interact with physical features
(mountains, islands, lakes) to produce various patterns of rainfall.
 The pattern of rainfall influences the climate and the type of soils found in different regions.
These factors together determine the type and abundance of organisms that can survive.
This in turn determines the size of populations and variety of species that inhabit the area.

Outline the characteristics of six major biomes.

(see handout attached)
G3: Impacts of Humans on Ecosystems
Calculate the Simpson diversity index for two local communities.
 The Simpson diversity index is a measure of species diversity
 D = (N(N-1))/(summation of n(n-1)). D is the diversity index, N is the total number of
organisms of all species found, n is the number of individuals of a particular species.
 A high value of D suggests a stable and ancient ecosystem and a low D value could
suggest pollution, recent succession or agricultural management.
 The index is determined by counting organisms on randomly chosen parts of an area.
Monitoring over time shows changes in an ecosystem.

Analyse the biodiversity of two local communities using the Simpson index.
(on attached page)

Discuss reasons for the conservation of biodiversity using rainforests as an example.

 Conservation of biodiversity is important because it is vital to the existence of all
ecosystems.
 In a rainforest (and in all other ecosystems) primary producers are the food sources of
primary consumers, who may be eaten by secondary consumers, and then tertiary
consumers. Thus, the plants that use chlorophyll and sunlight to create food for their own
growth through the process of photosynthesis (mushrooms, moss, grasses) are consumed
by small animals (voles, squirrels, birds), whereas decaying materials such as dead leaves or
twigs serves as food for the detrivores. These primary consumers are then eaten by
secondary consumers (ex: bird eats insects).
 Any part of those missing is devastating to the environment because they are all
interdependent on each other in the cycles of their ecological food web.

List three examples of the introduction of alien species that have had significant impacts on
the ecosystem.
 Japanese Knotweed to the US; crowds out native species.
 Zebra mussels to the Great Lakes; grow densely to disrupt water systems; sources of deadly
avian poisoning.
 Moose to Newfoundland; overpopulation.

Discuss the impacts of alien species on ecosystems.

 Invasive species modify all the major ecosystem processes in a way that would suit
themselves the best.
 Alteration in litter dynamics and those that depend on it: soil quality, nutrients,
biogeochemical processes.
 Interference with native species; competition.

Outline one example of biological control of invasive species.

  Adult whiteflies give birth to their young on grasshouse plants where they feed upon
sucking the sap. Consequently, the young whiteflies excrete a sticky dew upon which sooty
mold develops and reduces the amount of light available to the leaves of the tree/bush that
they inhabit.
 The ladybird, Delphastus, feeds on up to 150 whitefly eggs/larvae a day.

Define biomagnification.
 Biomagnification/bioamplification: the increase in concentration of a substance that occurs
in a food chain as it passes through each trophic level and is unable to be broken down.

Explain the cause and consequences of biomagnifications, using a named example.

 Biomagnification is caused by a subtance’s persistence (how long it remains in the
environment) and its specificity (how selectively it targets an organism).
 Due to broad specificity and a pesticide’s resistance to biological breakdown, pesticides
cannot be metabolized or excreted and are therefore accumulated by storage in fatty tissue.
 Thus, the higher order consumers may ingest harmful/lethal quantities of a chemical
because they eat a large number of low order consumers.
 Ex: DDT in plantsanimalshumans.

Outline the effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation on living tissues and biological productivity.
 Ultraviolet radiation can cause health problems such as severe sunburns, increased rates of
skin cancers, and more cataracts of the eye.
 An increase in UV-B radiation is likely to cause immune system suppression in animals,
lower crop yields, a decline in productivity of forests and surface-dwelling plankton, more
smog, and changes in the global climate.

Outline the effect of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) on the ozone layer.

 CFC’s are chemically constructed as one carbon molecule, three chlorine molecules, and one
fluorine molecule.
 When UV light strikes a CFC molecule, a chemical reaction occurs and a chlorine atom is
released. This then reacts with the ozone layer, taking a oxygen away and forming a
chlorine oxide molecule (Cl-O), which then reacts with the ozone again, forming two oxygen
molecules.
 This whole process destroys large amounts of ozone, eating away at the protective layer
that keeps the UV light from damaging the earth.

State that ozone in the stratosphere absorbs UV radiation.

 Ozone in the stratosphere absorbs UV radiation.
G4: Conservation of Biodiversity
Explain the use of biotic indices and indicator species in monitoring environmental change.
 Indicator species are highly sensitive to environmental changes and their populations
increase or decrease significantly depending on changes in the environment. They are
good indicators of change. Frog populations are very vulnerable to pollution and other
forms of change, while sludge worms are good indicators of low oxygen concentration
in waterways.
 Biotic indices are calculated via the number of tolerant and intolerant species at a time.
The numbers of these organisms in the indicator species populations can be monitored
over time directly so they are easy to keep track of.

Outline the factors that caused the extinction of one named animal and one named plant
species.
 The Arizona Jaguar became extinct due to an increased demand for its fur. As the human
population increased in the areas inhabited by the jaguar, the hunting and shooting
increased and the last of this rare animal was shot in 1905 in New Mexico.
 The Fluffy groundsel is a kind of herbal plant with clusters of yellow flowers. It became
extinct because of farming, building, road construction and other sorts of human impact
in the American South West.

Outline the biogeographical features of nature reserves that promote the conservation of
diversity.
 A nature reserve is maintained by controlling alien species. Those that are not originally
supposed to be in the area are removed.
 They restore degraded areas where human impact has destroyed the ecosystem by
methods such as reforestation and species reintroduction.
 They promote the recovery of threatened species through feeding, for example.
 They also control the exploitation by humans. Logging is controlled along with land
clearing. If trees are cut down, more are planted.

Discuss the role of active management techniques in conservation.

 Some pristine nature reserves can be left in their natural state, but often humans have
caused changes and active management is therefore needed to ensure the survival of
rare or endangered species.

Discuss the advantages of in situ conservation of endangered species (terrestrial and aquatic
nature reserves).
 These are places where the animal is found in its own natural habitat and is not allowed
to be disturbed by humans and their activities.
 This keeps the animals out of danger zones and allows them to live and reproduce
naturally in its own environment. Most animals typically survive at a much greater rate
 using in situ conservation, and preserving their habitat allows other species to live there
also, thus preserving other animals and biodiversity. Greater genetic variety is also
ensured.
 However, sometimes numbers reach such low levels that the animals cannot be left
unprotected in the wild or a habitat is being destroyed and this will not be stopped.

Outline the use of ex situ conservation measures including captive breeding of animals,
botanic gardens, and seed banks.
 For captive breeding, animals kept in zoos or parks are allowed to reproduce in order to
give them a chance to increase in number, with the possibility of eventually
reintroducing some of the offspring into the wild. Unfortunately many do not reproduce.
Elephants are an example.
 Botanic gardens are sites where many plant species are planted in controlled
environments to maintain their species. The Botanic Gardens of Kew has a massive
collection of 50,000 species.
 Seed banks are where seeds are kept in cold and dry storage, since they stay in good
condition for hundreds of years.