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Volume 2, Issue 1 January/February 2000

5 Higher Education: The Ivory Tower and the Satellite Dish


Wadi D. Haddad, Editor

Institutions of higher education have to make some hard educational, managerial, financial and strategic
policy choices. Information technology will help make some of these choices work better.

7 Higher Education: Facing the Challenges of the 21st Century


Jamil Salmi, Education Sector Manager, Latin America and the Caribbean Region, The World Bank

This article analyzes the new challenges characterizing the environment in which higher education institutions
operate and compete, and examines some concrete implications of these challenges, looking at promising
trends and experiences in countries and institutions.

11 Technologies: A Window for Transforming Higher Education


G. Dhanarajan, President, Commonwealth of Learning

There are three very good reasons to support a re-engineering of the higher education process in today’s
environment: demand and diversity, technology and capacity and finally quality and transformation.

14 Technology and Institutional Change: Why Some Educational Institutions Use


Technology And Others Don't
Claudio de Moura Castro, Chief Education Adviser, Inter-American Development Bank

Information technology is sold aggressively around the world, and its price keeps falling. Yet, the use of
information technology in education is particularly skewed, regardless of level. Why?

16 Is Virtual Education for Real? Issues of Quality and Accreditation


Jody K. Olsen, Sr. Vice President, Academy for Educational Development

Technology and what it opens for learning force reassessment but also gives opportunities for better
systems of assuring the quality education that students, faculty, and the community expect.

19 TechKnowNews
The Stockholm Challenge Award Now Open for Entries ♦ Internet2, Where to?♦ Corporate Universities
Reinvent Training ♦ 'Open Archives' Project as an Alternative to Costly Journals ♦ Cisco's E-Learning
Initiative, Dramatically Shifts Learning Model ♦ HungryMinds.com Adds Thousands of University Courses to
Online Learning Marketplace ♦ FORWARD Towards the Information Society ♦ Low-Cost PCs For Indian
Education Sector ♦

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21 The African Virtual University: Bridging the Knowledge Gap for Development
Mactar Diagne

This article describes the African Virtual University, its objectives, functions, programs and future.

23 University of the Highlands and the Islands: New Paradigm or Exceptional Case?
Richard Hopper and William Saint, World Bank

The University of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland could represent a new paradigm in higher education
delivery for developing countries where community isolation, program availability, and academic
infrastructure remain problematic.

26 The Open University of Hong Kong: Quality Assurance in Distance Learning


Sonia Jurich

To gain public confidence and academic respect is a major challenge to the viability and survival of Open
Universities. The Open University of Hong Kong has taken this challenge seriously.

29 Korea: Virtual University Trial Project


Insung Jung, Ph.D., Korean National Open University

This trial Project permits the Korean private sector and the conventional higher education institutions to
compete with foreign universities by establishing degree-granting virtual universities.

32 Mexico: The Virtual University of the Technological Institute of Monterrey


Laurence Wolff, Inter-American Development Bank

This article describes the main features of the Monterrey Institute: technologies, instructional design and
linkages with the industry.

34 University of Phoenix: A New Model for Tertiary Education in Developing Countries


Gregg B. Jackson, Ph.D., Associate Professor and Coordinator, George Washington University

This article examines how the University of Phoenix operates, assesses the quality of education that it
provides, and discusses whether it is a model that developing countries should consider for the expansion of
tertiary education at little or no cost to the public sector.

38 The End of the Campus University? What the Literature Says About Distance Learning
Sonia Jurich

Some view new forms of delivery of higher education as no more than fads, soon to pass. For others, the
days of the traditional university are counted. This article brings some light to this discussion with the help of
three recent documents.

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42 The Effectiveness Debate: What We Know About the Quality of Distance Learning in the
US
Jamie P. Merisotis, President, The Institute for Higher Education Policy, and Jody K. Olsen, Sr. Vice
President, Academy for Educational Development

The polar views expressed in many policy discussions—that there is “no significant difference” on the one
extreme, and that distance learning is inherently inferior on the other—defy reason. The real debate needs to
focus on identifying what approaches work best for teaching students, period.

45 Implementation of Tertiary Distance Education: Choices and Decisions


William Saint, Sr. Education Specialist, World Bank

Countries and institutions interested in developing tertiary distance education will need to formulate
comprehensive strategic policies, choose an institutional model and make management choices. This article
provides an analysis of policies to select from and institutional models to choose from.

49 Costs of ICT Use in Higher Education


Marianne Bakia, Education Specialist, World Bank

This article focuses on the costs of different models of teaching with technology in higher education, bearing
in mind that these technologies also support a wide range of other core activities.

53 Tertiary Education: Institutional Challenges and Management Responses


Kurt Moses, Sr. Vice President, Academy for Educational Development

Alternative organizations to the university will take over many of its roles if it does not adapt. The institutional
challenge is to simultaneously become dramatically better at current operations, and innovate. This article
presents some concrete management responses to this challenge.

55 Argentina: Management Information System for Higher Education


Luján Gurmandi, Ministry of Education, Argentina, and Jamil Salmi, Education Sector Manager, Latin
America and the Caribbean Region, The World Bank

This article describes the process of development of a University Information System with the dual purpose
of serving the oversight and monitoring needs of the national authorities and meeting the management
needs of the universities.

57 Video Projectors
This article describes the advantages of using video projectors in the classroom, how they differ from
overhead projectors, and the practical questions you should ask before you buy one.

59 Higher Education Software Sampler


This article presents examples of software that may be relevant to some of the major players in higher
education: students, parents, teachers and university administrators.

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61 WorthWhileWebs
Frank Method, Director, Washington Unesco Office

This article offers a selection of websites illustrating possibilities for using information technology to improve
higher education.

64 Biometrics: We Know Who You Are!


What is biometrics, how it works, and why use it?

65 The Wearable PC: Mobile Computing Like Never Before


The world's first wearable PC: what it is, what its features are, and how to get it.

66 Speech Recognition: When People Talk, Computers Listen!


Sandra Semaan

This article describes the latest in speech recognition software and how they work. It also poses the
questions you should ask before considering any purchase.

68 CODECS Brings the Open University to Romania


Adrian Catalin Ionescu, Chairman/CEO, CODECS

The CEO of CODECS tells the story of how the Center has brought to Romania the most flexible and
accessible management education, by using The Open University (OU) distance learning system.

70 Half a Millennium: Landmarks of Higher Education in the Americas


Sonia Jurich

This "profile" highlights three moments in the history of Universities on the American continent: the
commencement ceremony for a new doctor at the University of San Marcos in Lima, Peru, during the 1600's,
the Chautauqua society in the late 1800's and early 1900's in the United States, and the use of information
technology in Mexico.

Next Issue: March/ April 2000

Thematic Focus: Access to Information and Knowledge


Guest Editorial Adviser: Kerry McNamara, Global Knowledge Partnership

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Wadi D. Haddad, Editor

Higher Education :
The Ivory Tower and the Satellite Dish

Person of the century pursued concurrently in order to advance development of


We are no more on the "threshold of the 21st century" - or the the economy and harness new technologies. Technological
third millennium. We are in. As we look back at the capacity – the ability to assess, select, adapt, use and develop
achievements of the last century, we marvel at the new technologies – will be a critical determinant of a
extraordinary advancements in the fields of science and country’s competitiveness prospects. Institutions of higher
technology - space explorations, the unraveling of the atom, education and training must be first-class to equip
genetics, organ transplant, the car, radio, television, the fax individuals with the advanced knowledge and skills required
machine, the chip, the Internet - to name only a few. We also for positions in government, business, industry, and the
marvel at the progress made in the areas of social and professions. These institutions are expected to produce new
economic development, the humanities, and the arts. This knowledge through research and to serve as channels for the
was all made possible because of a set of unique human acquisition, transfer, adaptation and dissemination of
features: the capacity to acquire knowledge generated by knowledge generated elsewhere in the world.
others and build on it, the ability to record one's knowledge
and disseminate it to others in understandable terms, the I change therefore I am
desire to search, explore and make sense of the universe, the The crucial contributions of institutions of higher learning to
urge to apply knowledge to solve day-to-day problems, and the great achievements of the 20th century and the
the faith that nothing is impossible or beyond the reach of the expectations from them in the 21st century, should not shield
human mind. Such human is the Person of the Century and them from scrutiny and re-examination. However, a review
every century. of their role and modalities should not be perceived as a
judgement of failure or poor record. With or without the
Institutions of higher education and advanced studies are the influx of information technology, higher education
embodiment of these human features and have been at the institutions are facing changing dynamics, expectations and
center of human achievement in the different fields of demands:
science, technology, social studies and the humanities. They
have been the arenas for the generation, advancement and ! From small, selective student bodies to large more
dissemination of knowledge, the training of human capital at comprehensive ones;
the highest levels, and the engines of social and economic ! From campus-based residential to open, at a distance;
development. They have excited many minds, opened new ! From "ivory tower" to "market place";
doors into the mysteries of the universe and dared many ! From sole source of knowledge to multiple sources;
spirits to delve into the unknown. Many have served as ! From specific times to anytime.
strongholds for the pursuit of truth and values against
prevailing beliefs, prejudices and intellectual and political Add to that issues of accountability, autonomy, cost-
tyrannies. But, unfortunately, this cannot be said of all effectiveness, finance, relevance of curricula and methods of
universities. Many have copied the body but failed to capture teaching.
the spirit, and many campuses ended up being no more than
glorified high schools. These demands and concerns were not created by
information technology and they will not be resolved by
st
Into the 21 century information technology either. Institutions of higher
Tertiary education institutions will be even more critical as education have to make some hard educational, managerial,
countries face the challenges of the 21st century in terms of financial and strategic policy choices. Information
having a significant and dignified role in the global technology will help make some of these choices work
economy, assimilating escalating knowledge and better. Appropriate utilization of technologies will assist in
contributing to it, and attending to sustainable social the areas of expanding access, improving the quality of
development. While it is important to strengthen general instructional materials and delivery, lowering of costs and
education and basic skill training, providing opportunities better running of the institution as a viable and efficient
for acquiring advanced knowledge and skills must be enterprise. Perhaps the most significant contribution is in the

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expansion of the time and space dimensions of higher
education. There is a real and growing shift from clearly TechKnowLogia™
differentiated phases of learning and work to the concept that Published by
learning is life-long and everywhere. When tertiary education Knowledge Enterprise, Inc.
is seen as a continuum - with no marked beginning and end -
and as an activity and not a place, information technology In collaboration with
becomes central to the architecture and modalities of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO )
education services. Organization for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD )
Vive la difference! Global Information Infrastructure Commission (GIIC)
Can distance education replace campus-based institutions?
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF:
Certainly not the ones that are vibrant with research, Wadi D. Haddad, President, Knowledge Enterprise, Inc.
exploration, and intellectual discourse; not the ones where
teachers are interested in teaching, available for students and INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY BOARD:
effective in facilitating learning and thinking; not the ones Thomas Alexander, Director, Employment, Labour and
Social Affairs Directorate, OECD
that are well equipped with data bases, information Gajaraj Dhanarajan, President & CEO,
resources, research labs and technological tools. But not all The Commonwealth of Learning
campus-based institutions are like that, or even close to that. Dee Dickenson, CEO, New Horizons for Learning
How many campus universities exist whereby students do Alexandra Draxler, Director, Task force on Education for
the Twenty-first Century (UNESCO)
not have to attend classes and teachers lecture to students Jacques Hallak, Director, Int'l Bureau of Education
they never talk to; where there is no research, no interaction, Pedro Paulo Poppovic, Secretary of Distance Education,
and no libraries; and where there is no academic freedom and Federal Ministry of Education, Brazil
no academic values? In such situations, even the bare Nicholas Veliotes, President Emeritus,
Association of American Publishers
distance education programs are hardly taking anything away
from these institutions. They are probably offering more at a ADVISORY EDITORIAL COMMITTEE:
much lower capital and recurrent cost. Joanne Capper, Sr. Education Specialist, World Bank
Claudio Castro, Chief Education Adviser, IDB
Dennis Foote, Director, LearnLinks, AED
To "tech" or not to "tech" Gregg Jackson, Assoc. Prof., George Washington Univ.
To "tech" or not to "tech" higher education is NOT the James Johnson, Deputy Director, GIIC
question. There is a whole spectrum of possibilities in Frank Method, Dir., Washington Office, UNESCO
between, ranging from the full virtual university, to the open, Laurence Wolff, Sr. Consultant, IDB
low-tech distance education programs to the dual model of GUEST EDITORIAL ADVISERS:
combining classroom instruction with distance education. Jamil Salmi, Ed. Sector Mgr, World Bank
Then there is the spectrum of technologies, ranging from Jody Olsen, Sr. V.P., AED
mail correspondence to audio to video to the Internet. Most
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS:
importantly, technology is not necessarily an alternative to Jarl Bengtsson, Head, CERI, OEDC
the campus or the instructor. Perhaps one of the best uses of Sonia Jurich, Consultant
technology is to strengthen the campus setting with better Glenn Kleiman, VP, Education Development Center
resources, empower the professor to become an effective Dan Wagner, Director, International Literacy Institute
facilitator of learning, and enhance the role of the student as MANAGING EDITOR:
a learner, thinker, investigator and problem-solver. This Sandra Semaan
objective can be achieved by integrating into the course
structure on-line technologies, video technologies, and GENERAL QUESTIONS OR COMMENTS
Info@KnowledgeEnterprise.org
computer technologies (including text, graphics, digitized FEEDBACK ON ARTICLES
audio and video and interactive media.) If these technologies TechKnowLogia@KnowledgeEnterprise.org
are packaged into a network, it allows participating EDITORIAL MATTERS:
institutions to share the best instructors, materials, software, TechKnowLogia@KnowledgeEnterprise.org
SPONSORSHIP AND ADVERTISING
strategies and experiences and realize economies of scale in Sandra@KnowledgeEnterprise.org
terms of cost, resources and expertise.
MAILING ADDRESS AND FAX
Knowledge Enterprise, Inc.
P.O. Box 3027
Oakton, VA 22124
U.S.A.
Fax: 703-242-2279
This issue is co-sponsored by: AED

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Higher Education
Facing the Challenges of the 21st Century
Jamil Salmi
Education Sector Manager
Latin America and the Caribbean Region, The World Bank1

Introduction To answer this question, this article is divided into two parts. It
Imagine a university without buildings or classrooms or even a looks first at the new challenges characterizing the environment
library. Imagine a university ten thousand miles away from its in which higher education institutions operate and compete on
students, delivering on-line programs or offering its courses the eve of the 21st century. Second, it examines some concrete
through franchise institutions overseas. Imagine a university implications of these challenges for higher education leaders,
without academic departments, without required courses or looking at promising trends and experiences in countries and
majors or grades. Imagine a college proposing a bachelor’s institutions which have taken the lead in introducing reforms
degree in Individualized Studies or in Interdisciplinary Studies. and innovations.
Imagine a degree valid only for five years after graduation.
Imagine a higher education system where institutions are The New Challenges
ranked not by the quality of their teachers, but by the intensity There are three major, intertwined new challenges which
of electronic wiring and the degree of Internet connectivity. bear heavily on the role and functions of higher education:
Imagine a country whose main export earnings come from the (a) economic globalization, (b) the growing importance of
sale of higher education services. Imagine a socialist country knowledge, and (c) the information and communication
which charges tuition fees to obtain full cost recovery in public revolution. Globalization is the process of growing
higher education. Are we entering the realm of science fiction? integration of capital, technology, and information across
Or are these evocations real-life stories of revolution in the national boundaries in such a way as to create an increasingly
world of higher education on the eve of the 21st century? integrated world market, with the direct consequence that
more and more countries and firms have no choice but to
In the past few years, many countries have witnessed compete in the global economy. This is not to mean that
significant transformations and reforms in their higher globalization is necessarily a good thing or a bad
education systems, including the emergence of new types of phenomenon. Many people see it as a major source of
institutions, changes in patterns of financing and governance, opportunities, while critics decry the dangers of inter-
the establishment of evaluation and accreditation mechanisms, dependency, such as the risk of transferring financial crises
curriculum reforms, and technological innovations. But the from one country to the other. But globalization is
tertiary education landscape is not changing as fast everywhere. happening, whether one likes it or not, and every country in
At Oxford University, New College is a venerable sixteenth the world, every firm, and every working person has to live
century institution. The oldest university of the American with it.
continent, the Autonomous University of Santo Domingo in the
Dominican Republic, is about to collapse under the pressure of The second dimension of change is the growing role of
its 80,000 students that are crowding facilities originally knowledge. Economic development is increasingly linked to
designed to accommodate only 6,000 students. The largest a nation’s ability to acquire and apply technical and socio-
university in the world, the National Autonomous University of economic knowledge, and the process of globalization is
Mexico, has been paralyzed since April 1999 by a strike over accelerating this trend. Comparative advantages come less
the Rector’s decision to increase tuition fees by the equivalent and less from abundant natural resources or cheaper labor,
of US$140. In this rapidly evolving world, what is likely to and more and more from technical innovations and the com-
happen to those higher education institutions, which are not petitive use of knowledge. The proportion of goods with a
willing or able to change? medium-high and high level of technology content in inter-
national trade has gone from 33 percent in 1976 to 54 percent
in 1996.2 Today, economic growth is more a process of
“It is not the strongest species that survive, nor the knowledge accumulation than of capital accumulation.
most intelligent, but the ones most responsive to
change.” In this context, economies of scope, derived from the ability
- Charles Darwin to design and offer different products and services with the
same technology, are becoming a more powerful driving

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force than traditional economies of scale. At the same time, dents, mature students, part-time students, day students, night
there is a rapid acceleration in the rhythm of creation and students, weekend students, etc. One can expect a significant
dissemination of knowledge, which means that the life span change in the demographic shape of higher education institu-
of technologies and products gets shorter every time and that tions, whereby the traditional structure of a pyramid with a
obsolescence comes quickly. The best illustration comes majority of first degree students, a smaller group of post-
perhaps from the computer industry, where the monopoly of graduate students, and finally an even smaller share of par-
the Intel chip has decreased in duration with each new ver- ticipants in continuing education programs will be replaced
sion. With the 386 microprocessor, Intel dominated the mar- by an inverted pyramid with a minority of first time students,
ket for more than 3 years in the late 1980s, ten years later its more students pursuing a second or third degree, and the
competitive edge lasted only 3 months with Pentium II, and majority of students enrolled in short term continuing educa-
Pentium III has just been supplanted by AMD’s Athlon mi- tion activities. In 1999, for the first time in the US, a number
croprocessor after being on the market for only a few weeks. of colleges have decided to stagger the arrival of new stu-
Also, in many fields, the distance between basic science and dents throughout the academic year, instead of restricting
technological application is narrowing or, in some cases, them to the fall semester.
disappearing. Molecular biology and computer science are
two typical examples of this evolution. Another important consequence of the acceleration of scien-
tific and technological progress is the diminished emphasis,
The third dimension of change is the information and in tertiary education programs, on the acquisition of knowl-
communication revolution, which has radically transformed edge of facts and basic data per se and the growing impor-
the capacity to store, transmit and use information. Innova- tance of what could be called methodological knowledge and
tions in electronics and telecommunications, such as the de- skills, i.e., the ability to learn in an autonomous manner. In
velopment of high capacity data transmission technology, many disciplines, factual knowledge taught in the first year
along with parallel cost reductions, have resulted, for all may become obsolete before graduation, so that the learning
practical purposes, in the abolition of physical distance with process needs to be increasingly based on the capacity to
regard to information access and communication among find, access and apply knowledge. In this new paradigm,
people, institutions and countries. For instance, sixty years where learning to learn is more important than memorizing
ago a phone call from New York to London cost the equiva- specific information, primacy is given to information search
lent of US$300 per minute, and today that same call costs and analytical skills and to reasoning and problem-solving
only five cents per minute. skills. Competencies such as learning to work in teams, peer
teaching, creativity, resourcefulness and the ability to adjust
Implications for Higher Education to change are also among the new skills to which employers
1. Radical Changes In Training Needs seem to put worth in the knowledge economy.
As for training needs, a trend towards higher and different
skills has been observed in OECD countries and in the most The third dimension of new training needs is the growing
advanced developing economies. In knowledge-driven attractiveness of university degrees with an international ap-
economies, workers and employees need higher level skills. plication. In a global economy where firms produce for
This is illustrated by recent data on rates of return in a few overseas markets and compete with foreign firms in their
Latin American countries (Chile, Brazil and Mexico) which own domestic markets, there is a rising demand for interna-
show a rising rate of return for tertiary education, a reversal tionally recognized qualifications, especially in management-
of earlier trends in the 1970s and the 1980s.3 related fields. Many entrepreneurial university leaders have
been quick to seize this opportunity. In the US, a rapidly
The second dimension of change in education and training growing number of online universities are reaching out to
needs is the growing importance of continuing education students in foreign countries. Jones International University,
because of the necessity to update knowledge and skills on a for instance, which already serves students in 38 countries, is
regular basis. The traditional approach of studying once and the first online university in the world that has been formally
for all to get a first degree or to finish with a graduate educa- accredited by the same agency that accredits traditional uni-
tion before moving on to one’s professional life is being pro- versities like the University of Michigan or the University of
gressively replaced by practices of lifelong education. Chicago. The Mexican equivalent of MIT, the Technology
Training is becoming an integral part of one’s working life, Institute of Monterey, has established a Virtual University
happening in different contexts: on the job, in specialized with 26 campuses throughout Mexico and 20 branches all
higher education institutions, or even at home. This means over Latin America. In Asia and Eastern Europe, there has
that, in the medium term, the primary clientele of universities been a proliferation of so-called overseas-validated courses
will no more be young high school graduates. Universities offered by franchise institutions on behalf of British and
have to organize themselves to accommodate the learning Australian universities. Also, hundreds of thousands of stu-
and training needs of a very diverse clientele: working stu- dents in Commonwealth countries each year take exams or-

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ganized by UK Examination Boards such as the Institute of have not necessarily been in close contact previously, which
Commerce and Management or the London Chamber of entails the multiplication of inter- and multidisciplinary pro-
Commerce and Institute.4 grams, cutting across traditional institutional barriers. For
example, the study of molecular devices and sensors, within
2. New Forms of Competition the wider framework of molecular biology and biotechnol-
More generally, the decreased importance of physical dis- ogy, brings together specialists in electronics, materials sci-
tance means that the best universities of any country can de- ence, chemistry and biology. In Denmark, environmental
cide to open a branch anywhere in the world or to reach out science programs are taught by a group of specialists who
across borders using the Internet or transmitting courses include not only scientists and engineers but also theologians
through satellites, effectively competing with any national and political scientists responsible for teaching the relevant
university on its own territory. The President of the Univer- ethical and political economy dimensions. George Mason
sity of Maryland wrote an article of complaint in the Wash- University in Virginia started what is called the New Century
ington Post a few months ago, vehemently protesting the College with its main academic program being a bachelor’s
opening of a branch of the University of Phoenix in Mary- degree in Interdisciplinary Studies. In Canada, Waterloo
land. The California-based University of Phoenix, one of the University earned the high reputation of its engineering de-
most dynamic new distance universities in the US, uses an grees--considered among the best in the country--through the
incentive system to reward professors on the basis of the successful integration of cooperative programs, integrating
labor market outcomes of graduates and already boasts an in-school and on-the-job training. Such innovations have
enrollment of 60,000 students. It is estimated that, in the US helped this institution achieve what the Cambridge mathe-
alone, there are already more than 3,000 institutions offering matician Alfred North Whitehead described, many decades
online training. Corporate universities are another form of ago, as the noble mission of the university:
competition with which traditional universities will increas-
ingly have to contend. Motorola University, for example, “The tragedy of the world is that those who are
operates with a yearly budget of 120 million dollars. There imaginative have but slight experience, and those who are
are about 1,000 institutions operating as corporate universi- experienced have feeble imaginations. Fools act on
ties. This year’s recipients of the Corporate University imagination without experience. Pedants act on
Awards sponsored by the Financial Times were TVA Uni- knowledge without imagination. The task of the university
versity, IDX Institute of Technology, Dell Learning, IBM is to weld together imagination and experience.”
Corporate University and ST University.5
Increasingly, tertiary education institutions will need the ca-
The emergence of these new forms of competition is likely to pacity to react swiftly by establishing new programs, recon-
change the nature of quality assurance mechanisms and crite- figuring existing ones, and eliminating outdated programs
ria. At the level of individual institutions, for example, it is without being hampered by bureaucratic regulations and ob-
doubtful that the principles and standards routinely applied to stacles. Effective feedback mechanisms, such as tracer sur-
evaluate or accredit campus-based programs can be used to veys and regular consultations with employers and alumni,
assess the quality and effectiveness of online courses without are indispensable for this purpose.
significant adjustments. At the national level, countries need
to develop information systems and participate in interna- The use of modern technology has just begun to revolution-
tional networks to be able to evaluate the quality of the for- ize the way teaching and learning occurs. The concurrent
eign programs offered to their students through franchise use of multimedia and computers permits the development of
institutions or online. new pedagogical approaches involving active and interactive
learning. Frontal teaching can be replaced by asynchronous
3. New Configurations and Modes of Operation teaching in the form of online classes which can be either
Faced with the new training needs and the new competitive scheduled or self-paced. In Brazil, a few schools of medicine
challenges, many universities need to undertake drastic trans- and engineering in federal universities have been experi-
formations in terms of governance, organizational structure menting with the use of computer-based programs to teach
and modes of operation. A key aspect is the ability to or- mathematics in the first and second year, rather than having
ganize traditional disciplines differently, taking into consid- students attend regular classes. This change in pedagogical
eration the emergence of new scientific and technological approach has resulted in a decrease in dropout rates from 70
fields. Among the most significant ones, it is worth men- to 30 percent. In Australia, the University of Newcastle has
tioning molecular biology and biotechnology, advanced ma- been a pioneer in the use of a problem-learning approach in
terials science, microelectronics, information systems, ro- medical school.
botics, intelligent systems and neuroscience, and environ-
mental science and technology. Training for these fields The information and communication revolution will have
requires the integration of a number of disciplines which far-reaching implications for how universities are organized.

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Already in the United States one new university has been Conclusion
built without a library because all students are expected to
use computers to access online libraries and databases. “We live in an era where everything is possible and
Wiring is becoming an important determinant of the attrac- nothing is certain.”
tiveness of a higher education institution. This is reflected Vaclav Havel
by the recent publication, for the second consecutive year, of Former playwright and President of the Czech Republic
the results of a ranking survey which assesses US universi-
ties on the basis of their computer and communication infra-
structure and their level of Internet use for pedagogical and Higher education is facing unprecedented challenges on the
administrative purposes. Case Western Reserve University, eve of the 21st century, under the impact of globalization,
MIT and Wake Forest University are the 1999 leaders in knowledge-based economic growth, and the information and
applying online services on campus.6 But university leaders communication revolution. These challenges can be seen
must keep in mind the high cost of information technology equally as terrible threats or tremendous opportunities.
and infrastructure including not only the initial capital out- Countries and higher education institutions willing to take
lays required to begin following the advanced information advantage of these new opportunities cannot afford to remain
and communication technology path, but also the recurrent passive, but must be proactive in launching meaningful re-
budget outlays needed for future expenditures on infrastruc- forms and innovations. While there is no rigid blueprint for all
ture maintenance. countries and institutions, a common prerequisite may be the
need to formulate a clear vision of how the higher education
To be able to adapt to the changing environment, flexibility system can effectively contribute to the development of each
is very important. But in many countries, universities are country and how each institution elects to evolve within that
very rigid when it comes to making changes in their struc- system.
ture, programs or mode of operation. Recently in Uruguay, it
was only when confronted with competition from new pri- A final word of caution is warranted to signal the danger of
vate universities that the venerable University of the Repub- focusing exclusively on the implacable logic of technical
lic - which had a monopoly over higher education in that change and globalization. Adapting to the changing
country for 150 years - started a strategic planning exercise environment is not only a matter of reshaping tertiary
and considered establishing post-graduate programs for the institutions and applying new technologies. It is equally vital to
first time. Another example of institutional inflexibility oc- ensure that students are equipped with the core values
curred in Venezuela, where a very dynamic private business necessary to live in complex democratic societies. As US
administration institute called IESA had to wait several years Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia reaffirmed in a recent
to receive the official seal of approval of the Council of speech at the graduating ceremony of William and Mary
Rectors for a new MBA program designed jointly with the College in Maryland,
Harvard Business School.
“Brains and learning, like muscle and physical skill, are
An interesting example of willingness to change and adapt articles of commerce. They are bought and sold. You can
on a regular basis is provided by the University of South hire them by the year or by the hour. The only thing in the
Florida in Tampa, one of the relatively young public univer- world not for sale is character. And if that does not
sities in the US. The Engineering Department offers its govern and direct your brains and learning, they will do
graduates a five-year warranty just like a traditional warranty you and the world more harm than good.”
against manufacturing defects, which comes with any con-
1
sumer good. If at any time during the five years immediately The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this
following graduation an alumnus/a is required to apply skills paper are entirely those of the author and should not be attributed in
in his/her work but had not received the requisite training any manner to the World Bank, its affiliated organization members
during university studies, he or she can re-enroll at the uni- of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent.
2
World Bank (1998). World Development Report: Knowledge for
versity to acquire these skills free of charge. Along the same
Development. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 28.
lines, a university could well envisage selling a “training for 3
Lächler, U. (1997). “Education and Earnings Inequality in Mex-
life” package - to achieve the dual objective of consolidating ico,” The World Bank, unpublished paper.
its financial base and keeping its programs up-to-date. Under 4
Bennell, P. and T. Pearce (1998). The Internationalization of
such a scheme new students would sign up and pay for not Higher Education: Exporting Education to Developing and Tran-
only their initial professional education, but also for all the sitional Economies. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies.
5
retraining periods which they would require throughout their Authers, J. (1999). “Keeping Company with the Campus,” in
professional career. Financial Times. Monday, 26 April, 1999, p. 11.
6
Bernstein, R. (1999). "America’s 100 Most Wired Colleges," in
Yahoo! Internet Life. May 1999, pp. 86-119.

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A WINDOW FOR
TRANSFORMING HIGHER EDUCATION

By G. Dhanarajan, President, Commonwealth of Learning

Introduction and classrooms, know when, how and what to learn and have
the resources to pay for them. The arrival of the newer
Some 10 years ago John Gardner a one time secretary of technologies certainly seems to have stimulated a resurgence
state for health and education, under the Reagan of interest in diversifying methods of knowledge delivery.
administration and, current professor at Stanford University
was reported as saying that “ I am entirely certain that 20 Admittedly any transformation of educational systems
years from now we will look back at education as it is cannot ignore a role for technology in the delivery of that
practiced in most schools today and wonder that we could education. There are several reasons why this is so, but a
have tolerated anything so primitive.” By and large our few stand out as immensely important. These are:
traditions of teaching and learning [in that order] has
undergone very little change from the days of Aristotle. The short supply of talent: On one hand, the planet is filled
Notwithstanding, there is a strong lobby that is emerging with highly skilled and talented people in all fields of human
which argues for the “exceptions” to become the “norm”. At endeavour. On the other, critics of global educational
the forefront of this lobby is not academia but political forces systems have constantly bemoaned the fact that, by and
and perhaps commercial interests. They believe that the large, the academic talent found in our schools, colleges and
technologies of today and those that are emerging will universities need to enhance the quality of the learning
transform the teaching landscape to that extent where it will environment beyond levels of mediocrity. We need
be neither economical nor socially acceptable to cling on to excellence in our teaching and we need to source our
ancient traditions. teachers from the best in the community and distribute them
to the whole learning community. The Western Governors
There are at least three very good reasons to support a re- Virtual University initiative among the North Western States
engineering of the educational process in today’s of the USA is, in fact, attempting to do the same thing. This
environment: demand and diversity, technology and attempt envisages going beyond campus walls to source
capacity and finally quality and transformation. academic “teaching” talent. Contributors to courses will
come from business, commerce, industry and government,
and users of the courses will include ordinary people along
Demand and Diversity with thousands of college and university students.

Notwithstanding certain levels of scepticism, the provision An unmet demand: Since the end of the last World War, the
for learning is becoming more open and accessible. Many planet has expanded its educational provision at all levels.
factors contribute to this changing educational culture. While in proportionate terms we congratulate ourselves for
Important among these are the forces of economics, social having achieved near universal basic, primary and more
and technological. These forces are worldwide in their scope secondary and post-secondary education, the absolute
and, in terms of their power, seem to have a profound impact number of people still needing education at all levels is
on business practises, manufacturing processes, financial astronomical. To be a globally competitive economy, the
services, government policies and, more recently, in our renewal of peoples’ knowledge, especially those in the
teaching practises and learning behaviours. It would not be workforce, is vital. If we also include our desire to build
an exaggeration to say that as we enter this century, we are nations of informed and knowledgeable citizenry for the
also moving irrevocably in the direction of changing the way functioning of a healthy democracy, then this planet’s
we think about information, knowledge and learning. demand for educational opportunities is truly staggering. No
conventional system of educational delivery can meet this
In addition, there is also a change in the nature of those demand. Using technology may provide some relief, and
requiring education and training. Communities are no longer using technology in partnership with others may provide lots
contented (nor should they be) to limit access to education of relief.
and training to the fortunate few who live in urban
communities, have access to communications, infrastructure

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Changing patterns of learning: Full-time study within
time-tabled constraints of the classrooms is only accessible There is perhaps one snag in achieving all of this great
to a few; for many who wish to study, learning will have to potential. In a 1994 report by CERI of the OECD, authors
occur at a time and place of their choice. The growth of open examined a whole range of technologies from electronic
schools, polytechnics and universities as well as the publishing, narrow and broad casting by radio and television,
numerous suppliers of correspondence and on-line education audio and video conferencing as well as the digital networks.
are all manifestations of peoples’ desire to learn at their The report concluded that while the older technologies were
convenience rather than at an institution’s call. used for limited instructional purposes, the newer
technologies like the electronic and digital networks were
Just in time training: The rapid changes that are taking mostly used for the transmission of information through e-
place in the workplace will require training to be delivered mail, bulletin board systems, computer conferencing and
quickly. Such training needs to be high speed, low cost and electronic data base retrieval. The report concluded by
should reach small and large groups. Traditional ways of stating that “ the essence of the educational culture is not
delivering training is time consuming, labour intensive, seen to be changing; at best instructors and institutions are
socially disruptive and entails high cost. using technology to replicate their practice, their content and
their control. …. The influence of technology on schooling,
Information explosion: It is said that the total amount of learning, teaching and the educational organization has not
information that becomes available doubles every four to five been significant across the range of post secondary
years. Stating it another way, the total of all human education”1.
knowledge that was available to an undergraduate in 1997
will be less than 1% of what will be available to a student in Though there has been even greater changes in the
the year 2050. Teachers have to become expert in helping technology environment since 1994, in as far as the
learners navigate through this sea of information rather than educational environment is concerned, the situation does not
pretending to be effective transformers of that information seem to have changed significantly. In a more recent report
into knowledge for the learners. Students must be trained to coming out of Australia, authors Craig Cunnigham et al
bring about this transformation. Those who survive this mention that “ The use of new technology and new media is
information explosion will be able to deal with it effectively, in many cases still in its experimental stages…This may well
and more importantly, turn it into knowledge. change in the future, as programs become more established
and appropriate technological infrastructure becomes more
widely available.”2
Technology and Capacity
One is informed, on a daily basis, of yet another technology
product that will make the technologies friendlier, faster, Quality and Transformation
cheaper, more accessible and of greater capacity. Already we
have DRAM CHIPS WITH A CAPACITY OF 256,000,000 Advocating the use of technology, especially one that
bits with speeds going up to about 500 + megahertz. I am propounds remote learning, will require some fundamental
told that, with these chips in place, the other things that can changes in the current system. These changes will challenge
also happen are: institutions that provide the educational service; they will test
user capability for such services and question governments’
• high speed communication networks enabling teachers policies and regulations. The following challenges may be
to work together to develop courses jointly. Video important for serious consideration:
conferencing and computer conferencing is already
serving some learners in rural and remote areas; Re-orientation of our teachers and the pedagogy they
• digital satellite radio services, incorporating high apply to their vocation. The fraternity still has to come to
quality radio channels and texts - even photographs - terms with a new type of learner and a learning environment
envisaged to reach more than 4.6 billion people in the that encourages the learner to be independent. Whether it is
developing world; a radio or television program, print or web-based instruction,
• hybrid products combining digital TV, personal it is recognised that individuals are capable of self-learning if
computers, and internet services envisaged to succeed provided with cleverly and sensitively designed instruction,
interactive television, providing users with one but are poorly equipped to utilise the technology,
comprehensive set of on- and off-line sources of imaginatively and non-mechanically.
information; and
• willing teachers, supportive administration and Changing the nature and structure of our ‘teaching’
motivated learners, getting together to create a learning organisations. The traditions of teaching and the views on
environment that is open, interactive and challenging. learning have resulted in organisational structures that are

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almost and completely centred on faculty: from the design of assisted instruction, conference and group learning, at the
the curriculum to its transformation into learning experience; heart of the teaching and learning transaction will be
from decisions relating to assessment of prior learning to institutions and teachers. Our challenge is to create
elements of exit standards; from administrative arrangements pedagogies of learning within which modes of delivery will
to academic governance; and from delivery systems to contribute to effective learning.
learning schedules.
Conclusion
Removing the ‘time’ driven element from today’s schools,
colleges and universities. These are ruled by time, The high level of scepticism that is being encountered among
prescribing when, in his/her life, a student can or is ready to academic circles around the world is not promising. There is
learn and the length of time required for learning. A report a certain fear that the use of technology and the promotion of
of a task force to the International Council for Distance networked learning will lower the value of the educational
Education3 recorded: “The instructional paradigm, experience, erode quality irreparably, diminish jobs and job
therefore, holds learning prisoner to time constraints applied opportunities, eliminate academic freedom and inquiry and
by an arbitrary force or by the preferred work schedule of a demean scholarship. This atmosphere has led, in some cases,
faculty member. In the desired [new] learning paradigm, to campus unrest and, in others, outright hostility to
learning becomes the primary driving force and, since experimentation, innovation and application. Change has
learning can occur at any time and at any place 24 hours never been achieved without discomfort. Those vested with
every day, the constraints of time are removed." The the leadership of our academic communities can only attempt
technologies allow those who provide education to break the to reduce the level of acrimony, encourage open debate and
rule of time. discussion and provide as many training and retraining
opportunities as possible to facilitate this major cultural
Overcoming the perceptions and the fear of faculty to the change.
changing nature of their roles and values as well as the
rewards of the new learning environment. There is a real, On the other hand, the multimedia bandwagon is an attractive
though unfounded, fear on the part of faculty of losing total one. More than any other technologies before, it promises to
control of the teaching and learning environment. This fear change the ways in which we can impart skills and
manifests itself in many forms. Some teachers express anger knowledge. But for it to be of sustainable value in the
at the perceived loss of academic freedom and others express educational provisions of nations, a whole new way of doing
disdain at the ‘commoditisation’ of knowledge; some express business must be developed. As Kenichi Ohamae once said
dismay at the loss of employment and others worry about the in another context: "It is hard to let old beliefs go. They are
loss of quality. Learner centrality in the educational familiar. We are comfortable with them and have spent years
environment does pose enormous challenges to the teacher. building systems and developing habits that depend on them.
It requires pedagogical skills, especially in a technology- Like a man who has worn eyeglasses so long that he forgets
mediated environment which many of today’s teachers are he has them on, we forget that the world looks to us the way
either inadequate in or totally lacking. it does because we have become used to seeing it that way
through a particular set of lenses. Today, however we need
Access to technology (telephone, television, radio, Internet) new lenses. And we need to throw the old ones away."
by learners. Even as we near the end of the century, some
500 million people may not have made their first telephone
call let alone use the Internet. Most of the non-users are
found in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and Latin America. 1
Report on an International conference on Learning Beyond
While in the short-term, this seems to be a big impediment, Schooling – New Forms of Supply and New Demands.
the longer-term view, by all accounts, appears to be OECD, Paris, 1994.
promising 2
New Media and Borderless Education: A Review of the
Convergence between Global and Media Networks and
Appropriateness of methodologies. Technology, whether it Higher Education Provision. Department of Employment,
is print or multimedia, does not teach; the techniques we Education, Training and Youth Affairs. Canberra, ACT.
adopt simply enable the delivery of teaching from narrow to 1998.
mass catchments, and simultaneously shift the responsibility 3
Hall, James W. (1996). The educational paradigm shift:
of learning away from the teacher to the learner. In the Implications for ICDE and the distance learning community.
process, it transforms the relationship between teachers and Report of the Task Force of the International Council for
learners. While we are entering the era where multimedia Distance Education Standing Committee of Presidents.
and hypermedia are bringing together, under one umbrella, Open Praxis. Vol. 2, 1996. p. 32.
the essence of print, audio and video signals, computer-

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Technology and Institutional Change:
Why Some Educational Institutions Use Technology and Others Don’t
By Claudio de Moura Castro, Chief Education Adviser, Inter-American Development Bank

Information technology is sold aggressively around the Institutions that teach about technology tend to use technol-
ogy in the process of teaching. Vocational and technical
world. Its price keeps falling at the now famous yearly
schools are the first and most eager adopters of technology.
rate of 20%. Yet, the use of information technology in Technology begets technology. These institutions are the
education is particularly skewed, regardless of level. technophiles. Policies to introduce technology in these
Some institutions use it abundantly, others, not at all. schools are mere policies to buy equipment. This is all that is
needed. Once the equipment arrives it is quickly installed and
Some use it well, others do not. Why? This article puts armies of teachers and students start immediately playing
together some thoughts on this matter. with it. When it breaks, they rejoice at the chance of tinker-
ing with it. This is true for modest vocational schools up to
The Power of National Organizational Culture the prestigious MIT (where some engineering courses are
Countries differ in the way their education institutions work, moving to browsers).
reflecting national organizational cultures and traditions. For
instance, in the United States, what happens in one school Enterprises, particularly those that produce services and mer-
district may not take place in another - and even individual chandise with high technological content, tend to use tech-
institutions within the same district differ. One institution nology in their training programs. Perhaps they are the most
might be chock-full of computers and the next has close to avid and systematic customers for new teaching technolo-
none. One may use creatively the computers; another lets gies. Firms like IBM spend gigantic budgets on training and
them sit idly. By contrast, European schools are synchro- have little reluctance to have their conventional training mi-
nized to the tune of powerful ministries of education. If grate to computers, satellites, browsers and teleconferencing.
France decides to have 100,000 computers, they will be pur- By contrast, academic institutions are far more likely to be
chased from the same vendor and equipped with the “offi- technophobes. Teachers fear computers and all the miscon-
cial” software. Japan did close to nothing until recently, but ceptions associated with them. The task of bringing technol-
it seems to have changed its mind and we should expect a ogy to them is arduous and results are slow to come.
massive and obedient introduction of computers in the near
future. Of course, if the programs are poorly designed, all However, there are no hard and fast rules here. Schools that
schools will suffer. The same holds true for good programs. have had to use technology to deliver their courses tend to
In those countries, individual initiatives that go against the get used to the idea of using technology as a learning tool. A
grain of the “Plan” have difficulty flying. good example is the Monterrey Technological Institute
(Mexico) that had to use technology to deliver its courses
Related to this are the relative merits of incremental versus throughout its multiple campuses. This imposed familiarity
critical mass styles of use. The US style has been mostly led the institution to increasingly use computers and other
incremental (with many exceptions). The implicit rationale is technologies in its teaching.
to bring more and more computers and hope that more and
more teachers will find ways to use them. The risk is that – Computers in Schools and Computers in Education: The
as discussed below – supply does not generate demand and Nouveau Technophobes
the computers remain idle, under-utilized or poorly utilized. The discussion above misses one critical issue: there is a
The alternative is to concentrate a critical mass in some in- difference between computers in schools and computers in
stitutions and ensure that they will use competently the ma- education. The traditional technophobes hated and feared
chines and establish some good models (as Israel and Singa- computers, whether they admit it or not. They demurred, they
pore are doing). The good examples will then be replicated. did nothing to help and if computers came and were in-
The risk is that replication may not take place. The judge- stalled, they found one thousand solutions for not using
ment is still out on the relative merits of either alternative. them.

Technophobes and Technophiles But the old technophobes are becoming a relic of the past;
Perhaps even more important to explaining the use of com- being replaced by the nouveau technophobes. This new breed
puters, is to consider the attitude of different types or catego- loves computers, buys them, brings them to schools and uses
ries of educational institutions towards computers, depending them. But it does not use computers in education. Computers
on their ethos. Some institutions are technophobes while oth- become better typewriters, better calculators, better tools to
ers are technophiles. communicate irrelevancies, better ways of keeping grades

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and managing the school. They may be a convenient way to content closer to students - are the leaders in the creative use
find references (through the Internet) or to exchange notes of computers, videos, browsers and all the panoply of avail-
with colleagues. But computers remain at the periphery of able technologies. Some of them sport classrooms connected
the education process. Even word processing that has a great by fiber optics to other schools, where students can attend
education potential becomes merely a more convenient courses offered in different campuses. Surely, the argument
typewriter. This is essentially what is happening to a vast is not that all or most community colleges are particularly
proportion of US schools, stuffed with computers and at- creative but that they tend to be more creative than the regu-
tended by students who have computers at home. lar universities.

Another powerful and understandable tendency is to teach The traditional universities are reluctant to transform their
how to use computers and productivity tools. These are use- classrooms. They do not see much to be gained. Their in-
ful and needed skills for future jobs. However, this is still not creasing offer of distance education courses does not seem to
using computers in education but rather using education to affect mainstream teaching. It remains an enclave, perhaps
learn about computers. managed by extension departments. By contrast, Open Uni-
versities are progressively moving to the use of browsers, the
Indeed, most schools decided that they like computers; they Internet, video technology and whatever else is available. On
are fashionable, bring status and help in administration. The the other extreme, new institutions such as the University of
challenge is no longer bringing computers to schools but Phoenix and Jones University, lacking tradition and even
bringing them to education. They remain at the margin of the disdaining traditional means, are more than willing to ex-
teaching and learning process. Teachers type the exams on periment with whatever technology is around. They see in
computers. Students type their papers on computers. This is technology a means to bring something better to students
about all that computers do in education even in some of the who do not have access to conventional high quality educa-
most prestigious schools, and in the most over-equipped tion.
schools of the United States.
Lessons?
The nouveau technophobes forego the fascinating possibili-
What do we want? Quick results? More bang for the buck in
ties of using computers in education. From the maligned but
the short run? Then we should invest in the technophiles.
useful drill and practice of teaching mathematics or lan-
They will put technology to its fullest use. They will become
guages, to the new generation of intelligent tutorials, to the
showpieces of what technology can do for education.
“as if” exercises, to the intriguing and entertaining simula-
tions, to the experiments and explorations of nature, there is Do we want to invest in the long run? Do we have the time,
an endless range of possibilities and not less ample supply of patience and money to insist and insist? Do we want to bring
innovative software. But by and large, these are the least new instructional technology to the mainstream of educa-
explored uses of computers in technophobe institutions. tion? If that is the case, we may want to invest in the techno-
Ironically, they were the first uses conceived for computers phobes.
in education.
But the strategies and the people needed to do one or the
Status and Technology other are different. Engineers and techno-prophets do well in
One would imagine that high status educational institutions dealing with the technophiles. For the technophobes, the
being closer to the technological leading edge would tend to problem is not at all dissimilar to the well-known problems
use it for their teaching. This seems not to be the case. Pres- of introducing innovations in organizations. Technology is
tigious teachers are too involved in their research, too ob- the least important worry.
sessed with the publish-or-perish pressures to devote much
time to teaching. The temptation is to keep using the same Perhaps starting with the technophobes is not a good idea.
class notes scribbled in worn out yellow pads. It is not so The sequence of failures and false starts is demoralizing and
much that they reject technology but that they are not willing expensive. Actually, it may backfire, by creating a bad image
to devote much time or attention to the teaching end of their and frustration. With the technophobes, perhaps the best
careers. strategy is to concentrate resources in a few experiments and
learn from them as much as possible. The bottom line is that
By contrast, institutions where the faculty is not under pres- introducing technology into educational institutions is not a
sure to publish and where teaching is a more central en- technical issue but a sociological experiment. The hurdles are
deavor, tend to more easily move to the use of computers, not technical but have to do with the internal logic of the
starting with the ubiquitous PowerPoint. In the United States, institution, with built-in incentive systems, with values, with
community colleges that deal with academically weaker stu- expectations, and with prejudices. It is not a chapter in the
dents - and where there is a commitment to bring teaching science of technology but in the art of institutional change.

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Issues of Quality and Accreditation
By Jody K. Olsen
Sr. Vice President, Academy for Educational Development

Predicting change in higher education: Nicholas Negro- nisms, such as accreditation, will be reassessed, both in proc-
ponte predicted that higher education will have been signifi- ess and outcome to maintain student trust. Without the
cantly changed by the new technologies. Harvard president changes, the core of higher education institutions will wither.
Neil Rudenstine noted the “critical interlock between the
structures and processes of the Internet, and the main struc- Distance learning influences changes in accreditation:
tures and processes of university teaching and learning” is Technology driven programs are influencing accreditation.
one of the reasons the Internet is fundamentally different Their requirements for effective review are different enough
from earlier electronic inventions. Peter Drucker insists that that basic questions of quality assurance are being turned on
the university as we now know it will pass into oblivion. their head. And yet, the need to assure quality in these pro-
“Thirty years from now the big university campuses will be grams cannot be ignored. Sir John Daniel, President of the
relics.”1 Significant change is upon us. Open University of the United States said, “Distance learning
is a world of extremes, when you look at the best university
Information proliferates but communication becomes education around the world, some of it is now distance
more personal: Because the entry and distribution costs are learning, when you look for the worst, all of it is distance
negligible, sources of information will continue to prolifer- learning. Bad distance learning may now be given a new
ate. However, while mass audiences will not disappear, they lease on life by the brave new world of on-line teaching.”44
will become smaller, more diffuse, and more specialized. However, distance education methods and their importance
The media and related communication will become more are growing.
personalized. This impacts the process of teaching and
learning in higher education even as it affects television, ra- Distance education grows: Sukhothai Thammathirat Open
dio, Internet, and our workplaces. Although information University now has the highest number of university gradu-
technology will not change human nature, it will change ates in Thailand. Very conservative estimates show that over
nearly everything else. 2 2.2 million U.S. college students will be enrolled in distance
education in the next two years, a fourfold increase in just
Building trust in information: This explosion in communi- four years. In this same time frame, 85 percent of the com-
cation, connectivity, and networking requires trust for our munity colleges will be offering distance education courses.
participation. Most information is free and the sources are Thirty-three states in the U.S. have created a statewide vir-
infinite. Anyone and everyone can participate. We need to tual university or are participating in a regional virtual uni-
find measures to ensure quality of the information we get. versity.5

Accreditation as a means toward trust: A core tool for Building quality assurance in distance education: Build-
building that trust in higher education, for assuring a level of ing quality control into this decentralized, rapidly growing
quality for those choosing to participate, is accreditation. It form of education is challenging the more traditional as-
is the process, the sanction, the outcome that gives assurance sumptions about how quality is measured. However,
to those selecting a course, a program, a degree, a profes- “building distance learning into the academy will renovate,
sional enhancement, that once the work is completed, the refurbish and transform the whole structure for the better.
outcome will be valued in the larger community. The integration of distance learning, if done well, will drive
all higher education to better levels of quality.”6
Accreditation is already changing: Even as technology
invades the teaching and learning world of higher education, Structure of distance education forces new accreditation
the process of accreditation is already different, buffeted by methods: Distance education requires technologies different
these and other environmental pressures.3 The pressures will from that of the classroom, setting up challenges of the
only increase the speed with which quality assurance mecha- working process, the form of organization, and the ap-

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proaches to problems. Like the individualization of the in- growing cry is shifting the “axis from delivering content to
formation revolution itself, Daniel notes that distance learn- providing students with multiple and diverse opportunities to
ing requires operating on a large scale while focusing down actively engage in knowledge-construction and skills build-
on the individual learner. This shifts from a teaching to a ing on their own.” This is a basic shift from teaching to
learning system where the learner has materials that “are learning, a shift that those in distance learning have had to
interesting and engage the mind in an inner discourse.” The come to understand from the inception of their programs. As
learner should also have communication with others who with distance learning itself, there is a growing shift toward
have mastered the course and methods for assessing work students mastering particular groups of material on their own
done, not only as part of the course, but work done else- and at their own pace. Australia has named it “resource-
where. The division of labor is often different, rather than based learning.” Technology, other than that obvious in dis-
one faculty member managing all aspects of the course in a tance learning, is often a core of other methods being used
traditional situation, materials development, interfacing with for learner-based education, be it laboratories, teams, or stu-
the student, writing exams, and evaluating exams can all be dio classes.9
done by different people. Teamwork, in effect, is turned
around, such that rather than one instructor and a group of Shift in accreditation toward outcomes: This broader shift
students, a team of faculty works with students as individu- forces accreditation towards outcomes as alternatives to
als. It is the university, rather than the faculty member, that some current assurance evaluation systems, such as curricu-
is teaching. This approach is the basis for quality assurance lum review activities. Distance learning, being embraced by
in distance learning, the mechanisms of which should focus many more traditional institutions, must be seen as being as
on faculty teams that work together and the training, moni- good as, if not better than, the traditional methods. But, dis-
toring, and assessing of students. 7 tance learning being outcome driven, cannot come to tradi-
tional means, so traditional programs are moving toward the
Accreditation methods in distance education based on new accreditation methods.
learning outcomes: A report on Assuring Quality in Dis-
tance Learning for the Council for Higher Education Ac- Shift in accreditation toward organization alignment and
creditation (CHEA) emphasizes as the core for quality assur- learning: Ewell notes that accreditation in higher education
ance, four areas quite familiar in traditional quality assur- must shift towards how an institution is organizationally
ance processes: faculty credentials, selection and training, aligned with the purposes of learning; how the units actually
time on the task, student support services and consumer in- fit together for the learning goals. It is the relationships that
formation, and the goals and outcomes of the course. The are important, less so the independent functions. Imbedded
report then identifies eight areas for measurement, focused in this larger view of the type in accreditation is the core of
more squarely on student learning outcomes. These are: evaluating distance learning institutions, particularly The
Open University. “The role of technology is not revolution-
- establish reliable and valid performance measurements ary in itself. Rather it renders the use of alternative instruc-
for distance learning; tional approaches far more feasible and efficient than in the
- require providers to substantiate evidence of contact past and makes their consequences for institutions unavoid-
between faculty and students; able.”10
- require evidence of effective instructional techniques;
- promote systematic efforts for electing and training fac- Shift in accreditation toward recognizing student mobil-
ulty; ity: In another significant change that affects accreditation,
- assure the availability of learning resources; students are moving through more than one institution as
- promote ongoing monitoring and enhancement of the they complete a degree program and are extending their time
technology infrastructure of institutions; frame for that degree. In the U.S., over one half of the stu-
- focus attention on the development of courseware and dents attend more than one institution and a fifth attend more
the availability of information; and than two institutions.11 The growth of distance learning op-
- examine alternatives to the traditional accreditation pro- portunities will contribute to this phenomenon. Students are
cess.8 designing and defining their own paths to a degree, both in
time and space, and accreditation must effectively recognize
Shift in accreditation from teaching to learning: Distance this. Questions include what is credit, how is it transferred,
learning is only one small aspect of overall institution ac- and how can institutional experiences that might be so differ-
creditation, but its influence is much more broadly felt. Peter ent be evaluated together toward one person’s educational
Ewell of the National Center for Higher Education Manage- progress?
ment Systems (NCHEMS) notes that there is a significant
and broad change in the higher education environment both Shift in accreditation toward greater public participa-
in the U.S. and many other countries, particularly Europe. A tion: Trust comes in public accountability; we demand it in

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most aspects of our lives. This is no different in higher edu- but the legal lines are gray, given the relative ambiguity of
cation. Accreditation methods should be more open to the accreditation systems. Columbia State University offered a
broader public. What counts as quality? How are the pa- degree for $2,000 and the summation of a $25 textbook. The
rameters defined? What are the criteria? A broader dialogue American State University gave the degree for $1,890 and a
of the parameters of assessing quality will broaden the par- 2,000-word thesis. When asked how they thought this real-
ticipation in accreditation. European systems, particularly istic, they answered “we hope you did not miss the point
the European Union, have taken a lead in broadening ac- here. The degrees granted to American State University are
creditation participation.12 NOT based on the completion of a writing project. The de-
grees are based on extensive life and work experience which
Long term simple questions to help rethink accreditation: occurs over a long period of time.”14 Many of these types of
The review of the accreditation process itself includes ques- institutions or programs cite non-existent accrediting bodies,
tions of what is reviewed, how a review is done, and who self accrediting systems, or twist their affiliation with reputa-
does it? Programs in Australia, Hong Kong, and Europe ble groups. Public awareness and openness of accreditation
(particularly the UK) offer some models, particularly for the will help minimize these behaviors, particularly as they con-
integrity of the degree.13 Behind these deceptively simple cern potential students outside the U.S. that are not familiar
questions is an opportunity for rethinking outside traditional with U.S. accreditation standards.
patterns of assessment, and the discussions in conferences,
forums, associations and on traditional or virtual campuses Technology helps force change but brings opportunity:
throughout the world must move quickly. Universities are facing extraordinary challenges in reassess-
ing how to measure and then communicate the quality assur-
With new opportunities comes potential for fraud: As the ance dimensions that students want to see. Technology and
growth in distance learning and related alternate structures what it opens for learning forces reassessment but also gives
brings education opportunities to a growing student group opportunities for better systems of assuring the quality edu-
worldwide, the pressure for defined and understood accredi- cation that students, faculty, and the community expect.
tation standards is tremendous. As noted earlier, the new
programs not only open opportunities for more and better “If this is the only institution left in the world which
education, but also act as vehicles for sub-standard or even doesn’t change while everything else is changing
fraudulent programs. Many examples are well documented, radically, then you are in real trouble.”15

1
Richard Burt and Olin Robinson, “Reinventing Diplomacy in the Information Age,” Center for Strategic and International
Studies (December 1998) at 26-27.
2
Barry Fulton, “Publics Count: Mass Media, Public Opinion, and the New Technologies in Foreign
Policy,” (speech at Public Diplomacy Foundation, Washington, D.C., Nov. 17, 1999).
3
Peter T. Ewell, “Examining a Brave New World: How Accreditation Might Be Different” (speech at CHEA annual confer-
ence, May, 1998) at 1.
4
Sir John Daniel, "Building in quality: The Transforming Power of Distance Learning", (Speech at CHEA Annual Conference,
January 1999):1.
5
IHEP “Distance Learning in Higher Education,” (Special publication for the CHEA 1999 Annual Conference, Jan. 1999) at 1-
2.
6
Daniel, Quality, at 2.
7
Ibid. at 4.
8
Ronald A. Phipps, Jane V. Wellman, Jamie P., Merisotis, “Assuring Quality in Distance Learning” (Washington, D.C.
CHEA, April, 1998) IX-XII.
9
Ewell, Examining, at 3-5.
10
Ibid. at 6-8.
11
Department of Education, 1997.
12
Ewell, Examining, at 9-11.
13
Ibid. at 12.
14
Lisa Guernsey, “Is the Internet Becoming a Bonanza for Diploma Mills?” The Chronicle for Higher Education, Dec.
19, 1997.
15
Burt, Reinventing, at 49.

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TechKnowNews
Corporate Universities Reinvent Training
The Stockholm Challenge Award Now
Open for Entries.
Corporate universities, company-wide instruc-
tion sites that teach employees a wide range of
information, have increased in the past decade from 400 to
The City of Stockholm is happy to announce the opening of 1,600 throughout North America. Although a predominant
the Stockholm Challenge Award, the unique networking number of these universities have classroom facilities, many
competition of the best applications in the world of informa- are beginning to offer classes via the Internet and satellite-
tion technology. Previously known as the Global Bangemann based systems. Most corporations establish learning facili-
Challenge, the Challenge invites and collects a range of ties to ensure employees can keep up with advances in tech-
smart projects that illustrate how technology can be used to nology and global competition. Corporations are expected to
improve the living conditions for people, strengthen econo- find the traditional university will become more of a partner
mies and support the environment. Projects are invited in and consultant in the future, as it is more practical for com-
seven different categories and can enter via the on-line form panies than beginning their own educational programs.
on the Challenge web site at http//:www.challenge.stockholm.se Critics of corporate universities note that companies tend to
Entries are accepted until February 29th, 2000. Then the jury invest a lot of money in their programs, but fail to track how
of 27 international experts will judge the projects and choose the knowledge helps their employees.
the winners and finalist in each category. All competing (CBS MarketWatch.com 10/06/99)
projects in the Challenge will be invited to participate in the
Challenge Awards Ceremony in June 2000.
"Open Archives" Project as an Alterna-
The winners in the forerunner, the Global Bangemann Chal- tive to Costly Journals.
lenge were awarded on June 29th, 1999, with the Challenge
trophies in the Nobel Hall in Stockholm. The King of Swe- The Chronicle reports about a recent plan, pre-
den handed out the awards. More than one hundred of the sented by 25 scholars from academia and the government, to
Challenge projects exhibited their projects in Stockholm last harness the Internet to improve communication among
June. scholars. The plan calls for universities and scholarly socie-
ties around the world to create electronic repositories of re-
For more information visit the Challenge web site at search papers that would be connected through the Net so
http//:www.challenge.stockholm.se that they could be used as a single collection. Scholars would
deposit their papers in the system, called the Open Archives,
and retrieve papers written by others -- all for free. Universi-
Internet2, Where to? ties and scholarly societies would bear the cost of operating
individual repositories that would form the global archive.
The Internet2 project, which began in 1996, as a Because each repository in the Open Archives would use the
high-speed private network to connect universi- same standards for indexing papers, a scholar could search
ties, now has 163 member institutions and 20 corporate part- all the repositories with a single command. Researchers at
ners. Internet2 provides an environment that fosters experi- Old Dominion University already have demonstrated the
mentation in areas such as advanced videoconferencing, vir- feasibility of the Open Archives, linking six existing archives
tual reality, and telemedicine. An example of a futuristic that contain 200,000 articles through one interface that al-
application being created on Internet2 is tele-immersion, a lows a user to search all six with a single command. The
sophisticated type of virtual reality that allows users in sepa- central virtue of the project, in the eyes of many of its sup-
rate locations to interact in a common, simulated environ- porters, is that it could offer an alternative to conventional
ment in real time. Technological progress that stems from journals, allowing universities to cancel at least some of their
Internet2 research will quickly be made available on the high-priced subscriptions. While observers say they don't
public Internet so that it will benefit everyone, proponents expect the project to threaten the most prominent scholarly
say. (New York Times 10/07/99) publications, the smaller and more expensive journals offered

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by commercial publishers could be affected if the archive University (JIU), Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI),
idea proved successful. Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT), University of
Phoenix (UOP) and Western Governors University (WGU).
http://chronicle.com/free/v46/i15/15a04301.htm With the addition of these five partnerships, Hungry-
Minds.com will guide students to a diverse selection of on-
line university resources as well as help students evaluate
Cisco's E-Learning Initiative Dramatically courses that best meet their lifelong learning needs. Hun-
Shifts Learning Model gryMinds.com will promote thousands of quality, university-
level courses within its Web site, such as nursing, marketing
Cisco Systems, Inc. has recently introduced a and computer science. Each partner will also bring listings of
large-scale e-learning - Internet-based, online learning - ini- multiple undergraduate and graduate degree programs.
tiative that significantly changes the way the company edu-
cates and trains its employees, channel partners, and custom-
ers. With the initiative, Cisco has shifted its entire training FORWARD Towards the Information So-
structure to an e-learning model. It now offers a complete ciety
Web-based e-learning solution for its Cisco Certified Net-
work Associate program, which addresses the growing de-
mand for entry-level computer networking professionals. FORWARD, an Infodev Project to promote the evolution
Two Web-based courses and a virtual lab product form the towards the Information Society, held its first Seminar in
core of the new solution, which students will use to study on Buenos Aires, Sept. 27-Oct., 1999. Participants representing
line and participate in modular, interactive course work. most South American countries had the opportunity to dis-
"There are two fundamental equalizers in life - the Internet cuss and identify priorities and actions to stimulate local ini-
and education," said John Chambers, President and CEO of tiatives for the evolution of the Information Society. FOR-
Cisco Systems. "E-learning combines these equalizers to WARD's goal is to stimulate ideas for setting up an evolution
revolutionize the way organizations around the world com- process that can become rapidly effective and self-
municate and train their people." sustainable, and to help turn these ideas into projects that
may attract financing from several international organiza-
By training students on line, Cisco can inexpensively deliver tions. For seminar outcome, details on coming initiatives,
instructional content in multiple formats, manage and track and to submit proposals: http://www.cselt.it/forward
the learning process, and provide company-wide access to an
extended network of learners, instructors, and experts. The
company can reuse and reformat content quickly and easily, Low-Cost PCs for Indian Education Sec-
significantly reducing development and delivery time. Online tor
courses provide flexibility and convenience, and can quickly
reach students anywhere, at any time. This enables Cisco to T S Vishwanath, New Delhi, reports about a little-known
meet its training needs in a cost-effective way. Students are computer software company, Media Video Limited, now
free to study at their own pace, regardless of location. Be- entering the world of computers with a pricing strategy that
cause e-learning makes students accountable through online will give it a large slice of the low-end market. "We are en-
testing and progress management, learners obtain relevant tering the educational computers arena with computers
information faster, increase their own productivity, and can priced between Rs 1,250 and Rs 2,750 (US$ 30 to 65) for the
move forward or repeat course sections based on perform- semi-urban and rural market," company managing director
ance. Prem Adip Rishi said. "The idea is to import the low-end, 8-
bit computers from south-east Asian countries and sell them
in the local market. The price of eight-bit chips has fallen
HungryMinds.com Adds Thousands of drastically in the international market and we hope to capi-
University Courses to Online Learning talize on that. The import duty on this is also very low," Mr.
Marketplace Rishi said. Research has proved that there is a good demand
for such educational computers in the country especially in
HungryMinds.comTM, an online learning portal, has formed the semi-urban and rural markets where the high priced com-
strategic partnerships with five universities that offer exten- puters have not been able to make much headway, he said.
sive online training and degree programs: Jones International http://www.economictimes.com/today/01tech02.htm

! 20 ! TechKnowLogia, January/February, 2000 © Knowledge Enterprise, Inc. www.TechKnowLogia.org


THE AFRICAN VIRTUAL UNIVERSITY
Bridging the Knowledge Gap for Development

By Mactar Diagne

What is the AVU? fessionals to establish easy, permanent and highly productive
linkages with excellent sources of quality knowledge world-
The African Virtual University (AVU) is a response to a des- wide to strengthen their on-campus learning. Access to
perate generation of Africans. The ills that plague Africa's "quality academic faculty, library resources and laboratory
higher education, the frightening deterioration of teaching experiences" is made easier than ever. (see AVU Website,
http://www.avu.org/avusite/about/index.htm)
and research capabilities in many countries and the absence
of adequate educational strategies to satisfy the drive for
higher learning have led many of the best brains of Africa to
flee the continent in search of better opportunities. Why the AVU?

Africa's youth are eager to capitalize on the opportunities Current university programs in Sub-Saharan Africa, particu-
offered by the information age to improve their lives and larly in science and technology, are insufficient to respond to
liberate their continent from the effects of poverty. But with the demands of a changing labor market, satisfy the students’
scarce resources and a declining educational system with no thirst for higher learning and spur development. Meanwhile,
promising solutions, they can sink into hopelessness. Many the science and technological gap between Sub-Saharan Af-
African institutions are faced with tight budgets, obsolete rica and the rest of the world is widening at a disturbing rate.
libraries and dysfunctional equipment and offer little or no Distance learning may be the most efficient route to help
Internet access. While there is one Internet user for every 38 African countries tackle these challenges.
people universally, Sub-Saharan Africa, excluding South
Africa, counts only one Internet user for every 5000 Afri- The AVU provides "the flexibility and cost-effectiveness of a
cans, wrote Andrea Useem in The Chronicle of Higher Edu- virtual academic infrastructure…[to help] produce large
cation. This situation plays a major role in hindering Africa's numbers of scientifically and technologically literate profes-
development as an integral part of the global economy. sionals and support them with lifelong learning opportuni-
ties. [It] can thereby contribute to overcoming the existing
The AVU aims, together with African Universities, at help- barriers of declining budgets, too few faculty, outdated
ing reverse that trend. As an unprecedented "interactive- equipment, and limited space and facilities that prevent in-
instructional telecommunications network," it works towards creased access to higher education for a significant majority
building capacity and supporting the economic development of students in Sub-Saharan Africa. The increase in the num-
of Sub-Saharan African countries through the use of cutting- ber of scientifically and technologically literate professionals
edge modern technology "to provide world-class quality edu- will, as a consequence, better position countries in Sub-
cation and training programs to students and professionals." Saharan Africa to be part of the global information age and
(see AVU Website, http://www.avu.org/avusite/about/index.htm) the new knowledge economy" (see AVU Website,
With no physical places where teachers and students meet to http://www.avu.org/avusite/about/index.htm).
interact, the AVU brings a dispersed number of students
from African countries together with highly qualified in- How Does the AVU Function?
structors from prestigious academic institutions around the
world. Currently, the AVU operates in twenty-two Sub-Saharan
African universities (14 Anglophone and 8 Francophone) in
The AVU's satellite and computer connections with African sixteen countries. The courses are taught by professors from
Universities provide openings for African students and pro- well-known institutions in Africa, North America and

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Europe. They are conveyed to the students through video- • Economics and Business Journalism
tapes or live broadcasts. During the live sessions, the • Advanced E-Commerce
courses are broadcast from the instructors' location via satel- • Y2K: Managing the Roll Over
lite or fiber optics to an uplink in Washington, DC. They are • Y2K: Contingency Planning for the Banking
then rerouted through the same means to the students' loca- and Financial Services Sector
tion in Africa from where the recipients can in turn interact • Y2K: Preparedness in the Electrical Power In-
directly with their instructors to ask questions or solve prob- dustry: Lessons from North America
lems using e-mails, fax or telephone lines. • Cyber Rights
• Locating and Retrieving Legal Information on
What Kind of Academic Programs Does the AVU the Internet
Offer? • Influence and Leadership
• Global Competency: Increasing Global Com-
The courses in the three types of educational programs deliv- petency in Executives
ered by the AVU - non-credit courses and seminars, remedial • Strategy and Innovation: Leading the Revolu-
instruction and certification programs - convey to African tion
students the most advanced pedagogy and content from emi- • Negotiation Principle and Strategy
nent professors from around the world. Courses currently
offered include, but are not limited to, the following: Besides the courses and seminars, the AVU has established a
digital library comprising an AVU catalogue, which has
Computer more than 3,500 entries providing information links through-
• Introduction to Computer Literacy and Win- out the Internet, and a link to University Microfilms Interna-
dows 95 tional (UMI), which includes more than 1,100 journal and
• Introduction to computing magazine abstracts and full text articles that go back 10 years
• Introduction to the Internet and World Wide and that students can access through their local campus coor-
Web dinator. Also, the AVU on-line library allows students to
access the World Bank Search Page and benefit from a large
Economics number of their publications. Students can also consult the
• Economics and Business Journalism World Bank Journals and Newspapers archives and review
descriptions of journals held by the libraries of the World
Language Bank and International Monetary Fund.
• English Composition I
• English Composition II The AVU, Africa and the future
• French in Action
There is no doubt that the AVU needs to maintain and even
Remedial expand its courses to respond to the expectations of African
• Calculus 1 students. Since its inception in 1997, the founders of the
• Calculus 2 AVU wanted it to be a trial experiment allowing “the testing
• Chemistry 1 of the implementation methodology, curriculum develop-
• Chemistry 2 ment, technological performance and costing of service de-
• Introduction to Computer Science I CIS 113 livery” (World Bank internal report on AVU). The first
course was a five-week summer program delivered at
• Introduction to Computer Science II CIS 114
Kenyatta University in Nairobi, Kenya. Since, the AVU has
• Physics 1
broadcast 2,000 hours of courses to about 9,000 African stu-
• Physics 2 dents in more than twenty universities. As the demand for its
• Pre-Calculus courses are growing, the Institution should move ahead with
its operational phase to start granting the 4-year degree pro-
In addition, the AVU delivers seminars in collaboration with grams by October 2000, as envisaged.
institutions such as the World Bank Institute. Two seminars
on "Entrepreneurship: The Engine for Prosperity" and "Sup- For more information on the AVU, how it functions, what
ply Chain Management" were planned for December 1999, kinds of courses are offered, how to register, etc., you may
and January 2000, respectively. Past seminars have dealt visit the AVU web site at http://www.avu.org.
with the following topics:

! 22 ! TechKnowLogia, January/February, 2000 © Knowledge Enterprise, Inc. www.TechKnowLogia.org


NEW PARADIGM OR EXCEPTIONAL CASE?

Richard Hopper and William Saint


The World Bank*

The University of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland (UHI) could represent a
new paradigm in higher education delivery for developing countries where commu-
nity isolation, program availability, and academic infrastructure remain problematic.

What Is UHI? ers, videoconferencing and internetworking to provide access


to the combined academic and administrative resources of its
The Highlands and Islands region of Scotland is one of the multiple locations and learning centers. By pooling all re-
least populated and economically peripheral areas of Europe, sources, UHI is able to build a critical mass of academic
suffering from further projected depopulation and fiscal dete- means by electronically linking regional personnel, infra-
rioration. Created in 1993 to promote regional economic and structure and materials to the benefit of the entire enterprise.
social development, UHI has taken a pioneering approach to
institutional organization, management, infrastructure, and Not Distance Education
student learning that draws heavily from the benefits of tech-
nology. UHI serves communities in modest locales, com- In spite of UHI's heavy dependence on technological tools,
bining academic instruction and course facilitation to meet officials from this university insist that their model is not a
the educational needs of local industry and local communi- form of distance education – rather, it is a "carefully net-
ties - yet it does so in quite an innovative way. worked series of local opportunities dedicated to personal
advancement and human development." Indeed - although
Now six years old, what is the UHI? It is a functioning part- many offerings from distant sites are made through multime-
nership of thirteen tertiary institutions, eight associated dia, UHI students are never fully remote and meet regularly
Learning Outreach Centers, along with an array of busi- with local educational providers in their immediate learning
nesses, service organizations, local governments, and re- locale. The end result at UHI is networked academic oppor-
gional development agencies. This amalgam of disparate tunities enhanced by locally constructed instructional rela-
entities covers a vast and otherwise disjointed geographic tionships, preventing community members from being pulled
area. UHI currently enrolls over 22,500 students (8,900 Full- out of their native region to seek access to advancement and
time Equivalent - FTE) of which 4,546 students (3,264 FTEs lifelong learning elsewhere. Such an elaborate and thorough
or 37%) are involved in higher education courses. The cur- combination of supports does not come cheap.
riculum is structured into seven multi-disciplinary academic
clusters that address human resource needs in the region: Art Funding
& Design; Business & Management; Computing & Informa-
tion; Construction & Technology; Culture & Heritage; Recurrent funding for UHI is received from the Scottish
Health, Education & Care; and Science & Environment. The Higher Education Funding Council and individual student
credit-based modular framework of the University’s degree fee revenue. In addition, capital development funds have
programs allows complete flexibility for part-time or full- been contributed by proceeds from the national lottery, the
time study. With the recent advances in information and Scottish Office Education and Industry Department, the
communications technology, UHI relies heavily on comput- European Union, the Highlands and Islands regional devel-

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opment authority, and local authorities. A major external therefore an inherent part of the institution's operating proce-
fund-raising effort focusing on private and charitable sources dure.
was scheduled to begin toward the end of 1999. The total
cost of the UHI project is estimated to be upwards of £95 Third, the UHI approach to teaching and learning is
million. The UHI Project was awarded £33.35 million by the dedicated to long-term skill adaptation. It recognizes that
Millennium Commission in 1996, one of the biggest awards in a rapidly changing world, knowledge can quickly become
in Scotland. outdated, and that the real value of higher education lies in
the capabilities which students acquire. Coursework conse-
st
A Prototype for the 21 Century? quently emphasizes the building of individual competencies
rather than the transfer of knowledge. Examples of these
Many observers see UHI as a prototype for the 21st century, capabilities include problem solving, teamwork, communi-
and possibly a model for developing countries. What makes cation skills, time management, and high levels of computer
the University of the Highlands and Islands a potential ex- literacy. Students are expected to actively manage their edu-
emplar for other countries? cational development, and the majority is also required to
undertake a 3 to 6 month work placement prior to graduation.
First, its mission is local and lifelong. UHI possesses a Courses of study are thematically oriented and strongly
strong mandate to promote regional economic and social multi-disciplinary, such as courses on rural development,
development. This region, which comprises one-fifth of the health care management, and tourism. Learning occurs
United Kingdom and includes 93 inhabited islands, shares through a mix of classroom participation, work groups, in-
many characteristics with developing countries. Its popula- formal tutorials, distance education, and self-paced comput-
tion is spatially dispersed and predominantly rural. Its econ- erized instruction. The academic program is highly flexi-
omy is narrowly based and heavily dependent on small busi- ble, offering considerable ease of student entry and exit.
nesses and medium-sized enterprises. The labor force is Students accumulate credits for each course module com-
relatively less educated, and contains above-average numbers pleted. This occurs at the student’s own speed. When 120
of self-employed, part-time workers, and unemployed. The credits (i.e., eight modules) are earned, an academic
demand for access to higher education is very strong. In ‘year’/level is concluded. Each completed ‘year’ of post-
addition, the education system confronts challenges of multi- secondary education is rewarded with a recognized certifica-
culturalism and bi-lingualism in the design and delivery of tion, i.e., a Certificate in Higher Education for year 1, a Di-
services. These features led the University to emphasize ploma in Higher Education for year 2, and a Degree for year
mass access to higher education, qualitative skill develop- 3. Credits may also be awarded for other education and work
ment, and lifelong learning. experiences. Continuing professional development and re-
training programs are also provided. Each student is viewed
Second, UHI organization and management are distinc- as a lifelong client who will have a continuing relationship
tive. The University is not a new institution; it is a decen- with the University.
tralized federation of thirteen existing colleges and research
institutions distributed across the region. Eight electronically Fourth, a substantial investment in information and
linked community outreach centers (soon to be fifteen) ex- communication technologies is and will continue to be the
tend the physical presence of this educational network to fiber that holds this network together and allows it to
smaller communities and under-served areas. Business incu- function. In March of 1999, UHI conducted over 800 hours
bation services will shortly be established on several cam- of video conferencing. This is the preferred medium for
puses. Each college possesses its own presiding Princi- meetings of the Network Academic Council and the Univer-
pal/Director and governance council, and its management is sity Management Group. It is also used for specialized
largely autonomous. Academic planning, curriculum devel- classes, workshops, and tutorials. Supported by an extensive
opment, and quality assurance are the responsibility of a training program, academic staff is expected to become
Network Academic Council drawn from member institutions. highly proficient in the use of computers and multimedia
Overall coordination and development administration are technologies for both teaching and academic administration.
provided by a University Management Group. A 15-member
Board of Directors oversees the UHI system. Five of its New Learning Paradigm
members are elected directly by a UHI Foundation compris-
ing 86 local businesses and service organizations, which Much of the structure and content of the UHI enterprise is
links the University closely to the private sector and commu- predicated on a new learning paradigm for higher education.
nity interests. An executive office of 14 professional staff Learning is viewed as an active--not passive--process in
supports these groups and serves as an intermediary between which concepts are acquired, incorporated into schemas, and
the UHI system and outside funding sources, quality assur- tested in action. The unidirectional relationship between
ance bodies, and political actors. Stakeholder consultation is teacher and student is replaced by interactivity with a multi-

! 24 ! TechKnowLogia, January/February, 2000 © Knowledge Enterprise, Inc. www.TechKnowLogia.org


tude of instructional, applied, and “virtual” learning envi- missions in OECD countries. If its distinguishing features do
ronments. Learning is no longer restricted to one physical not foreshadow the future of higher education, they certainly
location, but is available in many places simultaneously. represent a bold transitional step in that direction.
Instruction moves beyond oral presentation into a range of
multimedia learning systems. The pace of learning is con- During a recent videoconference with UHI management,
trolled by the student rather than the teacher, whose role is to World Bank representatives from the Country Office in
facilitate the student’s learning. As a result, the individual Egypt found the UHI example potentially useful for local
rather than the classroom audience becomes the focus of the application. Ninety-five percent of the Egyptian population
learning process. This also allows a re-definition of who is a lives in remote areas, and much of the country's mining in-
tertiary student. No longer are students drawn from a par- dustry is located at a distance from any higher education in-
ticular age cohort or socio-economic background. UHI stu- stitutions. While the UHI model appeared remarkably useful
dents can be anyone who has completed secondary school, in this context, the World Bank staff from Egypt saw several
and who can demonstrate the capacity and desire to benefit limitations of its application. The staff remarked that, in
from its programs. particular, the UHI model is best for instruction in subject
areas that are largely text-based. Courses that would be lo-
Two innovations within the UHI system illustrate how this cally useful in Egypt, such as mineral science and engineer-
new paradigm operates in practice. Learning Resource Cen- ing, are lab-based and generally more costly than the typical
ters combine a traditional college library with a large com- courses available in remote regional learning centers. The
puter laboratory and meeting spaces of various sizes and infrastructure requirements and related expenses in launching
functions. All are equally open to students and community such an endeavor are also a cause for concern in Egypt and
members. The college library functions essentially as a pub- other developing countries. The technology required to con-
lic library. The lab of 30 or so computers offers self-paced nect all regional learning centers is not only difficult to or-
learning leading to technical certifications and module cred- ganize in a resource-poor context, but it is also proportionally
its, Internet and e-mail connectivity, or simply the opportu- more expensive in a developing country relative to an indus-
nity to compose a résumé or print a report. Meeting rooms trialized country’s average GDP per capita. World Bank
can be booked by either students or community residents for representatives from Zambia expressed additional concern
group projects, short courses, club gatherings, tutorials, or over recurrent costs of updating and replacing hardware and
specific discussions. In this way, UHI eliminates barriers software over time. The UHI team spoke about generous
between town and gown, study and work, financial means grants from the European Union, as well as from the gov-
and access, age and learning. ernment of the United Kingdom and local authorities in
Scotland that help to finance these long-term costs. While
A second innovation is the Learning Outreach Center. This there are possibilities for economies of scale over a large
is simply a large room containing distance learning refer- network of small community-based learning centers, it is an
ences and a dozen or so computers staffed by a facilitator unanswered question whether such savings could be realisti-
which operates under the supervision of one of the UHI con- cally expected in the context of developing countries.
stituent colleges. Located in remote areas such as the West-
ern Islands or Highland communities, they enable local resi- While developing countries might enhance their tertiary edu-
dents to pursue distance learning, computer-based instruc- cation systems by adopting selected features of UHI, the
tion, and general access to information. Video conferencing model's expensive and complex mode of delivery may be an
and e-mail links allow campus-based tutors to guide and obstacle to replication in low-income countries. Still, when
support local learners. The rooms can also be used by com- set against the alternative of constructing residential campus
munity groups for meetings or other activities. Established facilities, an electronically linked network of existing insti-
in publicly accessible places, the Outreach Centers are open tutions may pose a feasible alternative, particularly in areas
ten to twelve hours a day, including part of the weekend. of lower population density.

Is UHI Applicable to Developing Countries? For more information on the University of the Highlands and
Islands Project, visit their web site at: http://www.uhi.ac.uk.
UHI appears to be an interesting prototype for tertiary edu-
cation in industrialized countries of the 21st century. It cer-
tainly represents a radical break from higher education tradi-
tion within the British Commonwealth and clearly challenges
the prevailing worldwide university model. Notably, it in- *
The comments made herein do not reflect the views of the World
corporates contemporary good practice from around the Bank Board of Executive Directors or of the governments they rep-
world, anticipating many of the recommendations contained resent.
in recent higher education assessments by high-level com-

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For Open Universities, the problem of credibility has been critical, since quality in higher education tends to be
linked to tradition and selective entry standards. In the academic world, reputation is built through years, sometimes
centuries of work. Entrance to traditional, renowned universities is open to only the best students, selected through
their performance during high school years or grueling entrance examinations. Tradition is not on the side of Open
Universities. The vast majority are newly funded institutions that propose to offer education through non-traditional
methods, and more specifically, through the use of modern technology. As open institutions, they are based on the
concept that educational opportunities must be open to all, regardless of their past school experience and grades. To
gain public confidence and academic respect is then a major challenge to the viability and survival of Open Univer-
sities. The Open University of Hong Kong has taken this challenge seriously.

Quality Assurance in Distance Learning


Sonia Jurich

The Beginnings tance-learning institutions. The government would support


the initial stage of development, but OLI had to become eco-
nomically self-sufficient within five years. Without money
Although geographically small, Hong Kong is a thriving
or time for the planning and development of materials, OLI
economic community, with burgeoning commerce and in-
became a major importer of materials developed by overseas
dustry and one of the highest GDP per capita in Asia. Dur-
distance education institutions, particularly the United King-
ing the 1980s, Hong Kong’s tertiary education sector experi-
dom’s Open University (UKOU).
enced an unusually high pressure to expand. First, the num-
ber of students graduating at the secondary level and in
search of higher education much exceeded the capacity of the Ensuring Quality
few existing institutions. Second, the expansion of high-tech
industry and the globalization of the market required re- Depending exclusively on students’ tuition, OLI had to con-
training for large sectors of the workforce. The creation of vince its buyers of the quality of its courses. Students would
new campus universities raised the issue of limited physical not enroll if their degrees were not respected and accepted,
space, funding and qualified staff. In 1984, a government- particularly in the workplace. Academic and public recogni-
sponsored commission recommended the development of tion was then essential for the survival of the new institution.
distance learning programs focusing on part-time students However, OLI had no spare money to plan and implement a
and adults in full-time employment. These programs would quality assurance system, and once more, it looked at UKOU
operate in the traditional universities, or through consortia of for assistance. The initial quality assurance system involved
universities, as the 1986 Commission proposed. The tradi- three levels: (a) external accreditation, (b) external review
tional universities had difficulty responding to the challenge and (c) internal committee.
and in 1987, the government provided start-up funds to open
an independent institution dedicated solely to distance edu- (a) External accreditation - As any other local institution,
cation at the tertiary level, the Open Learning Institute of OLI had to submit to the accreditation process of the Hong
Hong Kong (OLI). Kong Council for Academic Accreditation (Council), which
oversees all local universities and polytechnic institutes. The
OLI was an autonomous organization whose council in- Council visited OLI regularly, from 1989 until its full ac-
cluded representatives of local universities and overseas dis- creditation in 1992. In preparation for the Council visits,

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OLI established a system of mock reviews that helped senior Adult and Distance Learning. Its World of Learning is a
staff identify weaknesses in the programs, sometimes even broadcast program financed by the Hong Kong Telecom
beyond those identified by the Council. The Council visits Foundation. The program, launched in 1989, includes
attracted public attention and enrollment at OLI increased courses in arts, sciences, business and education and is
significantly after the 1992 accreditation, when the Council broadcasted in English, Putonghua and Cantonese. Cur-
validated all OLI programs and the civil service announced rently, OUHK is implementing a Web-based instruction
the acceptance of OLI degrees. In 1996, OLI received self- project with the support of the Hong Kong Jockey Club
accreditation status and the following year, it gained univer- Charities Trust.
sity status, being renamed as the Open University of Hong
Kong (OUHK). With the self-accreditation, the young uni- Growing and
versity left the Council’s review system.
Diversifying
(b) External reviewers - External reviewer boards formed
the second layer of quality assurance. They functioned as In 1992, the University
advisory peer groups to programs, with the function to re- had 18 degree pro-
view the curriculum and syllabi of courses, advise on the grams, all validated by
development of new projects and oversee the examination the accreditation coun-
process. The system involved more than 250 external re- cil, and graduated its
viewers, including professors from other universities, mem- first class of 161 stu-
bers of professional organizations and employers. Overseas dents. Three years
experts, particularly from UKOU, are also members of these later, the number of
external review boards. The external review process raised degree programs had
two concerns: the local academics’ lack of familiarity with more than doubled and
the intricacies of distance education, and the lack of famili- the graduating class
arity with local needs and cultural sensitivities by the over- had 1,000 students.
seas experts in distance education. With 20,000 students,
OUHK offered in 1995
(c) Internal review - More recently, the university simplified three Master’s degree
its review system to focus mostly on the internal review pro- programs, 36 bachelors, 24 sub-degrees and 16 independent
cess. This process is expected to increase staff participation courses. The University had 60 full-time academic staff
and ownership of the process, and establish a culture geared members, assisted by 750 part-time tutors. In 1999, OUHK
toward quality assurance. The function of the internal review offered a doctoral degree program in education, about 10
teams is to assist the program staff in improving the quality master’s and postgraduate programs, 41 bachelor's, and 27
of their programs. To expedite the process, the internal re- sub-degrees or certificate programs through its four schools
view teams have the authority to initiate program changes (Arts and Social Sciences, Business and Administration,
that previously would require approval from the school Education and Language, Science and Technology) and its
board. Deans are involved only in the evaluation of new Centre for Continuing and Community Education.
courses. After the courses attain stability, the quality assur-
ance process is left solely to the internal teams. Staff devel- OUHK provides distance education courses mostly through
opment is also a main component of this review process and pre-prepared materials that are mailed to students’ homes or
the institution was developing a training manual for program workplace. Some courses use television broadcasts. The
coordinators to standardize the process and avoid interrup- imported material was gradually replaced by locally devel-
tions during staff turnover. oped courses that better respond to students’ needs and cul-
tural specificities. Most material is written in English and
Economic Survival Chinese. The University contracts with experts, including
faculty at other universities, to develop this material. Its own
academic staff is involved in the research, development, im-
In 1994, the institution achieved full self-financing status.
plementation and assessment of courses.
Indeed, OUHK is the only university in Hong Kong that does
not receive governmental funding through the University
The students can study by themselves, or organize self-help
Grants Committee. However, the government still assists the
groups in their homes, public libraries, the workplace, and
university through grants and contributions to specific proj-
more recently, in the campus building. In addition, they
ects. The University also has an active relationship with
must attend tutorial sessions in the self-study centers, which
foundations and private donors. In 1997, for instance,
are spread throughout Hong Kong and surrounding territo-
OUHK received a $50 million grant to develop a research
ries. A tutor supports a group of 30 to 35 students and meets
center on distance education, the Centre of Excellence in
with them in tutorial sessions every two or three weeks.

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Regular tutorial sessions are scheduled during weekdays and The University is also moving from a low-tech distance
evenings, with optional sessions on Saturdays and Sundays. learning environment to a high-tech institution. For the past
Beyond these sessions, tutors and individual students main- two years, the Department of Technology Development has
tain phone contact as necessary. The tutors’ main role is to been working on the introduction of Web-based instruction
support the students through the courses and assignments. with the help of private grants. The project includes four
Some courses require compulsory day school and laboratory components: multimedia course materials, online drills and
sessions. Although the students are expected to pay for the tests, monitoring and assessing students’ performance, and
full cost of their courses, the university offers public and communications among academic staff, tutors and students.
private scholarships, grants and loans. Some students are Staff is converting materials from more than 100 existing
paid by their employers to study at OUHK. courses into online versions and planning training sessions
with students and faculty. Plans also include the introduction
What is in the Future? of speech recognition technology to improve language
teaching, particularly for foreign languages. In addition,
OUHK is involved in research to develop language teaching
Enrollment at OUHK increased frantically in the years prior
and speech recognition software for Chinese language.
to 1997, when Hong Kong became a Special Administrative
Region of the People’s Republic of China. The holding of a
Finally, reflecting its concern with quality assurance, OUHK
diploma was an asset for those looking to emigrate, and
is also involved in developing quality standards for distance
OUHK offered an open and fast way to obtain enticing de-
learning that will be adopted in Mainland China. OUHK has
grees. This incentive is over, and the small university may
an ambitious agenda for the immediate future. It hopes to
have to cope with the competition from the huge China TV
maintain its focus on quality assurance and preserve the
University System, in addition to new distance learning pro-
reputation it has already acquired, while integrating cutting
grams implemented by traditional universities. Costs for
edge technology and offering its students a real campus with
OUHK programs have skyrocketed, and students may have
which they can identify. This agenda may take OUHK from
to pay as much as HK $10,000 for one course. The impact of
its old role as an importer of distance learning concepts and
the Asian economic crisis on students’ ability to pay is yet to
materials to a new role as the trend-setter of this learning
be analyzed.
methodology.
The University appears to be responding to the competition
by moving into two somewhat opposite directions. One Resources
direction has taken OUHK closer to the traditional campus Murphy, D. & Fung, I. (1999). The Open University of
universities. OUHK has just built a large, 20,000 square foot Hong Kong. In Harry, K. (Ed.). Higher education through
campus to “provide students and staff with a long-awaited open and distance learning. London: Routledge & The
home,” as written in its web page. The campus houses many Commonwealth of Learning.
facilities, such as: a study center accessible to disabled stu-
dents; a self-study center with 13 tutorial and seminar rooms; Robertshaw, Michael (1997). Developing quality systems in
an audio-visual center; laboratories for science, computer and the fast lane: The Open University of Hong Kong. In Tait,
language teaching; a Council chamber; a visual production A. (Ed.). Perspectives on distance education: Quality assur-
studio; a library with 300 seats; and even a “lecture theater.” ance in higher education- selected case studies. Vancouver,
The facilities are open to all OUHK students. In development Canada: The Commonwealth of Learning
is an electronic library that OUHK students will be able to (www.col.org/10th/about/images/qa.pdf).
access via the Internet.
Open University of Hong Kong web site: www.ouhk.edu.hk.

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Korea: Virtual University Trial Project
By Insung Jung, Ph.D.
Korea National Open University

The Context independently (without forming a consortium), and the other 57


universities and five companies have formed seven consortia.
Until recently, Korea had only one distance teaching university, Each of the eight conventional universities has established a
the Korea National Open University (KNOU). As Korea virtual campus within its own university system, and each of
opened its education market to the world in the mid 1990s, the seven consortia has established a virtual institution outside
several foreign education institutions, particularly from Can- of its member organizations. The fifteen Trial Project partici-
ada, the United States, Australia and the United Kingdom, pants have implemented programs using various information
became interested in providing distance education programs to and communication technologies (ICTs), such as satellite
Koreans. Korean university students began to turn to foreign broadcasting, videoconferencing, video-on-demand, the Inter-
universities, such as the University of Phoenix, for online net and Intranet.
courses.
Implementation: Sample Cases
Challenged by these foreign competitors, both the Korean
government and higher education institutions saw the need to The following three case studies illustrate different implemen-
amend the Higher Education Law to permit the Korean private tation approaches:
sector and the conventional higher education institutions to
compete with foreign universities by establishing degree- • The first case, Open Cyber University, explains how a
granting virtual universities using information and communi- consortium consisting of conventional universities, a
cation technology. The current law permits the private sector newspaper company, and a network systems integration
and conventional universities to offer virtual courses to their company divided roles and created a management and
students and the public, but prohibits them from establishing quality-control system.
single mode virtual universities. KNOU is still the only single
mode distance teaching university offering degree programs. • The second case, Sookmyung Cyber Education Center,
shows how a conventional private university established a
Encouraged by the recommendation of the Presidential Com- virtual campus system and differentiated its virtual pro-
mission on Education Reform (1997), the government initiated grams and financing strategy from other institutions which
the Virtual University Trial Project in February 1998, in- were participating in the virtual university trial project.
tended to operate until February 2000. The Trial Project is
intended to • The final case highlights how Korea’s most prestigious
! encourage partnerships among universities and the private university, Seoul National University, integrated virtual
sector, and the sharing of existing resources; programs into its educational system to provide a choice of
! create a cost-effective virtual education system without learning methods to its students and to open its educational
diminishing quality; services to the public.
! develop and implement Web-based courses or other types
of distance education courses; Open Cyber University (OCU)
! identify appropriate policies and standards for running a Twelve conventional universi-
virtual university; and ties, a newspaper company, and
! share experiences. Samsung Data Systems, a net-
work systems integration com-
After the year 2000, Korea will likely have several private pany, collaborated to manage
distance teaching or virtual universities, which will use ad- and fund this university. The
vanced information and communication technologies to member conventional universi-
deliver their courses. ties provide content and design
virtual courses, while Samsung
The Trial Project has resulted in fifteen virtual entities. A total Data Systems provides the hardware and technical skills
of sixty-five universities and five companies are participating needed to develop and deliver the courses. The newspaper
in the project: eight conventional universities have joined company advertises the university’s programs. All 14-

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consortium members share the costs of running the university Sookmyung Cyber Education Center
by paying annual membership fees. http:www.cyberinstitute.net
The Cyber Education Center of Sook-
OCU offers degree programs for students of its member myung Women’s University was es-
universities, and non-degree and certificate programs for tablished in May 1998, and only offers
students from outside of its membership. No extra tuition is virtual programs for working profes-
required of students from the member universities, but exter- sionals. In addition to offering virtual
nal candidates are required to pay a tuition of $40 per credit courses, the Center disseminates elec-
hour. In the first quarter of 1998, OCU enrolled 914 students tronic information, establishes profes-
from its member universities and 122 adults from outside its sional databases and provides a digital cyber library.
student population in its virtual courses. More than 90 percent
of those enrolled completed the courses. In 1998, the Center enrolled 430 students in virtual programs
for pharmacists, general English experts, TESOL experts, and
OCU began by creating a virtual university council consisting music therapists. In 1999, the Center enrolled 550 students and
of representatives of its member institutions to determine OCU added other virtual programs for child education experts,
policies and make management decisions. Later, a manage- nutrition counselors and virtual education specialists. After the
ment team consisting of a project manager, computer operators, expiration of the Trial Project, the Center will assume the new
programmers, instructional designers and media specialists was name of Sookmyung Cyber Campus, and will continue to
created to develop and deliver virtual programs. A planning develop and provide virtual in-service courses and graduate
and evaluation team was formed to identify the needs of the degree programs for professionals.
target audience, to suggest courses to meet identified needs, to
evaluate courses once they were delivered, and to provide To ensure high quality programs, the Center formed a course
recommendations for improvement. For course evaluation, the development team consisting of an instructional design expert,
team considers the number of enrolled students, course com- a programmer, a media expert, a graphic designer and an
pletion rates, responses from the students and comments from administrative staff member. Content experts—often-famous
outside instructional designers. scholars or practitioners—are invited from both inside and
outside the university. The course development team spends
Delivery and communication strategies include Web-based four to six months analyzing learners’ needs, designing the
instruction, real-time interactive education, asymmetrical course and producing Web-based instruction. The university
satellite course delivery and off-line CD-ROM-based instruc- video and audio production team develops video and audio
tion. Most undergraduate degree courses for students of mem- materials, and digitizes them for integration into the course.
ber universities require little or no human contact, since the
students already interact with professors from their other
courses on a regular basis. On the other hand, non-degree
courses for adults provide more face-to-face tutoring or real-
time interaction based on the assumption that people who are
not in the formal education system require more direct and Seoul National University Virtual Campus (SNU)
frequent help from the instructor. Several years ago, Korea’s most respected traditional univer-
sity, SNU, provided distance education programs via interac-
OCU collaborates with other virtual universities outside of tive videoconferencing to engineers working in companies.
Korea, including the World Trade University run by the World These non-degree programs were intended to supplement the
Trade Association and the National Technological University, engineers’ field experience with information regarding recent
which offers courses for practicing engineers. However, the innovations in engineering. With the experience in distance
collaborators have yet to make concrete exchanges of programs education via videoconferencing system, SNU has created a
or staff members. OCU will be established as an independent virtual campus that provides Web-based credit courses for both
virtual university as soon as Korean laws permit private dis- its own and other universities’ students. Students from other
tance teaching universities. In fact, OCU has shown interest in universities may take SNU courses at their own schools or at
running a for-profit university and actively urged the govern- home. Fourteen Web-based virtual courses were created in
ment and the congress to allow the establishment of degree- 1998 and twenty more courses are offered on the Internet in
granting for-profit virtual universities. 1999. Two non-credit courses are also available. Over 500
students took the virtual courses in 1998.

Virtual courses, which follow the format of conventional


courses, use the Web, supplemented by face-to-face tutoring.
The university has organized a virtual campus management
team, which provides staff development programs for faculty

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and helps the faculty develop and deliver virtual courses. virtual education of good quality requires an instructional
Content writing, course design, and virtual course delivery are systems approach wherein components are well connected to
responsibilities of the faculty that teach the conventional help students experience meaningful online learning.
course. A graduate student, who is paid by the university,
assists the professor. At the professor’s request, the virtual In most conventional universities, one of the biggest challenges
campus management team is available to assist in the develop- to the use of educational technologies is the academic staff’s
ment and implementation of the virtual course. negative attitudes towards technology. Many academics
believe that technology is good for information transmission,
The university’s main objective in introducing virtual courses but does not help to construct higher-level knowledge. Human
is to expand student access to existing popular courses and contact during the class hours is considered critical for building
provide an alternative method of conventional face-to-face such higher-level knowledge. In order to help the academics
instruction, whereas OCU and Sookmyung focus more on better understand the nature of virtual education and pedagogi-
providing virtual programs to adult professionals for profit. As cal principles of online courses, and thus develop effective
such, no extra fees are required from the SNU students to take design skills, some institutions have provided continuous
the virtual courses. Even non-credit lifelong education pro- training in the design and management of virtual courses and
grams are free. on-demand technical assistance to their academic staff.

Reducing Cost and Improving Quality Moreover, with a few exceptions, most of the Trial Project’s
participants have no monitoring or evaluation system in place.
Three major strategies seem to be applied to reduce costs in Few institutions have computer monitoring systems that elec-
operating virtual institutions: maximizing the use of existing tronically save the identity of the network users, their log-in
technologies, sharing physical and human resources, and and log-out times, specific menu usage, and interaction times.
private financing. Since there was no initial funding from the
government, all participating institutions had to provide grants Impact
to establish the virtual programs. To minimize investments, the
institutions used existing hardware and network systems, While the Virtual University Trial Project is still on going and
maximizing their use by forming a consortium and making no concrete impact has yet been observed, it seems to be
only limited investments to purchase new hardware. Due to the creating some systemic changes in Korean higher education.
national technology implementation policy for higher educa- First, the project has caused colleges, universities and com-
tion, most colleges and universities have established a solid panies to collaborate in instituting technologies for higher
server system and are linked to the national educational com- education and training and to explore various ways of operating
puter network or the national information superhighway. future virtual universities. In addition, some institutions have
established formal relationships with well-established foreign
In addition, some universities have established a videoconfer- virtual universities such as the National Technological Univer-
encing system and are using a satellite channel to deliver sity and the Western Governor’s University. However, not
courses. Co-development of virtual courses and team teaching much substantial cooperation has taken place, such as course
among professors from member institutions is encouraged, exchange, because of language differences and lack of experi-
although such collaboration has been limited to date. This is ence in academic collaboration.
because there is little or no systematic support for this type of
cooperation, or professors are simply more comfortable work- Perhaps one of the most significant effects is that the Virtual
ing independently. However, production facilities, computers University Trial Project has encouraged Korean companies to
and network systems are shared extensively, including those of develop software. Several companies have successfully created
private companies. virtual education platforms or distributed learning systems for
authoring, implementing and managing virtual courses. At least
Major strategies to improve the quality of virtual courses six virtual education platforms developed by Korean compa-
include providing training, adopting a concept of instructional nies are now available on the market. In addition, companies
systems design, and setting up a monitoring mechanism. have begun to develop Web-based training programs to be
Unfortunately, only a few institutions have understood that delivered through one of the Trial Project participants.

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Mexico: The Virtual University of the Technological Institute of Monterrey
By Laurence Wolff*

Founded in 1943 and inspired by MIT's model oriented to- for teacher upgrading, 129 for public administrators, and 956
wards industry, the Technological Institute of Monterrey, for business programs. A reception site consists of an area
Mexico (ITESM), is the most important private higher edu- dedicated to satellite classes, as well as a variety of technolo-
cation institution in Mexico. The ITESM is known for its gies for communication, and a learning center is an area de-
commitment to quality and excellence in faculty, programs, voted to individual and collaborative learning experiences. A
and educational services. In 1997, ITESM enrolled 70,000 teleconference system is built into 18 locations. Interactive
students in 26 campuses throughout Mexico. It provided 31 keyboards are provided to support the satellite broadcasts.
undergraduate and 37 graduate programs. As the ITESM Finally the Internet is becoming a powerful tool for its pro-
expanded throughout Mexico it began to realize that distance grams, especially those granting degrees.
education technologies could play an important part in deliv-
ering educational services. The Instructional Model
Beginning in 1989 it established the Virtual University, For many years the educational model for virtual classes was
which has expanded rapidly. It serves a wide variety of cli- simply a "talking head."' Since 1996, a strategic change has
ents and settings, offering 15-degree programs, mainly at the been introduced to focus on the learning process rather than
Masters level, in administration, education, and engineering, the delivering of information. The new model has three
as well as a wide variety of training and upgrading programs components--instruction, self-study, and collaboration. The
and tailor-made programs for industry. In the second half instructional portion is the teacher-based model. Currently
of 1998 it had the following enrollments: the instructional portion of courses is delivered via satellite
live transmission broadcast, as well as on the Internet. The
Virtual University Enrollments, August-December 1998 self-study portion is the student contribution to the learning
process. Books, notes, Internet, and research are sources of
Undergraduate courses 2569 self-study. Collaboration is the group contribution to the
Graduate programs 4148 learning process. Technology helps this approach since vir-
Teacher development programs 4550 tual groups can be established through the Internet as well as
Teacher upgrading 9187 at defined learning centers. Depending on the subject matter
Business channel 21149 and the clientele these three modalities will be used to a
Customized programs 8625 greater or lesser extent.

Continuing education 2543 Support to Industry


Total enrollments 52771
One of the Virtual University's most successful programs has
The Technologies been its services to industry, especially considering the ad-
vent of NAFTA and Mexico's desire to compete internation-
The Virtual University now utilizes a wide variety of tech- ally, which mean that firms need to change the profile of the
nologies. It has a satellite TV network managed by two up- employees. The Virtual University's support to industry
links located in Monterrey and in Mexico City, and six chan- requires that: staff must want to learn; sources of learning
nels provided through the SATMEX5 satellite. The Virtual must be available; and the work environment must be aligned
University also shares a satellite on a digital broadcast sys- with the education system. The strategy focuses on collabo-
tem. In 1998 it had 1393 reception sites and learning centers, rative learning and working, on universal competencies, and
including 116 in nine other Latin American countries, of on an assumption that the participants are involved in a tech-
which 88 were for undergraduate and master programs, 229 nology transfer process.

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A few case studies illustrate the approach to industry. In one Conclusion
case a new Mexican law allowed financial service companies
to offer mutual investment services to workers. The new Overall, the Virtual University of ITESM is a well-planned
market was to be shared with private banks and the Govern- and structured program. In accordance with its mission, it
ment and was highly regulated. The Virtual University was develops high quality programs with well-defined objectives.
asked to train 4,000 sales representatives and 250 sale man- Wherever appropriate it links with other institutions around
agers in one large firm on the specific competencies required the world. It has a well thought out instructional design as
to offer this new service. Content included product defini- well as a strong feedback and evaluation system to improve
tion, legal issues, communication and sales role-playing. its product. ITESM has been able to develop this system
Eighteen cities were used as reception sites, the course lasted because of its initial strong linkages with industry, its com-
80 hours, and the medium used was 100 % satellite televi- mitment to high quality, and its emphasis on client satisfac-
sion. The training was judged highly successful and the tion.
company moved rapidly into the field, ahead of other com- --------------------------------------------------------------------------
petitors. In a second case, 25 participants were trained on
learning organization and collaborative competencies in a *
This article is a summary of the following documents and presen-
multi-national company. The training was entirely by Inter- tations: "Education for Technology Transfer in Latin American
net and totaled 72 hours. The evaluation of this program Countries: the Case of ITESM Mexico," by Patricio Lopez del
was that, while the participants increased their awareness, Puerto and Alejandro Reyes; "Universidad Virtual del Sistema Tec-
their actions did not change and the Internet interface was not nologico de Monterrey," presentation by Ricardo Contreras Jara at a
adequately user friendly. Longer-term programs, more tools, meeting held in Cartagena, Colombia, July 1997, and the ITESM
and more time were needed. In a third case, self-learning web site (www.itesm.mx).
materials and satellite and video modules were provided for
English language instruction to 2191 participants. At the
end of the period, 22% sat for the examination and 16% Jones International University:
passed. These numbers can be considered positive consid- The University of the WebTM
ering that facilitators were not used and the program was
strongly dependent on self-learning. Established in 1993 and launched in 1995, Jones Interna-
tional University (JIU) is the world's first university created -
The Virtual University's undergraduate program offers basic - from inception -- specifically for the Internet. The online
courses as well as specialization in areas such as administra- educational environment enables JIU to offer degree and
tion, accounting, computing, and merchandising. The certificate programs to students around the world at a signifi-
Masters programs mainly focus on administration, business, cantly lower cost than a traditional university. The online
computing and education. Overall in 1998, 433 students classroom environment also provides more flexibility to stu-
received Masters degrees, with the largest numbers of stu- dents, who may not be able to attend classes at a "bricks and
dents in administration, education, and information technol- mortar" college campus because of geographic distances
ogy. This number compares with about 4000 enrolled that and/or work schedules and personal commitments.
year.
In March 1999, history was made when JIU became the first,
Technology for Educational Technology 100-percent, online university to be fully accredited by a
U.S. recognized regional accrediting agency, North Central
A recently initiated program offers a master's degree in edu- Association of Colleges and Schools, Commission on Higher
cational technology. The program is offered jointly with the Education (NCA). "We are extremely proud to be recognized
University of British Colombia, a world leader in instruc- by North Central as an accredited institution of higher learn-
tional technology, and is taught in both English and Spanish. ing," said Glenn R. Jones, founder of JIU and CEO and
Courses are provided in two basic areas: educational theory chairman of Jones International™, Ltd. "This announcement
and practice, including curriculum development and evalua- is a milestone in the history of education, as it signifies the
tion; and design, planning and research in the use of technol- great strides taken by providers of online education. Jones
ogy for teaching purposes. Students are also asked to pre- International University is proud to be the first 100 percent
pare a thesis on a subject of their choosing, to set up a tech- online university to receive accreditation and we hope our
nology program or to take additional coursework before re- achievement opens the door for other online education pro-
ceiving their masters degrees. The course is offered by sat- viders."
ellite as well as on the Internet. These M.A. programs are
fully recognized in Mexico. For more information, visit the Jones International Univer-
sity Web site at http://www.jonesinternational.edu.

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A New Model for Tertiary Education in Developing Countries?
Gregg B. Jackson
Associate Pofessor and Coordinator,
Education Policy Program, George Washington University

John Sperling, founder of UOP, and now president of the


parent company, notes, "The most precious thing working
adults have is time, so we deliver education in a way that
recognizes that . . .." [2] The courses are taught mostly in the
evenings and the classrooms are usually in commercial office
Since its founding in 1976, the University buildings conveniently reached by many people after work.
of Phoenix (UOP) in the United States has Students take one class at a time, and usually meet four hours
experienced phenomenal growth, estab- per week. Most support services, such as advising, the book-
lishing 81 campuses and learning centers store, and the library can be accessed through the Internet.
and reaching a current enrollment of Since 1989, some UOP programs have been offered by dis-
68,000 students. It receives no govern- tance technologies, eliminating the need for classroom atten-
ment subsidies, it charges moderate tuition dance.
rates, and it makes a substantial profit.[1]
This article will examine how UOP oper- UOP offers students several options of gaining course
ates, assess the quality of education that it credit for competencies acquired from prior learning experi-
provides, and discuss whether it is a model ence other than course work completed at accredited schools.
that developing countries should consider This is an attractive feature for adult students. UOP grants
for the expansion of tertiary education at undergraduate students up to 30 credits for workshops, semi-
little or no cost to the public sector. nars, licenses, and other institutionally sponsored courses. It
grants up to another 30 credits for learning from experience
that is verified to be comparable to that normally achieved
from specific college courses. Several means of verification
WHAT IS THE SECRET OF UOP’S SUCCESS? are possible, including independent testing and assessment
programs. A student who gains the full 60 credits for past
There are at least four components to UOP’s expansion and courses and experience, can complete an undergraduate de-
profits. These include the use of a business model; arrange- gree in about half the time, and at half the cost, of a student
ments to award credit for existing knowledge; the use of low- who receives no such credit.
paid instructors; and extensive use of technology.
UOP minimizes its own costs. Faculty, facilities, and sup-
UOP uses a business approach, rather than an academic port staff account for a large portion of most universities’
approach, to education. UOP is one of the few, and the larg- expenses, and UOP has dramatically reduced all three costs.
est, for-profit universities in the U.S. (most are public or non- Almost all faculty members have other full-time jobs, and
profit). Most of the campus directors and department chairs teach part-time in the evening at UOP. The focus of the fac-
had business experience before joining UOP. The University ulty is almost exclusively on teaching, rather than on a broad
targets its services to a particular market--employed adults. range of responsibilities that are common in most universi-
Its degree programs focus on preparing the adult student for ties--course development, admissions, student advising, uni-
job advancement primarily in the fields of business, nursing, versity management, research, and community service. The
education, and counseling. faculty are currently paid $900-$1,280 (U.S.) to teach a
course, and UOP estimates that they must spend about 100
hours on their first course and probably less as they become

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more proficient. Assuming 75 hours per course, UOP faculty with 32 MG of RAM, a VGA monitor, and a 28.8-Baud mo-
members are paid $12 to $17 per hour, about half as much dem. Technical support is available to students and faculty
per hour as the average assistant professor in U.S. universi- members 17 hours a day, seven days a week.
ties.[3] They do not need offices and that reduces costs
further. The majority of UOP students meet in classrooms, WHAT IS THE QUALITY OF UOP’S EDUCATION?
but usually only for 20 hours per 3-credit semester course,
which is about half the time in most U.S. universities. That The quality of education provided by UOP should be a key
reduces the need for classrooms by about half. There are few factor when deciding whether it is a laudable model for terti-
support services for students, and the library is on the World ary education.
Wide Web, which also reduces the need for office space and
support staff. There is little hard evidence on the quality of UOP's educa-
tion. Ideally we would like to know how much students
UOP has made heavy use of technology to facilitate the learn during their education and how much better they per-
convenience of students and to cut costs. An Online Learn- form in their career than they would have without this edu-
ing System is used to supplement classroom sessions. Todd cation. That information is rarely available for graduates of
Nelson, UOP's Executive Vice President noted, "Every U.S. colleges and universities, and is not publicly available
problem we have, we try to address with a technology-based for UOP. There are, however, several indirect indicators of
solution. There is without doubt a concerted strategy for the quality of education at UOP. Some suggest the quality is
significant investment in information technology to enable moderate and some suggest it is relatively low.
greater efficiencies and cost savings."[4]
UOP has been accredited and re-accredited since 1978 by
UOP introduced technology-assisted distance courses in the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools,
1989. Most of its degree programs are now available which is a major and respected regional accrediting body.
through UOP Online. About 14 percent of UOP students Since accreditation is decided primarily by the judgment of a
currently are enrolled in its online programs. The 9,500 stu- review committee whose members are drawn from other
dents are drawn primarily from the United States, but also accredited colleges and universities, and since UOP departs
are from 21 other countries. Students can complete entire from the normal models of most tertiary education in the
degree programs without taking courses at UOP's campuses U.S., it is likely that UOP was the subject of more skepticism
and learning centers. and the target of more scrutiny than most applicants for
North Central accreditation. That suggests the quality of
Online courses use Microsoft Outlook Express 5 for e-mail UOP's education is within the range of accredited higher
communication and electronic conferencing. These courses education in the U.S.
usually involve online directions from an instructor, the
reading of textbooks and materials on the web, individual The American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business
assignments and small group projects, and asynchronous does not accredit UOP's College of Graduate Business.
online discussions moderated by the instructor. More than a third of all Masters of Business Administration
(MBA) programs in the U.S. have such accreditation, in-
Students do their research for projects through UOP's online cluding virtually all those that are top ranked.
library. Students are commonly asked to post their assign-
ments on the web and seek peer review of them before sub- The admissions requirements appear relatively low. Ac-
mitting a final version for the instructor’s review. The in- cepted applications must be at least 23 years old, have a high
structor e-mails feedback on submitted assignments to the school diploma or equivalent, be employed, and complete the
students. University of Phoenix proctored Comprehensive Cognitive
Assessment. Non-native speakers of English must have a
Discussion has always been a key element of the UOP ap- minimum score of 580 on the TOEFL. Applicants to the
proach to education, and the online courses maintain that graduate programs also need at least three years of "signifi-
tradition. The conferencing capabilities of Outlook Express cant work experience," a 2.5 grade point average from a U.S.
5 allow for discussion to be conducted in writing. The in- college that is accredited or a candidate for accreditation, or
structor posts some of the discussion questions and students the equivalent from recognized institutions outside of the
post others. Students post their answers under each posted U.S. The Comprehensive Cognitive Assessment is not
question. They can also comment on the answers posted by widely used by other colleges and universities and the mini-
their colleagues. mum score for admission is not reported.

The hardware requirements for participating students are UOP expects students to devote less time to their studies
modest. All that is needed is a Pentium II 75 MHz computer than most U.S. universities. The credit requirements for de-

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grees are approximately the same as U.S. universities oper- theory about education for critical thinking and problem
ating on a semester system. The UOP web site indicates that solving.
students "devote an average of fifteen to twenty hours a week
to their studies," taking one 3-credit course at a time. With The discussions are all done in writing and asynchronously
courses usually running only 5-6 weeks, that is an average of (people make their contributions at different times of the day
96 hours per course, which is about 70 percent the amount of and week). UOP notes that this has the advantages of al-
time expected for a 3-credit semester course in the U.S. lowing shy people to participate (participation is required),
permits everyone more time to reflect on prior contributions
Faculty members only need a masters degree and five before formulating their own, and allows students to go back
years work experience in the field in which they are teaching, and review the earlier discussions. There are also some
rather than the doctoral degree which is common in most downsides to asynchronous discussions. Some students tend
universities. The doctoral degree requires several years of to hold back to see what others say, and perhaps how the
study beyond the master's degree, with a focus on theory, instructor responds before making their contributions. The
practice, and research. While work experience can be quite instructor cannot call on them to go first because asynchro-
valuable in teaching applied subjects such as business, nurs- nous instruction promises students that they can participate
ing, and education, many of the doctoral degree faculty whenever it is most convenient during the week. The in-
teaching those subjects in other universities also have con- structor reviews and responds to the discussion usually once
siderable practical experience in their field. a day or less often, and that allows one or two ill-founded
contributions to mislead the subsequent contributors until the
The low pay of UOP raises questions about the quality of instructor re-enters. The volume of the contributions, with
instruction. The pay of $12-$17 dollars (with no benefits) no class time restrictions, can also become burdensome to
will seem high to readers in many parts of the world, but it is all, although setting restrictions on the number of words for
half the average rate of pay for the lowest ranking professors each week's contribution can minimize that problem.
in U.S. colleges and universities. It is also about half of what
many business professionals make in the U.S. Either UOP There is little that appears unique to UOP’s online instruc-
regularly manages to get a great deal when buying faculty or tion. Perhaps most notable is that the class sizes have been
it is often buying low quality goods. In addition, it is likely kept small so that there is considerable interaction between
that some of the faculty feel cheated by the low pay and re- the instructors and students. Many universities hope to use
spond by cutting back the amount of time they spend on distance technologies in the opposite manner, to increase
teaching a course. One reporter noted that a UOP instructor class sizes and reduce costs.
taught reading and English at a high school during the day
and also taught 25-30 3-credit courses a year at UOP.[5] UOP claims about 60% of online students graduate. This
is similar to the percentage for undergraduate students in
Online instructors receive more training for their instruc- U.S. colleges and universities.[6]
tional responsibilities than common in most U.S. universi-
ties. After gaining familiarity with UOP's instructional soft- IS UOP A GOOD MODEL FOR TERTIARY EDUCATION
ware, instructors participate in about 30 hours of training on IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES?
UOP's policies, procedures, and online facilitation skills.
This is done at a distance, using the UOP instructional sys- For-profit universities, such as UOP, are relatively new, but
tem. The trainees also can observe an ongoing class. Experi- not unprecedented. While they provide a means of expand-
enced instructors also mentor new ones as they teach their ing access to tertiary education without substantial public
first Online class. UOP reports that not all new instructors sector expenditures, they also transfer the costs to the stu-
pass the training and some others are terminated after teach- dents and their families. In the U.S., that is feasible because
ing their first course. of the large middle class with substantial discretionary in-
come. It is also facilitated by the wide availability of feder-
UOP has been dedicated to interactive and practical ally insured student loans to help cover the tuition and fees.
learning since its founding. Average class size is reported to In poorer countries, the proportion of students and families
be 16 at the campuses and learning centers, but only 8-13 in that could afford the costs would be limited, and many of
the online programs. Instructors are not expected to lecture those countries do not yet have a system that encourages
for long periods. Rather they are to facilitate discussions, banks to make loans for education by insuring the banks
direct simulations, and guide students through work-related against loan defaults.
projects. Learning outcomes are specified for each course,
and the performance of students and faculty is constantly In addition, for-profit tertiary education has a mixed record
assessed. This approach to teaching is aligned with modern in the U.S. Tertiary education institutions are generally not
required to divulge information about their students, their

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completion rates, and graduates’ success. As a consequence,
it is difficult for parents and students to distinguish high It would be a mistake, however, to consider UOP as an alter-
quality institutions from low quality ones with expensive native to a research university. In those universities, the fac-
advertisements. For a century, "diploma mills" have occa- ulty’s contribution is as much through research and public
sionally operated in the U.S., taking in students' money and service, as it is through the teaching of students. UOP fac-
granting them false degrees after little or no study. The U.S. ulty members are paid to teach, not to do research or engage
has accreditation systems and anti-fraud laws that help pre- in public service.
vent such abuses, but many developing countries do not yet
have similar mechanisms. UOP has viewed learning technology as a strategic invest-
ment and requires that faculty who teach with distance tech-
Colleges and universities throughout the world are often re- nologies receive substantial training and mentoring. UOP
puted not to be efficiently managed. That is not surprising also has recognized that the teaching of knowledge and skills
given that department chairs, deans, and vice presidents are that are demonstrated with complex responses, such as de-
usually appointed because of the respect they have gained as veloping a business plan or analyzing the strengths and
academics, rather than for their managerial preparation and weaknesses of a proposed change, cannot be taught well
skills. If colleges and universities were to recognize, as UOP without considerable guidance and feedback from human
does, that these positions benefit from strong managerial instructors. That guidance and feedback can be provided
skills, tertiary education would probably operate more effi- through distance technologies, but the available technologies
ciently than it generally does now. cannot substitute for human interaction in these kinds of
courses.
UOP serves working adults who have not previously begun a
college degree program, who began one but did not complete Developing countries could learn from the UOP model.
it, or completed it and now want a master's degree but cannot With accompanying infrastructure development, the model
afford to stop working while pursuing it. There are many could supplement existing institutions, thus expanding access
such people. The U.S. has a multi-tiered college and univer- to tertiary education and contributing to human resource de-
sity system, with a moderate number of research universities, velopment. In addition, some components of the model
a large number of 4-year colleges, and a large number of 2- might be beneficially adopted by existing institutions. UOP,
year “community colleges” and “city colleges.” The research however, is not a viable model when a research university is
universities have usually ignored the populations served by needed.
UOP, but the other two levels of institutions are increasingly
responding to their needs. Developing countries could bene- NOTES AND REFERENCES
fit by addressing the tertiary educational needs of working
adults. [1] Unless otherwise indicated, the information about the
University of Phoenix is from its web pages. The home
UOP’s approach to certifying adult learners’ prior knowledge page is at http://www.uophx.edu. The pages were reviewed
and skills could be useful. It opens access by encouraging from Nov. 5-15, 1999.
people to undertake programs of study that they otherwise [2] “Campus Profile: University of Phoenix” (1996, Fall)
would not have attempted and it cuts the costs of producing CAUSE/EFFECT, 19, (3), 28-31l. Available online at:
high-skilled human resources. http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/html/cem9636.html.
[3] U.S. assistant professors average about $50,000 in salary
The focus of UOP is not on developing broadly learned men and benefits for 9 month schedules, and assuming that they
and women, but providing specific skills needed for particu- work about 50 hours per week, they make $26 per hour in
lar occupations. While some would decry that focus as un- salary and benefits. Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census.
fortunate, the finest colleges in the world today turn out hun- (1996, Fall). Statistical Abstract of the United States
dreds of thousands of broadly learned men and women who (116th ed.). Washington DC: Government Printing Office.
cannot find well-paying work because they lack the occupa- [4] “Campus Profile: University of Phoenix” (1996, Fall)
tional skills that are in demand. Ideally, young people would CAUSE/EFFECT, 19, (3), 28-31l. Available online at:
be broadly educated and well trained for jobs when they http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/html/cem9636.html.
graduate, but that is rare except for students who receive a [5] Traub, J. (1997, October 20 & 27). “Drive-Thru U.” The
broad education in their undergraduate education and then New Yorker.
professional training in master's degree programs and doc- [6] National Center for Educational Statistics. (1996). Digest
toral programs. There is a large demand for the type of of Education Statistics. Table 307. Washington, D.C.:
training that UOP is offering, and the demand is projected to Government Printing Office.
increase over the coming decades.

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THE END OF THE
CAMPUS UNIVER
NIVERSITY?
What the Literature Says about Distance Learning
By Sonia Jurich

“The coming together of telecommunications, television and computing is producing a media


environment for distance education that is more than the sum of its component elements.
Eisenstadt describes this environment as the knowledge media. It denotes the convergence of
the learning and cognitive sciences with computing and telecommunications technology.”
(Daniel, 1996, p. 55)

The University, as an institution, began in Western Europe The Development of Virtual Education: A Global Perspec-
approximately 1,000 years ago, and quickly assumed the role tive, edited by Glen M. Farrell (Vancouver, Canada: The
of producer, guardian and transmitter of higher order, scien- Commonwealth of Learning, 1999) - This report (online at:
tific and humanistic knowledge across the globe. With its www.col.org/virtualed) is a collaborative effort of experts in
large and generally impressive lecture halls, the University five different regions across the globe, providing a pano-
campus came to symbolize higher education in different lan- ramic view of how information and communication tech-
guages and cultures, in industrialized and developing coun- nologies, particularly the use of Internet and the World Wide
tries alike. Political and economic changes during the Web, are shaping the provision of education. (For a detailed
Twentieth Century created new demands on higher educa- review of this report, see the article Virtual Education:
tion, while technological developments promoted new forms Trends and Potential Use in TechKnowLogia, Novem-
of delivery. Some view these changes as no more than fads, ber/December 1999).
soon to pass. For others, the days of the traditional univer-
sity are counted. This article aims to bring some light to this
discussion with the help of three recent documents:
DEFINITIONS
Harry (1999) quotes the New Oxford Dictionary definitions
Higher Education Through Open and Distance Learning, for open learning (“learning based on independent study or
edited by Keith Harry (London: The Commonwealth of initiative rather than formal classroom practice”) and dis-
Learning, 1999) - This book analyzes the contributions of tance learning (“a method of studying in which lectures are
open and distance learning for higher education, the lessons broadcast or conducted by correspondence, without the stu-
already learned from actual practices in different countries dent needing to attend a school or college”). His book fo-
across the globe, and the challenges that lie ahead. The sec- cuses on distance learning institutions. Daniel calls mega-
ond part of the book is a showcase of distance learning ini- university an institution that has more than 100,000 active
tiatives in different countries in Africa, Americas, Asia, students enrolled in degree-level courses and whose primary
Europe, and Oceania. activity is distance-teaching. He recognizes eleven mega-
universities: China TV University System (Republic of
Mega-Universities and Knowledge Media: Technology China) and Anadolu University (Turkey), with more than
Strategies for Higher Education, by John S. Daniel (Lon- 500,000 students in degree programs each; Universitas Ter-
don: Kogan Page, 1996) - Sir John Daniel, the former Vice- buka (Indonesia), with more than 300,000 students; the In-
Chancellor for the British Open University, examines the dira Gandhi National Open University (India), Korea Na-
challenges faced by higher education institutions in general, tional Open University (South Korea), and Sukhotai Tham-
the innovations that distance learning has introduced to the mathirat Open University (Thailand), with more than
field, and the potential for change of new technologies. 200,000 students each; and the Centre National
d’Enseignment à Distance (France), Open University (United
Kingdom), Payame Noor University (Iran), University of

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South Africa, and the Universidad Nacional de Educación a distance. These technologies enable institutions to expand
Distancia (Spain), with more than 100,000 students each. their reach to new, untapped sources of students without ex-
The Commonwealth of Learning report focuses on institu- panding their physical campus. Rather than expecting stu-
tions that use information and communication technologies dents to come to the University, all three documents provide
to deliver their programs and provide student support. In this impressive examples of how distance learning institutions are
article, we use the term distance learning to indicate institu- coming to the students, no matter where they are. The Uni-
tions that have as primary activity the provision of education versity of the South Pacific (USP) serves students spread
at a distance, regardless of size and the technology preferen- over 30 million km2, and the majority of them do some or all
tially employed. of their studies at a distance. In 1997, USP offered 174 dis-
tance credit courses that enrolled 16,317 students. In 1992,
THE FOUNDATIONS OF OPEN, DISTANCE AND 41 percent of higher education students in Thailand and 38
percent in Turkey studied at a distance. Indeed, Turkey’s
VIRTUAL LEARNING Anadolu University is the largest of the mega-universities
The development and expansion of new technology-mediated with close to 600,000 students, many of them living in Ger-
forms of learning are intrinsically related to two movements many and other European or Asian countries. Of the 79,000
of the Century, which has just expired: the democratization international students in Australian Universities, 15,800 were
of education and its privatization. In simpler words, they are at off-shore campuses, mostly Malaysia and Singapore. In
linked to societies’ need to educate more people with less 1998, the Open University (United Kingdom) had 25,000
public money. international students living in 94 different countries.

The Twentieth Century was characterized by unprecedented Distance education has been touted as the answer to the ris-
economic expansion accompanied by deep political and so- ing costs of higher education, and distance learning institu-
cial transformations. These changes benefited rich and poor tions are being asked to find the balance between cost effec-
countries alike, although in uneven ways. Old forms of tiveness and educational quality, a balance that the traditional
dominance were destroyed, and the masses began to claim university could not find. Such expectations may prove un-
many of the privileges reserved for the elites. Education was reasonable. At least initially, costs must go up due to in-
one of these privileges. Across the globe, the expansion of vestments in infrastructure, technology and organizational
primary and secondary education produced a large amount of changes. Farrell (1999) considers the lack of strategic plan-
individuals in search of further learning. Moreover, ongoing ning in the development of technological infrastructure as a
education became a necessity for people who want to remain major challenge to distance learning. When such planning
employable in this fast-paced, continuously changing tech- exists, he says, it gives little or no consideration for educa-
nological world. As Guiton (Chapter 4, in Harry, 1999) ob- tional applications, resulting in large socio-economic and
serve, the ideology of education is shifting from a model geographical disparities in access to the technology, even
based on cumulative but finite years of studies that culminate within developed countries. This lack or inadequacy of
in the receipt of a degree, to a lifelong learning model. This planning is even more acute in countries that have yet to en-
new model changes dramatically the student configuration by ter the communication revolution, and risks increasing the
decreasing the importance of the degree and increasing the gap between developed and developing nations. Costs are
demand for personalized, applied learning. exacerbated by the emphasis on the use of computer-related
At the same time that the demand for higher education in- technology that, although more powerful, is significantly
creased, governments began to move away from full financ- more expensive than other telecommunication technologies,
ing, leaving some or all the expenses to be borne by the such as radio and television. (It is true, though, that technol-
learner. In this process, the relationship between learners ogy costs have decreased significantly in the past years and
and educational institutions became that of buyers and sell- this downward trend is far from over).
ers, submitted to the rules of the market. From institutions
designed to cater to the needs of the providers (Daniel ob- Quoting Gafford*, Daniel (1996) notes that the 3,500 col-
serves that the best entrance in the campus leads to the Presi- leges and universities in the United States enroll 14 million
dent’s building, not the students’ association), the universi- students with an average cost of $12,500 per student. In
ties must become learner-centered institutions. contrast, the 11 mega-universities enroll 2.8 million students
for an aggregate budget of approximately $900 million, or
less than $350 per student. Issues of cost are still at the cen-
TAKING ADVANTAGE OF TECHNOLOGY ter of the debate on distance learning, and the process used
All three documents depict technology as the opportunity per for cost estimates and cost comparisons reflect more the es-
excellence to overcome the crisis between increased demand timator’s own biases than some universal consensus. For
and dwindled resources in higher education. An obvious instance, Hülsmann (Chapter 6, Henry 1999) looks at
advantage of the new technologies, particularly telecommu- graduation rates, which tend to be significantly lower in dis-
nication, is to overcome the limits imposed by mobility and tance learning institutions when compared to campus univer-

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sities. This focus on graduation fits the traditional ideology
of education, but may no longer represent the needs and ex- Daniel (1996) comments that the reputation of universities
pectations of the new wave of students. If that is true, Dan- has been traditionally connected to age, exclusivity of access,
iel’s estimates, based on enrollment rather than graduation, lavishness of resources, and availability/quality of human
may be more realistic. Interestingly enough, none of the interaction. Distance education institutions challenge all
authors consider costs and savings from the perspective of these criteria. First of all, they are relatively young (most
students, such as savings on room and board, and the econ- were created after the 1960s). Second, they are funded on
omy in general (most students in distance education courses the premise of education for all, that is, open access without
work through their school years, as opposed to students in increased resources. Finally, they are also based on the
campus universities). premise of a technology-mediated interaction that is still too
new to be widely accepted. This struggle for acceptance and
Universities and governments alike are experimenting with respect is hampered by the low quality of courses in many of
creative ways to boost reduced funding. Most mega- these institutions, observes Henry & Perraton (Introduction,
universities have privileged access to certain communica- Henry, 1999) and some countries are stepping up efforts to
tions facilities controlled or regulated by the government in ensure quality control for distance learning courses. In India,
their base country. For instance, Anadolu University has the Indira Gandhi National Open University was designated
access to the national broadcasting network in Turkey, and as a model institution to set the standards for the whole dis-
the Indonesian post offices act as admission points for the tance education sector in the country. Hong Kong was es-
Universitas Terbuka. The Swedish government is investing tablishing consumer protection guidelines for distance edu-
in technology infrastructure, while encouraging the universi- cation that will be implemented throughout mainland China.
ties to pursue contracts with employers for training and edu- United Kingdom’s Open University is one of only 13 among
cation. The University of Sydney, Australia, spurred some 70 universities offering a comprehensive curriculum to re-
controversy in the academic community by entering into ceive excellent ratings in more than half of the subjects and
partnership with the country’s largest insurance company. Sukhotai Thammathirat Open University (Thailand) has
Such partnerships are said to be extraneous to the idealistic gained reputation for excellence in teaching. In addition to
view of universities as autonomous and not economically the UK Open University, other distance learning institutions
driven institutions, a view that has been far from reality for are developing serious research programs. The University of
many years, particularly in the United States. Farrell (1999) South Africa has the best research library in the country and
comments on the entrance of new players into the educa- positions at the university are eagerly sought after by re-
tional market, including the corporate sector and even indi- searchers. The Universidad Nacional de Educación a Dis-
vidual entrepreneurs. tancia is rated among the top tier of Spanish universities on
the basis of its research.
THE CHALLENGES AHEAD Mason (Chapter 3, Henry 1999) observes that students have
The expansion of distance learning institutions has not been shown a great acceptance of distance education, particularly
without problem, and many of these problems can be related with the use of interactive technology, although some stu-
to human resistance to change. As Moran and Myringer dis- dents will always prefer the face-to-face interaction. For
cuss (Chapter 5, Harry, 1999), these new learner-centered, teachers, though, distance education requires greater prepa-
technology-based forms of learning challenge the existing ration time, both in planning and production, and extra
structure of the universities and their ways of working, par- training in technology, a sector that may not be their choice.
ticularly the traditional role of faculties and their control over It also reduces their role from providers of learning to that of
the content and process of learning. The fear of technology facilitators. For the universities, distance education requires
is but one of the many ways this intellectual conservatism is greater investment on student support, including the prepara-
expressed and shared by staff and students alike. What is tion and delivery of materials ahead of class time, ensuring
traditional tends to be seen as better, and most distance office hours for student queries related to academic content
learning institutions are still struggling to gain acceptance and to technology issues, access to library and other re-
and respect. sources, and an efficient system of tutoring and support.

Farrell (1999) comments that information and communica-


NEW LEARNER-CENTERED, TECHNOLOGY- tion technologies enabled the “unbundling” of functions re-
BASED FORMS OF LEARNING CHALLENGE THE lated to the educational process, giving rise to new types of
organizations that do not directly provide instruction but spe-
EXISTING STRUCTURE OF THE UNIVERSITIES cialize in different components of the process. For instance,
AND THEIR WAYS OF WORKING. the Queensland Open Learning Network (Australia) and the
European Study Centres are organizations designed exclu-
sively to provide support to learners and institutions. The

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IBM Global Campus and the McGraw-Hill Learning Infra- choose to use this technology (Daniel, 1996, p. 139). Daniel
structure (United States) provide consultation, project man- invites the campus and distance learning universities to de-
agement and technical support to other organizations. Al- velop technology strategies that rely on their institutional
though this “unbundling” may increase the productivity of strengths, rather than on responses to the market, and support
the teaching institution, it curtails universities’ cherished their overall goals.
autonomy.
Farrell (1999) observes that most distance education pro-
Existing funding and regulatory structures offer another set grams face two serious limitations. First, they tend to re-
of challenges for distance learning institutions. Some unre- spond to the availability of a new technology rather than a
solved topics raised by distance education include issues of pedagogical need. Second, they follow a traditional peda-
in-campus versus off-campus fees, taxes, copyright laws, and gogical paradigm and are unable to fully exploit the educa-
credential regulations. The members of the European Union tional potential of new technologies. In the same line as
are discussing ways to simplify regulations and recognize Daniel, Farrell recommends that, before embarking on dis-
qualifications across country boundaries, but this type of tance education adventures, universities must develop clear
conversation is still rare in other parts of the globe. For goals that justify such changes, evaluate the adequacy of
Daniel (1996), governments should help higher education technologies to the skills and characteristics of the students
institutions by reducing regulations and re-orienting funding and the competency of the instructors, and develop adequate
policies away from institutions and toward the students. Far- strategies to achieve these goals, including systems for qual-
rell (1999) also advises governments to reserve some portion ity assurance and student counseling and support. The insti-
of the country’s telecommunication capacity, such as cable tutions must also be committed to the changes as a whole.
channels or bandwidth, for educational use at affordable The offering of distance learning courses will be limited if
costs. the institutions insist on hard copy processes for admission or
limit library access to on-campus students.
WHAT LIES AHEAD Blight, Davis and Olson (Chapter 2, Henry, 1999) raise an
Mason (Chapter 4, Henry, 1999) proposes the establishment interesting question related to distance education. The use of
of consortia among different institutions as effective ways to standardized packages in an education that has a truly inter-
share the high costs of technology and the demand for ex- national reach raises concerns of cultural bias and may
perts and resources. In 1996, MidSweden University started threaten the survival of indigenous cultures. According to
the Flexible Learning Network to encourage the interest and these authors, one of the greatest challenges for the educators
expertise in new forms of learning within its departments. of the future is to move away from “intellectual imperialism”
The project is now being used to stimulate interdepartmental and into a truly pan-global system of learning that is still to
and cross-campus communication and the sharing of experi- be developed. On the other hand, Daniel (1996) remarks that
ence and expertise in technology-mediated learning. as a result of the movement toward a learner-centered, more
specialized education may be a fragmented education that
Hülsmann (Chapter 6, Henry 1999) considers that the sur- will preclude the “civilizing function” that has historically
vival and success of the distance learning institutions will be been associated with universities. In other words, distance
tied to their ability to improve the trade-off between econo- learning breaks geographical as well cultural barriers. Its lack
mies of scale and the quality of teacher-student interactions. of boundaries seems to threaten localized cultures. At the
Indeed, this ability is being required from both, the new in- same time, its applied focus seems to threaten the idea of a
stitutions and the campus universities. Even institutions that shared culture common to all “educated” beings. These are
choose not to provide distance education will have to adopt epistemological concerns that raise a totally new perspective
some of the approaches that have been developed for dis- on the social role of education at the start of a new millen-
tance education, argues Daniel (1996). Among these ap- nium.
proaches are the focus on teaching effectiveness and learning
productivity and on the production and delivery of quality
courses and intellectual assets. Those entering distance edu- *
Gafford, B.R. (1995). Mediated Learning: A new model of
cation endeavors must solve the logistics of dispersed insti- technology-mediated instruction and learning. Mountain
tutions and find ways to maintain and strengthen the concept View, CA: Academy Systems.
of community as the community increases and becomes more
dispersed. “New technologies have considerable potential to
enhance the blend of knowledge, community and conversa-
tion that is the essence of the university. They can increase
the richness of interactions between students and give all in
the academy access to more resources for scholarship than
ever before . . .”, but it all depends on how the institutions

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THE ‘EFFECTIVENESS’ DEBATE:
WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT THE QUALITY OF DISTANCE LEARNING IN THE U.S.
By Jamie P. Merisotis and Jody K. Olsen*

The use of technology as a medium for delivering postsecon- effectiveness of distance learning. The report found the
dary education is rapidly gaining prominence and popularity, quality of the research on distance learning’s effectiveness
both in the U.S. and around the globe. Evidence of this in- was quite weak.
creasing visibility of technology-based learning is every-
where. For example, a 1999 report from the International WHAT'S THE DIFFERENCE?
Data Corporation (IDC) estimates that 2.2 million college That study strongly supports the findings of a 1999 report
students in the U.S. will be enrolled in some form of distance that examined the recent literature on distance learning’s
education by 2002, up from approximately 710,000 in 1998. effectiveness. That report, entitled What's the Difference? A
IDC’s research estimates that 85 percent of two-year colleges Review of Contemporary Research on the Effectiveness of
in the U.S. and 84 percent of four-year colleges will offer Distance Learning in Higher Education, was published by
distance learning courses by 2002.** Similarly, a report from The Institute for Higher Education Policy in Washington,
the Campus Computing Project at the Claremont Graduate DC, with support from the American Federation of Teachers
School found that one-third of all classes on college cam- and the National Education Association.
puses used Internet resources in 1998, compared with only
15 percent in 1996. The What’s the Difference? report (available at
www.ihep.com) has served as a kind of lightning rod in the
THE "NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE" NOTION debate in the U.S. about the quality and effectiveness of dis-
But what is known about the effectiveness of this teaching tance learning. From April through October 1999, the report
and learning method? This question has become increasingly had been cited in major media, such as the Associated Press
prominent as technology has made distance learning more wire (which ran a lengthy story published in more than 300
common. At least one major web site, maintained by North newspapers), and the trade press and higher education maga-
Carolina State University’s Thomas Russell, is dedicated to zines. The report was downloaded over 30,000 times (in pdf
this. This site, The No Significant Difference Phenomenon, format) from the authors’ web site.
compiles various writings on distance learning. With few
exceptions, the bulk of these writings suggest that the learn- Why such a fuss? The report, after all, is a pretty straightfor-
ing outcomes of students using technology at a distance are ward and frankly somewhat dull review of the available lit-
similar to the learning outcomes of students who participate erature on the subject. The main conclusion of the report is
in conventional classroom instruction. The "no significant that there is a relative paucity of original research dedicated
difference" finding has become accepted as fact in the policy to explaining or predicting phenomena related to distance
community, where at least some public officials have pro- learning. Despite the large volume of written material con-
nounced that the last college campus has been built. centrating on distance learning, the amount of original re-
search is quite limited. The study’s analysis encompassed
A recent working paper from Indiana University's Center for about 40 of these original works of research - a number far
Social Informatics challenges the "no significant difference" fewer than is often cited as "evidence" that there is no sig-
notion. The paper points out that "many authors in the dis- nificant difference.
tance education literature discuss only the positive aspects of
computer-mediated distance education," and notes that stu- From this more limited group of original research, three
dents' potential problems with distance education is "a taboo broad measures of the effectiveness of distance education are
topic in the discourse." The study investigates students’ usually examined. These include:
frustrations with a single web-based course. Their findings? • student outcomes, such as grades and test scores;
Students faced several problems, including technical diffi- • student attitudes about learning through distance educa-
culties, lack of prompt feedback from the instructor, and am- tion; and
biguous instructions (see www.slis.indiana.edu/CSI). • overall student satisfaction toward distance learning.
Even more compelling is a study completed by the U.S. Most of these studies conclude that, regardless of the tech-
Army Research Institute for Behavioral and Social Sciences. nology used, distance learning courses compare favorably
That study, entitled "Training Through Distance Learning: with classroom-based instruction. For example, many ex-
An Assessment of Research Findings," was published in perimental studies suggest that the distance learning students
October 1999, and reviews a broad array of literature on the have similar grades or test scores, or have the same attitudes

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toward the course. The descriptive analyses and case studies program. Government policies, such as student-assistance
focus on student and faculty attitudes and perceptions of programs, are typically aimed at providing access to degrees
distance learning. These studies typically conclude that stu- or programs of study, not just single courses, making it espe-
dents and faculty have a positive view toward distance cially important to fill this gap.
learning.
A number of studies showed that students in distance
A closer look at the research, however, suggests that it may learning courses tend to drop out of their courses before
not be prudent to accept these findings at face value. Several finishing at a higher rate than students in conventional
problems with the conclusions reached through this research classes. The issue of student persistence is important both
are apparent. The most significant problem is that the overall because dropping out reveals a negative response to online
quality of the original research is questionable and thereby learning, and because research surveys of students could be
renders many of the findings inconclusive. excluding these dropouts, causing a tilt in the student out-
come findings toward those who are successful.
QUALITY OF THE RESEARCH
The report’s critique of the quality of the research makes four The research to date also does not consider how a student’s
simple points. First, much of the research does not control learning style—how he or she processes information, for
for extraneous variables and therefore cannot show cause example—can influence the success of particular tech-
and effect. Most studies of distance learning are designed to nologies. Our understanding of how the learner, the learning
measure how a specific technology—the “cause”—effects task, and specific forms of technology interact is, in fact,
some type of learning outcome or influences students’ atti- limited. We do know, however, that student characteristics,
tudes toward a course—the “effect.” To accurately assess such as gender, age, and educational experience, make a big
this relationship, other potential causes must not influence difference in levels of achievement and satisfaction for dis-
the measured outcomes. In almost all of the experimental tance learners. Information about a student’s preferred
research we reviewed, there was inadequate control of extra- learning style could influence how a course is designed, in-
neous variables. cluding what type of technology is used.

Second, most of the studies do not use randomly selected So far, the research on distance education has no concep-
subjects; many rely instead on intact groups (such as an en- tual framework. Several researchers have lamented the lack
tire class of students) for comparison purposes. As a result, of theory dealing with the interactions and interrelationships
these studies run the risk of having several variables affect of variables contributing to the effectiveness of distance
academic achievement or student satisfaction, instead of the learning programs. Theory allows researchers to build on one
technology itself used to provide the education at a distance. another’s work, which increases the likelihood of their ad-
dressing the most important questions in a field. For distance
Third, the study found questionable the validity and reliabil- learning, there is a vital need to develop a more integrated,
ity of the instruments used to measure student outcomes and coherent, and systematic program of research based on the-
attitudes—such as questionnaires and surveys. And fourth, ory.
many studies do not adequately control for the feelings and
attitudes of students and faculty—what the educational re- Further, the research does not adequately assess the effec-
search refers to as “reactive effects”—which can sometimes tiveness of digital libraries. Many students, particularly
skew findings by showing short-term or temporary benefits those in remote locations, rely on digital “libraries” for ac-
that are not sustained over the educational program. cess to bibliographies for different resources, as well as full
texts. But can digital libraries provide adequate support? An-
GAPS IN THE RESEARCH ecdotal evidence suggests that the curriculum objectives of
What is perhaps more compelling, however, is what the lit- some distance-learning courses have been altered because of
erature does not say about the effectiveness of distance the dearth of resources available.
learning. These gaps must be filled so that public-policy dis-
cussions about distance education can be based on accurate REACTIONS TO THE REPORT
and adequate information. What’s the Difference? obviously struck a chord with those
interested in using technology in higher education. That
One major gap in the research is a lack of studies dedicated chord, however, has not been entirely harmonious. Indeed,
to measuring the effectiveness of total academic programs the reaction tells us much about how fractured the debate on
taught at a distance. Virtually all of the comparative or de- distance learning in the U.S. has become.
scriptive studies focus on individual courses. That raises se-
rious questions about whether an academic program deliv- Many college presidents, faculty, and administrators seemed
ered by technology compares favorably with an on-campus intrigued by the conclusion that much of the research on dis-
tance education is of questionable quality, rendering its

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findings inconclusive. Several representatives from major Yet almost half of all college courses use e-mail and other
online learning or software companies praised the work and Internet resources. The reality is that technology is playing,
said the findings merited further exploration. “The lack of and will continue to play, a critical role in teaching and
relevant, quality research, when viewed with the speed in learning. As a pedagogical tool, distance education probably
which distance learning is evolving, should be a concern to leads to different educational outcomes than traditional class-
everyone,” the chair of one of these companies wrote to the room-based instruction—some better, some worse. The polar
report’s authors. “My only regret was the negative hyperbole views expressed in many policy discussions—that there is
and rhetoric that others used following the release of your “no significant difference” on the one extreme, and that dis-
report.” tance learning is inherently inferior on the other—defy rea-
son. The real debate needs to focus on identifying what
Not surprisingly, that “negative hyperbole and rhetoric” approaches work best for teaching students, period.
came from people who have a stake in distance education. In
Education Daily, one attorney in Washington, D.C., who Faculty also must be heard in this debate. The media and
represents institutions that have distance-learning programs, the policy-making community have so strongly identified
compared “critics” of online learning to those who bemoaned professors as being “opposed” to distance learning that any
the introduction of books into the classroom three hundred serious attempt by faculty members to inform the debate is
years ago. Thomas Russell, producer of the No Significant treated with suspicion and derision. This must change. Fac-
Difference web site, was quoted in the media as saying that ulty must be at the forefront of understanding what works,
he agreed with the findings about the lack of research on the and what does not work, because they are ultimately the ar-
effectiveness on distance learning. But Russell also com- biters of educational quality and effectiveness. Nothing can
plained to the newsletter Information Technology in Post- substitute for that experience, commitment, and knowledge.
secondary Education that the report “does a serious disserv-
ice to the thousands of dedicated and conscientious faculty Perhaps the most important lesson learned is that more
who have worked in distance education over a great many research is needed. Coalitions of online-learning providers,
years. These faculty are in the very best position to judge the faculty members, college administrators, and student leaders
efficacy and quality of such programs and do not deserve the must work together to answer the questions the report raises
implication, inherent in the report, that they are engaged in and to fill in the gaps it identifies. More volleys in the acrid
an activity which provides education of a lesser quality than debates over online education are not needed; credible,
that accepted by their profession.” broadly supported research is.

LESSONS LEARNED There is some danger that the innovations are advancing
What’s the Difference? is not the most important or influen- more rapidly than our understanding of their practical uses.
tial report ever written on distance learning in higher educa- Princeton historian Robert Darnton points to this common
tion. It is probably not even the most important document problem with new technologies in his essay in the March 18,
published on the topic last year. But the report and the reac- 1999, issue of the New York Review of Books. Darnton ob-
tion to it have brought out into the open some of the key is- serves that, since its inception, electronic publishing has
sues in the debate about distance education. What’s the Dif- passed through three stages: “an initial phase of utopian en-
ference? also offers guidance on how to proceed as technol- thusiasm, a period of disillusionment, and a new tendency
ogy gains prominence in the teaching and learning process. toward pragmatism.” So far, we have heard a lot about the
“utopian” possibilities. Now “pragmatism” needs to come to
One of the things learned from researching and writing the the fore to allow us to discuss the practical implications of
report is that too much of the debate has taken place with distance learning as a tool to enhance teaching and learning.
an “us” versus “them” mentality. It is somewhat surprising Joining in this pragmatic and ultimately crucial discussion
to learn that those who use technology as a major teaching must become the common goal of those with an interest in
and learning medium see themselves as a community some- higher education’s future.
how separate and distinct from the rest of higher education.
*
Certainly some level of advocacy and focus is appropriate— Jamie P. Merisotis is President of The Institute for Higher
as evidenced by the balanced perspectives taken by this Education Policy and co-author of What's the Difference? A
online journal—but this wholly separate identification Review of Contemporary Research on the Effectiveness of
reinforces the notion that what “we” do is more important or Distance Learning in Higher Education. Jody K. Olsen is
better than what “they” do. Much the same bunker mentality Senior Vice President for Human Resources and Institutional
is evident among those faculty members who see distance Development at the Academy for Educational Development.
**
learning as the latest pernicious administrative attempt to In this article, distance education is understood to rely on a
reduce or eliminate their influence on curriculum and combination of technology, including television, videotapes,
pedagogy. audiotapes, video conferencing, audio conferencing, e-mail,
telephone, fax, Internet, computer software, and print.

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Implementation of Tertiary Distance Education
Choices and Decisions
By William Saint
1
Sr. Education Specialist, World Bank

Countries and institutions interested in developing tertiary distance education will need to formulate
comprehensive strategic policies, choose an institutional model and make management choices.

What Policies to Select? course, which must be passed as a requirement for admission
to the tertiary distance education program4.

What technology should be employed? Numerous studies


Before a country or institution embarks on in-
from around the world point in one direction: how the media
troducing distance education, some strategic
are used has proven to be more important than which me-
policy choices need to be made in addressing
dium is selected. Furthermore, multiple media appear to be
the following questions:
more effective than a single medium, with interactivity be-
tween students and tutors contributing a major boost to
Should distance learning be a separate or an integrated
learning. Since the choice of technology does not determine
part of the tertiary system? Experience teaches the value of
learning, then the factors of technology cost and maintenance
integrating distance education fully within the existing for-
become determining considerations. On this basis, print me-
mal education system2. Where this is not accomplished, the
dia are likely to remain the best choice for most low income
danger is that distance education will remain at the periphery
countries. They are inexpensive, reliable, accepted, and do
of the educational system, under-valued and under-used.
not require access to specific equipment or services.5 At the
Full integration helps to reduce inevitable resistance to inno-
same time, care is needed to avoid commitment to inflexible
vation within existing tertiary institutions and does much to
technologies chosen without reference to educational need
overcome the perception that distance education is somehow
and context, unexpectedly high operating costs, and under-
an inferior product when compared with residential instruc-
estimation of the needs for good pedagogical practice and
tion.3 Dual-mode approaches that make use of existing aca-
strong student support systems6. For this reason, educational
demic staff and facilities reduce the competition for scarce
planning should be emphasized over technical planning in
resources often associated with the establishment of a new
the early stages of program design.
institution, and erode staff resistance by offering opportuni-
ties for direct participation. Likewise, common admissions
What instructional materials to use? Purchase of existing
policies for residential and distance students, together with
course materials from another distance education institution
the award of a single institutional degree based on common
can be a good strategy for beginning a program since the
standards, will do much to offset the notion that distance
materials are proven, readily available, and likely to facilitate
education is of inferior status.
local accreditation. However, transporting an effective dis-
tance education course from one cultural context to another
Should access be open or conditional? The multitude of
usually requires some re-tooling and adjusting to the new
aspirants to tertiary education in developing countries, when
culture. This should ideally be accompanied by a student
coupled with reports of widely varying quality in educational
performance feedback loop so that course managers can as-
preparation at the secondary level, suggest that admission to
certain whether the adapted course is working properly. In
tertiary distance education programs should be selective, at
the longer run, local production of course materials is fre-
least for the near term. Selectivity based on student qualifi-
quently the best approach. In addition to possible cost sav-
cations or assessment of ability will make student numbers
ings, it is a good way to promote local staff ownership of the
more manageable and enable higher pass rates, thereby con-
distance education program. In most cases, the buying of
tributing to the cost-effectiveness of these programs. In the
course materials is not an attractive option unless the number
interest of fairness and equity, however, governments may
of students for the course is low and local course develop-
wish to consider offsetting selective admissions with fully
ment costs are high7. Generally accepted practice is to pro-
open entry (i.e., no requirements) to a qualifying or bridging

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duce learning materials through the use of design teams in their students can also carry a portion of the financial burden
which each member contributes a specific skill. Design of tertiary distance education necessary to expand access. In
teams vary in composition, but often include a content ex- a context of limited government resources and technical ca-
pert, an instructional designer, a communications or media pacities, such private programs can play an important role in
specialist, an editor, and a peer reviewer. expanding access to tertiary education – if educational qual-
ity can be assured. Recognizing the value of such private
How should the curriculum be organized? In order for terti- initiatives, the International Finance Corporation has selected
ary distance learning to increase enrollments and broaden private higher education and distance education as two areas
access, all tertiary academic programs will need to be con- of emphasis for its investments in the private sector. 8
verted into a modular/credit system. Under this system, a
student earns a certain number of credits for each success- World experience indicates that both governments and terti-
fully completed course and receives a degree when the re- ary institutions tend to under-fund distance education,
quired total number of credits has been accumulated. Con- thereby compromising its effectiveness. Under-funding is
version to a modular/credit system is a laborious but vital most common in the provision of critical student support
process. Self-paced instruction, lifelong learning, and stu- services, and in staff training and professional development.
dent mobility between residential and distance programs are One deterrent is that distance education normally requires
all based on assumptions of a modular/credit system, and considerable up-front investment to train staff, design cur-
tertiary distance education cannot function without it. riculum, prepare materials, and acquire the selected technol-
ogy. Once this sizable hurdle is passed, the comparatively
How to build local capacities? Capacities for planning and modest recurrent costs of the program can usually be covered
for management are more important in distance learning than in large part by student fees.
in traditional face-to-face education. This is because com-
munications with a geographically dispersed student body
are more expensive and time-consuming than in the class- What institutional model to
room, and mistakes are therefore more difficult to correct.
Yet the skills required to mount effective distance education choose?
programs are not hard to acquire. In most cases, several
months of intensive instruction for academic staff with prior What institutional mechanisms can be em-
teaching experience are sufficient. In addition, Internet- ployed to deliver distance learning services? Four possibili-
based courses in distance education techniques are increas- ties exist: dual-mode, single-mode, franchised international
ingly available. Partnerships are a particularly good way to program, and direct un-franchised international provision. In
build local capacities. Distance education is well suited to practice, though, many of these distinctions blur and fade.
the use of institutional linkages and collaborative networks.
Given the time and expense required to develop good course A dual-mode institution offers both classroom instruction
materials, it would appear an obvious solution for universi- and distance education programs. It may be best suited for
ties to work together in producing these materials, perhaps in enrollments in the 10,000 to 20,000 range. However, with
association with an experienced institution. One current ex- capable management the financial break-even point can be
ample is the RESAFAD program (Réseau Africain de For- pushed down to enrollments as low as 5,000 or less. Where
mation à Distance), which joins Benin, Burkina Faso, traditional tertiary institutions can be persuaded to view dis-
Guinea, Mali and Togo with a university support network in tance education as a serious alternative of comparable qual-
France to produce distance learning materials for the in- ity, dual-mode institutions can also effectively serve enroll-
service training of primary and secondary education teachers. ments of more than 20,000 students.
In some cases, local partnerships with private firms such as
network providers or equipment suppliers could ease the The dual-mode approach possesses numerous advantages: It
management burden and provide valuable access to market- makes use of and is supported by an existing academic
ing expertise. community and research capacity; classroom and distance
instruction are based on common materials and performance
How can distance education be financed? In many coun- is evaluated using common standards; and it can be gradually
tries, some degree of cost-sharing for tertiary distance edu- introduced as resources permit. Where an academic credit
cation programs between students and government is an es- system is employed, students can move back and forth be-
tablished precedent. This practice derives from an assump- tween distance and classroom study, or pursue a combination
tion that distance education students are employed and can of the two. In smaller institutions, this approach enables a
therefore afford to pay a portion of tuition costs. In light of broadening of curriculum and allows courses to be taught
present limitations on use of the public purse to fund the ex- when academic staff is on vacation or when academic posi-
pansion of tertiary education, this precedent is a fortuitous tions are unfilled. The main disadvantage, though, is that
circumstance that should be preserved. Private providers and efforts to introduce distance learning approaches within a

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traditional tertiary institution are likely to encounter stiff The advantages of this model are that little or no action is
resistance among the existing academic and administrative required by local governments or institutions, and that stu-
staff. Often, the inclusion of special performance criteria dents can study without leaving home or job, and without
which recognizes staff contributions to distance education having to raise the funds necessary to study abroad. Its dis-
programs, together with financial incentives for the addi- advantages are its possible lack of quality control and the
tional time required, can help to overcome this conservatism. associated risk of disreputable providers, the absence of local
tutorial support, and fee scales which may prevent access by
The single-mode institution is a wholly dedicated distance all but the most wealthy students. In the long run, the risk of
learning institution. Where student admissions are not selec- un-franchised international provision is that tertiary educa-
tive, this model is usually called an “Open University.” Its tion may become another entrenched commodity that devel-
advantages include a strong specialist staff, the absence of oping countries must import from the developed world, thus
institutional resistance to a new and different form of peda- creating a new and more effective form of cultural imperial-
gogy, and the institution’s potential to serve students from ism. This gives developing countries an added incentive to
more than one country. Its principal drawbacks are that it cultivate distance education capacities, and to work together
requires a sizable initial investment to be properly estab- in doing so.
lished, that considerable political will needs to be mobilized
in order to do this, and that its graduates may be viewed as In selecting among these four institutional models, market
separate from and therefore inferior to the existing residential analysis is recommended as an essential part of the planning
institutions. and decision making process. Typically, market analysis
looks at four areas: (i) student demographics (age, geo-
Under a franchised international program, a foreign pro- graphic distribution, qualification desired, occupational in-
vider of distance education programs enters into partnership terest, socio-economic status); (ii) competition (alternative
with a local tertiary institution to offer these programs on a services available to students; alternative delivery modes for
joint basis. This is often done as a commercial venture. The providers); (iii) the regulatory environment (quality stan-
local institution uses course materials developed and copy- dards, licensing, accreditation, taxation, telecommunica-
righted by the foreign provider, but takes responsibility for tions); and (iv) the ability and willingness by students to
local logistics, student support, and management. Fee in- pay10. A market survey of a representative portion of the
come is shared between the two institutions. The franchise target population can yield essential information concerning
approach possesses significant advantages: It does not re- the scope of demand for different course levels as well as for
quire a lot of local expertise in order to get started; the course the type of course content that is most sought after. The
content may be more attuned to international trends and re- Bangladesh Open University, for example, interviewed
quirements, and consequently easier to get accredited; and it 16,000 persons before finalizing its plans for course offer-
can be supported by international technical (and possibly ings. Because distance education requires a significant up-
even financial) assistance. Among its disadvantages are that front investment in the development of course materials and
it may be less adapted to local needs, it may not be very ac- tutorial support, market analysis is important to maximize the
countable to local quality assurance mechanisms, and it may success of initial strategic choices and to reduce the possibil-
be more expensive than locally developed programs. (For an ity of misguided educational initiatives.
example of this model, see CODECS Brings the Open Uni-
versity to Romania, in this Issue.)

Direct un-franchised international provision is only just Tips for Developing


beginning to emerge. In this case, an established distance Countries
learning facility or “virtual university” offers courses inter-
nationally, generally using the Internet and interactive e-mail Distance learning, incorporating a
(See University of Phoenix in this Issue). In this model, all judicious use of new information and
that the student requires in order to gain access is a computer, communication technologies as these become increasingly
a modem, an Internet connection and a credit card. Master’s available in developing countries, promises to provide an
programs in engineering transmitted to North American and important part of the solution to the growing demands for
Asian students via satellite by the National Technological expanded access to and improved quality of tertiary educa-
University in the United States are another such example. tion. While each country will need to craft its own approach
The African Virtual University (See article in this Issue), can to the establishment of tertiary distance education programs
be reached by anyone on the African continent with an Inter- and institutions, considerable worldwide experience is avail-
net connection. The range of directly provided international able to inform policymaking and planning in this area. This
distance education courses is expected to expand rapidly over experience suggests that the following general guidelines can
the next several years.9

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help developing nations to build successfully the capacities into the existing tertiary education system as fully as
they need to support effective tertiary distance education: possible, recognizing that choices represent a continuum
ranging from campus-based face-to-face teaching to
♦ Assess current good practice from other countries and home or office-based learning by means of one or more
develop explicit national strategies for tertiary distance media. For many countries a dual-mode approach in
education and associated technology development that which distance learning programs are incorporated
are solidly based upon existing local capacities (which in within existing tertiary institutions would appear to be
some cases are significant). the most cost-effective and manageable approach. This
♦ Support this strategy with an aggressive start-up phase integration should also include acceptance of distance
of institutional and human resource capacity building education degrees as employment qualifications for the
activities. Partnerships with overseas distance education public service.
programs and with local industry or other training insti- ♦ Start with printed materials as the main medium of in-
tutions can improve the quality and efficiency of this ca- struction, invest in good quality course design and study
pacity building process. guides, and strive for strong and effective student sup-
♦ Design (or re-engineer) organizational structures to ac- port services.
commodate the unique requirements of distance educa- ♦ Use new information and communication technologies
tion in contrast with conventional teaching. Capacities to improve management efficiency and enhance educa-
for course design, student support, learning assessment, tional quality rather than to expand access; pay special
and service delivery management are among the essen- attention to library transformation in this process.
tial components. ♦ Limit course offerings to areas of high student demand,
♦ Integrate distance education courses and certifications and develop only at the pace permitted by resource
availability and management capacity.

1
The views expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, its affili-
ated organization members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent.

2
Willis, Barry, ed. 1994. Distance Education: Strategies and Tools. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications, p. 11.
3
Australia has been particularly successful at integrating distance learning with the tertiary system. As a result, it is common for students to
take a mix of on-campus and distance courses. For an analysis of distance education in Australia, see Evans, Terry and Daryl Nation. 1989.
Critical Reflections on Distance Education. New York: Falmer Press.
4
Murphy, Paud and Abdelwahed Zhiri, eds. 1992. Distance Education in Anglophone Africa: Experience with Secondary Education and
Teacher Training. EDI Development Policy Case Series No. 9. Washington, DC: World Bank, p. 31.
5
For a discussion of how a chosen technology strategy can best be implemented, see Daniel, John S. 1996. Mega-Universities and
Knowledge Media: Technology Strategies for Higher Education. London: Kogan Page Ltd, pp. 154-158.

6
“Despite the wealth of experiences both locally and from around the world on which this country can draw in planning and implementing
technology-enhanced learning, it appears that we are repeating many of the mistakes that have been made in such initiatives. Thus, South
Africa does not yet appear to be ‘leapfrogging’ mistakes made around the world as was hoped would happen, but seems rather to be emulat-
ing those mistakes.” South African Institute for Distance Education. 1999. “Distance Education and Educational Technology Choices in
South Africa.” http://www.saide.org.za.
7
Rumble Greville. 1997. The Costs and Economics of Open and Distance Learning. London: Kogan Page, p. 90.
8
See also Arlene Krebs, The Distance Learning Funding $ourcebook (New York: Kendall Hunt Publishing, 1998).
9
For example, 14 of North America’s largest research universities are working together to market their distance education courses through
a central directory on the World Wide Web that lists all of their on-line programs. Also, the U.K. Open University has established an affili-
ated ‘United States Open University’ that offers the Open University’s proven approaches to an American market.
10
Willis, p. 79

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Costs of ICT use in Higher Education:
What Little We Know
By Marianne Bakia*

types are expanding rapidly. K.C. Green (1999) found that


"the percentage of [U.S.] college courses using Web re-
This article focuses on the costs of use sources in the syllabus rose from 10.9 percent in 1995 and
of Information and Communication
33.1 percent in 1998 to 38.9 percent in 1999." An estimated
Technologies (ICT) for teaching and
one million students are taking courses online, and 25% of
learning in higher education, bearing
in mind that these technologies also higher education institutions in the United States are said to
supports a wide range of other core ac- be offering courses delivered via the Internet. Some evi-
tivities in higher education institu- dence suggests that a surprising number of on-campus stu-
tions. The research on costs to date is dents enroll in online, "virtual" courses.1 Rather than treating
limited in scope as well as in volume, the phenomenon as a continuum, the literature examining the
with much of it based on data available costs of technology use in higher education tends to divide
from universities and colleges in in- the subject into two distinct categories: (1) on-campus use of
dustrialized countries - with particular computers and (2) "virtual education."
emphasis on the North American expe-
rience. Only a handful of published
studies examine the costs and/or cost-
CAMPUS-BASED COMPUTER USE
effectiveness of advanced computing Recently, higher education institutions (in the US) have con-
and telecommunications in higher sistently made substantial investments in information tech-
education. nologies (IT). "An average of five percent of operating
budgets is spent on IT expenditures" (Ehrmann and Milam,
To add to the literature on the costs of 1999, p. 1). Technology as used on campuses today typically
using educational technology in devel-
represents additional costs, rather than cost reductions, to
oping countries, the World Bank is
funding a study that examines costs
institutions. "Although technology holds promise for making
related to the use of ICT at selected educational operations more efficient and less costly, there is
institutions in developing countries. no evidence to date to indicate that the use of technology in
Through a comprehensive literature higher education has resulted in widespread cost savings to
review, interviews, and site visits, the colleges and universities" (Harvey et al., 1998, p. 16 as re-
research team is gathering and syn- ported in Ehrmann and Milam, 1999, p. 1).
thesizing much-needed data about the
costs related to the latest alternative Estimating the total costs of computer use on campus is
models of educational service provi- rarely a matter of straightforward accounting. The "Total
sion in developing countries. While Cost of Ownership" (TCO) is a method used in business to
the first results of this work are not calculate all of the expenses associated with adding a per-
expected until March 2000, this article sonal computer into the workplace.2 Through the efforts of
relies on the limited body of relevant the Consortium for School Networking, the TCO for US
research available.
primary and secondary schools is currently better docu-
mented than for institutions of higher education
(http://www.cosn.org/tco/). One study cited in the report
found that the total cost of computers in "eight pioneering
high-tech schools" ranged from $142 per student to $490 per
The existing models of teaching with technology in higher student (mean per student cost was reported at $333).
education span a continuum from technology that minimally
assists classroom instruction (e.g., faculty encouraging stu- Over time, many hidden costs of computer use in education
dents to keep abreast of current-events in preparation for a have emerged. In order to accommodate the installation of
group presentation) to multi-media instruction that occurs technology, buildings must often be renovated, including
entirely at a distance. In the United States, it appears many upgrading heating and cooling systems, increasing electrical
capacity, and improving security systems. In addition, many

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institutions must provide supplemental training to faculty, States - Indiana University/Purdue University Indianapolis
and the same faculty must invest additional time adapting to (IUPUI), City University of New York (CUNY), California
the new technologies - time that might be otherwise spent on State University (CSU), and Brevard Community College -
research or teaching. Few estimates of the cost in staff time further demonstrates the current limitations of the research.
exist because institutions of higher education rarely record
specific staff time allocations. Moreover, technology users IUPUI and CUNY both introduced computers into their
generally require regular technical support. The costs of writing courses in the early 1990's. IUPUI offers two distinct
computer assistance and maintenance have been difficult to kinds of sections for its English curriculum core writing
establish. courses: one section is classroom-based, without technology;
while the other uses half of its class time in a computer lab.
Support Service Costs. The COSTS Project The computer-lab sections are limited to enrollments of 22
(http://www.its.colgate.edu/kleach/costs/costs.htm) is an ef- students due to the size of the computer lab. One study
fort to identify and benchmark costs of information technol- (IUPUI Economic Model Office in Ehrmann and Milam,
ogy services in higher education internationally. The 1999) found that computer use was NOT cost-effective on a
COSTS study team has reported that in the United States, per-student or per-"completer" basis. Establishing and oper-
median network services cost approximately $255 per used ating the computer lab increased costs, but the difference in
network port (Leach and Smallen 1998). Support services the performance and completion rate of students in the com-
are subject to economies of scale; the cost for services tended puter section to the students in the traditional section was not
to drop as the number of ports increased. The COSTS found to be statistically significant. The authors caution that
study found, however, that administrative information sys- their "study does not consider whether the high differential
tems were not subject to these economies. "For most of the costs were inevitable, or simply one of the results of not ex-
institutions, the total cost of providing these services [per- ploiting the strengths of technology in instruction by
formed by administrative information systems] fall in a nar- reengineering the instructional process" (IUPUI Economic
row band, from $200,000 - $500,000" (Leach and Smallen Model Office in Ehrmann and Milam, 1999, p. 67).
1998).
CUNY developed a computer program called DAEDALUS,
Production Costs. The production of multimedia content is which allows students to comment on each other's written
integral to both on-campus computer use and virtual educa- work. The CUNY study compared the cost-effectiveness of
tion. Costs for producing content per hour of instruction using this program to not using it. Differences in pass rates
appear to be somewhat similar, whether distributed on-line or on an exam between the control and intervention cohorts
by CD-ROM. While academia has done relatively little to were not statistically significant, although use of
establish benchmarks for web-based courses in higher edu- DAEDALUS increased the cost of a course section by $540.
cation, Hall (1998) reports the following rates associated Since class sizes were similar, the study concluded that use
with web-based training: of DAEDALUS was not cost-effective when compared to the
cost of administering traditional courses.
Instruction technologist $75 - 100/hr
Instructional Designer $75 - 100/hr CAI in remedial math courses paints a slightly different pic-
Writer/editor $40 - 65/hr ture. In two studies of CAI for algebra, the introduction of
Graphic Artist $35 - 65/hr certain computer programs was shown to be potentially cost-
Programmer/authoring specialist $30 - 65/hr effective compared to traditional instruction, given sufficient
enrollments. In the CSU study, differences in the scores of
Java/CGI programmer $85 - 120/hr
students with and without CAI were not determined to be
Media Expert $65 - 120/hr
statistically significant - nor were pass rates for the same
These figures are clearly illustrative, as the complexity of a groups. However, CAI did allow for larger course enroll-
particular course module- technical and otherwise- will have ments without a discernable loss in learning outcomes as
direct impact on the total costs of production. Clearly, these measured by the study. At enrollments greater than 2,500
unit costs differ significantly by country. students, the CAI course was projected to be more cost-
effective than traditional courses (although at that time the
university was enrolling only about 1,500 students in the
COST AND COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF
CAI program).
COMPUTER-AIDED INSTRUCTION (CAI)
A few case studies are underway that explore the economics Another study at Brevard Community College, however,
of computer-aided instruction (CAI)3 in higher education. reported that CAI tended to increase student success and
Once again, because of the relatively small number of stud- productivity in developmental algebra (King and Crouse
ies, findings will likely be viewed as suggestive rather than 1997). The course in the study relied on self-based instruc-
definitive. The comparison of four such studies in the United tion using CD-ROMs in computer labs. “As they become

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more adept, instructors are able to work with larger numbers For instance, a study of a virtual course at the University of
of students in each class” (King and Crouse 1997 p. 22). British Columbia in Canada found that the annual break-even
Administrators at Brevard Community College currently enrollment based on projected costs and revenues over 4
enroll about 38 students per section, up from 25 students in years was 44 students (Bartolic-Zlomislic and Bates, 1999).
previous classes. The study does not explicitly address the The study projected that this virtual course would earn a
costs of development or the costs of maintaining the com- profit of about $12,000 over four years. Another study of a
puter lab. Researchers from this algebra study report that virtual course did not include overhead cost estimates or ini-
students learn faster and faculty productivity increases over tial development expenses. The second study estimated that
time. Therefore, if sufficient numbers of students cycle the course would make close to $2,000 per year and required
through the course, economies of scale can be realized. an enrollment of about six students to break even (Bartolic-
These may be sufficient to drop per-student and per- Zlomislic and Bates, 1999).
completer costs below that of basic classroom instruction.
Other studies are emerging that specifically compare the
Admittedly, the findings of these four case studies are con- costs of an Internet-based virtual course, to traditional class-
tradictory: two studies suggest that CAI is not cost-effective room-based courses. The Rochester Institute of Technology
compared to traditional classroom instruction, while another (RIT) completed one study comparing the operational costs
two suggest that it is. Although the findings from these two of instruction "anytime/anywhere,"5 in traditional class-
sets of studies are at odds with each other, the differences in rooms, and "site-based"6 (Geith and Cometa in Ehrmann and
their conclusions might possibly be explained by variations Milam, 1999). The study emphasis on operational costs pre-
in subject matter, implementation, instruction, or other such cludes any examination of planning and production costs as
factors. Many more studies on the cost effectiveness of well as the implications of investments in technical infra-
computer aided instruction will be required before any de- structure. Given these exclusions, "results indicated that 8 of
finitive conclusions can be made. At this time it is impos- the 9 course sections in our sample cost the same or less per
sible to say if the selection of appropriate pedagogy, in- credit hour than their on-campus counterparts" (Geith and
creased training of faculty, and reduced use of faculty time Cometa in Ehrmann and Milam, 1999, p. 50). Faculty re-
allotted would help to increase the cost-effectiveness of CAI. ported using equal or more time in anywhere/anytime
A re-engineering of the educational process may be neces- courses,7 and they reported using their time differently.
sary as well.
Virtual Institutions. Although the promises of virtual edu-
A unique study of the cost-effectiveness of CAI at George cation are as yet unclear, some virtual courses are already
Mason University (GMU) seems poised to offer some in- undergoing quality assurance procedures and the first "virtual
sights into the relevant strengths and weaknesses of CAI university" has been accredited. Jones International Univer-
compared to basic classroom instruction (Milam in Ehrmann sity recently became the first entirely virtual university to be
and Milam, 1999). This particular study is based on "a accredited in the United States (Crow 1999). In spite of this
teaching/learning schema that arrays different levels of per- formal approval, there are no published studies regarding its
sonal contact between instructor and student (touch) and lev- costs. Nevertheless, Turoff (1995) earlier estimated the costs
els of incorporating technology in classes (tech). The re- to develop a hypothetical virtual university. He found that
sulting grid includes sixteen squares with degrees of no, "the establishment of such a University would cost less than
some, moderate, and high touch versus degrees of low, some, the addition of a single classroom building on a physical
moderate, and high tech" (Milam in Ehrmann and Milam, college campus (approximately US$15 million)." Turoff
1999, p. 71). It will compare the cost-effectiveness of estimated that the costs associated with a virtual university to
courses with these alternative mixes of touch and tech, and be approximately $4,500 per student per year, assuming an
results are expected within the next year. enrollment of 2000 students. Turoff does not offer any esti-
mates for the design and production of course content, so his
VIRTUAL EDUCATION estimates are likely to be low. Planners often underestimate
the costs of distance education projects. For instance, an ex-
On the other side of the teaching spectrum is "virtual educa-
perienced distance education practioner and researcher
tion,"4 which takes place without a teacher and student hav-
planned for only a fraction of the actual costs involved with
ing to be in the same physical space at the same time. Con-
an on-line course (Bartolic-Zlomislic and Bates 1999). To-
notations of virtual education differ somewhat from distance
tal project costs were 176% of that anticipated. Unexpected
education in that content and communication is often ad-
costs in planning, marketing and instructional time were the
ministered over the Internet.
primary causes for the apparent miscalculation.
There are a growing number of studies that attempt to assess
the costs of providing an on-line course. Estimates vary con- CONCLUSION
siderably. Unfortunately, many are incomplete or use com- While these studies begin to offer some limited benchmarks
peting methodologies, making them difficult to compare. and estimates of the costs of CAI and Internet use for higher

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education courses, we still lack a firm understanding of the Crow, Stephen (1999). “Virtual Universities Can Meet High
cost-drivers of these projects. However ICT might be used, Standards,” Chronicle of Higher Education. Octo-
the scale, production quality, and personnel use are likely to ber 29, 1999. p. B5.
influence costs dramatically. Part of the difficulty in devel- Ehrmann, Stephen C. and John H. Milam, Jr. (1999). Mod-
oping a more precise understanding of costs is the rapidly eling Research Use in Teaching and Learning with
evolving state-of-the-art of computer use. Technology. Washington, D.C. The Flashlight Pro-
gram; Corporation for Public Broadcasting.
Computers and the Internet have the potential to improve Green, K.C. (1999). Campus Computing 1998: The ninth
access to and quality of higher education institutions national survey of desktop computing and informa-
throughout the world. The most obvious obstacles include tion technology in higher education, CA, The Cam-
prohibitive Internet connection costs and inadequate techni- pus Computing Project available at
cal infrastructures. Several factors suggest that the use of http://www.campuscomputing.net/.
ICT in education, at least in the short-term, will be relatively Guernsey, Lisa. (1998). "Colleges Debate the Wisdom of
more costly in developing countries, even if Internet access Having On-Campus Students Enroll in On-Line
were readily available and affordable. Where the computer Classes: Mulling the surprising popularity of dis-
hardware industry is less developed, import taxes and inter- tance education for the not-so-distant,” Chronicle
national shipping will increase the costs of computers, hard- of Higher Education. March 27, 1998.
ware and software. Skilled instructors and technicians might Hall, Brandon (1998). "The Cost of Custom WBT," Inside
also be more expensive in developing countries because of Technology Training, July/August.
their very limited supply and competition from the private Leach, Karen and David Smallen. "What do Information
sector for their expertise. Faculty, who have had more lim- Support Services Really Cost?" CAUSE/EFFECT.
ited exposure to the technology will likely require additional Volume 21, Number 2, 1998, pp. 38 - 45. Boulder,
training. There are also distinct cultural, linguistic and other CO. EDUCAUSE.
pedagogic needs of students in many developing countries Turoff, Murray (1997). "Costs for the Development of a
that will make costs even more prohibitive in many contexts. Virtual University,” Journal of Asynchronous
Learning Networks. Volume 1, Issue 1.
Although findings are preliminary, the World Bank's study
suggests that countries interested in adopting ICT may have
difficulty finding appropriate and relevant content in suitable
*
languages. In developing countries in particular, any ex- Education Specialist, Education Technology Team, Human De-
perimentation will be limited by budgets. Limited finances velopment Network, The World Bank.
1
also make missteps in technology use all the more risky. See, for instance, the experience of the University of Colorado,
Therefore, it is important for academics and policymakers to Denver where 500 of 609 students enrolled in an on-line course
were also enrolled in a course on campus (Guernsey).
pay close attention to the cost-effectiveness of CAI and vir- 2
More information about TCO is available from Microsoft at
tual education in developing country contexts. It is impor- http://www.microsoft.com/technet/tco/default.htm.
tant for both administrators and policy makers to gain a more 3
"Computer-aided instruction" is a common term referring to class-
complete understanding of the factors influencing the cost- room-based teaching that is supported by students using computers.
effectiveness of CAI and Internet-based instruction so that 4
The term "virtual education" as used here is considered synony-
strategies can be developed to make such educational inno- mous with other terms often used to describe similar phenomenon,
vations universally viable. including "on-line learning," "computer-mediated instruction," etc.
5
Defined as "asynchronous instruction using a range of technolo-
gies including email, Internet and telephone conferencing, web
BIBLIOGRAPHY resources, videotape, audio-tape and CD-ROM" (Geith and Cometa
in Ehrmann and Milam, 1999, p. 53).
Bacsich, Paul, Charlotte Ash, Kim Boniwell, Leon Kaplan 6
In site-based instruction, students are organized at formal educa-
(1999). The Costs of Networked Learning. United tional institutions other than RIT but enrolled in a distance RIT
Kingdom. Sheffield Hallam University. course.
7
Bartolic-Zlomislic, Silvia and A.W. Bates (1999). Assessing The finding of an INCREASE in faculty time used in virtual
the Costs and Benefits of Telelearning: A Case courses is consistent with the findings of other studies. Researchers
Study from the University of British Columbia. Uni- at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign found that “of the
students using conferencing in the Spring, 64% reported increased
versity of British Columbia. (Study available at
interaction with the instructor (up 13% from the fall), [and] 50%
http://research.cstudies.ubc.ca/nce/index.html). reported increased quality of instructor interaction" (Scale Evalua-
Consortium for School Networking (1999). Taking TCO to tion Results: Spring 1996 Semester: Executive Summary, p. 2,
the Classroom: A School Administrator's Guide to available at
Planning for the Total Cost of New Technology. http://franklin.scale.uiuc.edu/scale/evaluations/spring96/exec_sum.h
(White paper available at http://www.cosn.org/tco/). tml).

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Tertiary Education:
Institutional Challenges and Management Responses
By Kurt Moses, Sr. Vice President, Academy for Educational Development

The new millennium with globalization, the new view of the Academic Infrastructure.
economic role of education, and telecommunication innova- Academic infrastructure has
tion poses a serious challenge to tertiary education institu- become one of the most chal-
tions. (See Salmi's Higher Education: Facing the Chal- lenging institutional issues. This
lenges of the twenty-first Century, in this Issue.) Alternative infrastructure includes library
organizations to the university will take over many of its resources, laboratories, special
roles if it does not adapt. The institutional challenge is to multi-media or distance learning
simultaneously become dramatically better at current opera- facilities, and academic information systems. The good news
tions, and innovate. This article presents some concrete man- is that technologically based infrastructure is becoming
agement responses to this challenge: cheaper, but the bad news is that there is increasing demand
for it. Too many universities, still, have insufficient library
Strategic and Long-Range Plan- resources. Innovations including CD-ROM based journals,
ning to Enhance A Vision. A digital books and Internet updates now are more widely
modern tertiary institution needs an available. On the other hand, hard copy texts are still too
integrated Strategic Planning Proc- costly, but many are available in cheap versions in violation
ess. Such a process needs to be of intellectual copyright. International copyright discussions
both externally and internally ori- continue at an accelerated pace, and there is hope that new
ented and needs to have simultane- paradigms for sharing the cost of intellectual authorship will
ously a ten, five, and three-year time frame. Externally, the emerge soon. For technology intensive structures like labo-
process needs to link to the economic development vision for ratories and multi-media facilities, institutions need to create
the country and its needs, and internally to the strengths and partnerships and alliances with the private sector to keep
capacities of existing personnel and facilities–strengths that these facilities up to date. In some instances, institutions
can support consistent quality. A key outcome of the process may wish to make use of private facilities, in exchange for
must be a shared understanding of the basic directions that technical services, in order to overcome the problems of
the institution should pursue. There are available many in- costly obsolescence.
expensive tools to facilitate this process, which can be com-
pleted within 12 to 18 months, and produce annual, rolling Technological Support. Many
updates. More universities need to approach their future with emerging institutions view tech-
the skills required of a national enterprise that has environ- nology as a one-time investment
mental, competitive, and resource constraints. – the result is that the technology
does not operate reliably enough
to become a part of the institu-
Faculty Development. tional framework. As technology becomes cheaper and more
Worldwide, faculty development is a key issue. The disci- widespread, organizational, procedural, and cost issues need
plines are moving so rapidly that faculty struggle to stay up- to be seriously considered.
to-date, and in some countries, faculty training stopped when ♦ First, for a modern institution: all students and faculty
they graduated. Faculty development requires incentives for should have convenient and affordable access to per-
improvement, time to study and reflect, and honors for those sonal computers with a core set of software, and network
who improve. Many universities are using the Internet pro- connections within the institution and through the wider
ductively to upgrade faculty skills with minimal cost–while Internet. The phasing of this access should take into con-
at the same time keeping them within the university commu- sideration the clusters of academic and administrative
nity. This is particularly true in academic disciplines like the activities that need support first.
physical sciences, computer science, mathematics, and medi- ♦ Second, the institution, centrally, needs to commit to a
cine–which seem to have embraced the concepts of multiple core set of Information Technology (IT) standards which
connectivity and sharing. Increasingly, institutions are will be reliably supported, and then let other elements
sharing their experiences of faculty development with others develop with separate funds or interest.
via the Internet.

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♦ Third, educational institutions must note carefully life As part of the Information Technology investment, modern
cycle costs. The major cost of IT infrastructure is not institutions have to deal with telephone links, data links, and
hardware; it is only about 25% of life cycle costs. The now video or other high capacity telecommunications needs.
major cost is rather training, user support, maintenance, Telephone and data interconnection have now become quite
and replacement. Technology investments need to be inexpensive–because of falling materials costs and increased
evaluated on a 3-5 year cycle to make accurate compari- competition. However, this has increased the demand for
sons. This means, for example, that individually devel- managers and technicians who can operate such equipment.
oped software that is understood and utilized by only In some cases, universities may be well advised to think
one or two people, but is initially inexpensive, can be- about “out-sourcing” some of these services–as have busi-
come exceedingly expensive in the long term. nesses been doing even in low income countries.
♦ Fourth, IT must be seen as a strategic asset. As such it
should be cost-effective for the whole institution and de- Cost Tracking and Control. Many
veloped in a shared manner (reflecting multiple needs modern universities continue to have
and collaborative development.) difficulty with cost tracking–par-
ticularly when programmatic detail
Administrative Improvements. The modern tertiary insti- is desired. This creates real problems
tution is usually more complex than earlier models. It has in effective administration and also
become more things to more people–and that is also its undermines the ability of institutions to use effectively all the
strength. However, new emphases on partnerships, alliances, funds they have. Three areas of cost tracking are typically
interdisciplinary programs, and access to other institutional key to cost control.
programs means that administrative structures must be flexi-
ble and capable of adjusting the way services are delivered, First, tracking of employment, including not only who, but
depending upon the needs of students, clients, and funding under what status, for what position, and for how much time.
agencies. Additionally, most institutions value, at the lowest Salaries constitute 60 to 90% of university budgets. Effec-
academic level, a certain degree of autonomy. To allow si- tive academic decisions require enough knowledge of faculty
multaneously sound fiscal control and decision autonomy workload as well as time allocation. Reasonable administra-
means that institutions must have excellent internal commu- tive decisions need clarity about the functions performed.
nications and good systems and procedures that provide the These data are particularly crucial under formula funding.
same information to all levels of the organization.
Second, operating funds for non-salary portions. These
are different for different fields of study. Laboratories, for
Unfortunately, too many institutions in the world fall far
example, require more maintenance, utilities, and support
short of this condition. Many institutions live in two worlds,
than history classrooms. In many institutions, there is very
one very modern, and one considerably older. For example,
little tracking to this level of detail. Additionally, standard
while they may have Internet connections, some institutions
techniques like “fund accounting” are not always employed.
still have a problem paying their bills reliably. Some institu-
New tools and “gadgets” for control of utilities are now
tions do not know how many teachers and faculty they actu-
widely and inexpensively available, and if introduced may
ally employ and on what terms. Many do not know how
result in 2-5% savings, after the initial investment. At the
many students attend, and in what areas. Some institutions
same time, budgeting for maintenance and replacement of
do not have procedures that apply uniformly throughout the
new technologies should be on a 3-5 year basis.
institution–this allows for both inequalities of service and
arbitrary activities. Problems such as these lower the credi-
Third, tracking of discretionary agreements such as facili-
bility and efficiency of an institution.
ties purchases, retirement allowances, and productive
enterprises. Items like facilities purchase and retirement
Modern institutions need an integrated human resource, fi-
allowances are often highly political and demand the best
nance, and student information system. The systems need to
management and leadership. Particularly in the case of pro-
be integrated to reduce transfer errors and ensure common
ductive activities, institutions frequently have insufficient
information at all levels, and there needs to be at least the
cost controls and allow substantial cross-subsidy to occur.
three components (human resources, finance, and students)
Such practices increase costs and create a false picture of
to cover the key activities of most tertiary institutions. Fi-
profitability.
nancial systems need to link - at a very decentralized level -
***************
budgets, accounts, and cash disbursements. Only in this
Efficiency, transparency, and reliability should characterize
fashion can an institution provide some degree of autonomy
management responses to institutional challenges in a mod-
as well as some element of control–particularly when re-
ern tertiary institution. These characteristics are what create
sources are scarce.
credibility for an institution to be a worthy beneficiary of
public funds and public trust.

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Argentina:
Management Information System
For Higher Education

Luján Gurmandi and Jamil Salmi*

In 1995, a groundbreaking framework for the development of ing an integrated MIS package which would have then been
the Argentine higher education system was created on the offered to the universities as a turnkey product prepared by
basis of a new Higher Education Law and a new Administra- the Ministry of Higher Education, the information system
tive Law. Among the key measures proposed by the new was divided into separate modules and each module was de-
laws were the introduction of internal and external evaluation veloped by a different team of specialists from two to three
mechanisms, including a national accreditation system, and universities working together with the central project team.
increased autonomy for the public universities in the area of A number of universities, for example Rio Cuarto Univer-
human and financial resources management. To sustain this sity, played a leadership role in software development and
comprehensive reform, a University Information System adaptation. Five modules were prepared on the basis of this
(Sistema de Información Universitaria – SIU) was put in decentralized approach:
place with the dual purpose of serving the oversight and
monitoring needs of the national authorities (Ministry of • A personnel management module (recruitment,
Education and Council of Rectors) and meeting the manage- legal and administrative decisions, salaries, pen-
ment needs of the universities. Resources to finance the de- sion, etc.)
sign and implementation of this integrated national manage- • An academic management module (registration,
ment information system came in part from a World Bank courses, examinations, classrooms, etc.)
loan in support of the higher education reform. • A student management module (follow up of
newcomers, continuing students and graduates,
SIU was developed by the Argentinean universities them- etc.)
selves, in partnership with and with funding from the Minis- • A financial management module (accounting,
try of Higher Education. At the outset of the experience in budgeting, payments, cash flow, cost analysis,
1995, the Ministry was faced with distrust and rejection by etc.)
most universities viewing with suspicion any attempt to im- • An infrastructure management module (build-
pose change from the center. For historical reasons, Argen- ings, laboratories, workshops, equipment, etc.)
tinean universities have always been very protective of their
legal “autonomy,” which in practice has meant almost total But the fact of relying on a decentralized approach brought
independence from the Ministry. Thus, when the academic about a number of unexpected challenges in view of the lim-
community became aware of the Ministry’s intention to in- ited institutional capacity of some universities, the geo-
troduce a management information system (MIS), the initial graphical distance between them, and the wide range of or-
reaction was very negative. The project was perceived as a ganizational structures and management practices across
World Bank attack on university autonomy. On top of the institutions. To overcome these difficulties, a committee of
political resistance, the quality and reliability of the statistical users was formed for each module, with representatives from
data routinely produced by the various universities left much up to 8 universities and the SIU technical unit in the Minis-
to be desired. try. The role of these committees was to propose areas of
priority to the software developers and to facilitate the ex-
In view of this, the project implementation team opted for a change of information and experiences among universities as
decentralized and participatory approach. Instead of design- the modules were prepared and gradually put in place in a

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number of institutions. Those universities not represented on
the committees were invited to contribute comments and With SIU-RIU, Argentina has developed one of the most
requests through email or any other communication means. sophisticated higher education management information
systems in Latin America. The next challenge is to use the
Throughout the development process, the technical SIU unit system and the information it produces as a management tool
organized intensive training programs to support the partici- to identify and analyze problems, generate and compare al-
pating universities in the introduction and adaptation of the ternative solutions, and make decisions at the national and
modules and strengthen their capacity to use the new com- institutional level. Some universities have actually begun to
puterized management system in an effective manner. Ef- use the new information tools to improve their management
forts were made to train non-specialized personnel with good efficiency and share good practices across institutions. In
communication skills in each university to act as change Posadas, for instance, the leaders of the University (Univer-
agents. In the course of implementing the SIU system, many sidad de Misiones), a small regional university split into two
universities have realized the importance of training their campuses two hundred kilometers apart, have welcomed the
administrative staff as an investment in institutional capacity introduction of SIU-RIU with great enthusiasm. Not only
building. Work is also under way to establish an integrated have they established more convenient and cost-effective
library management system applicable throughout the uni- information channels between the two physical parts of the
versity network and to define standards for all computerized University, they have also computerized the main manage-
information applications, which may be developed in the ment functions and started to use the system to identify bot-
future. tlenecks and sources of inefficiency which they intend to
transform into opportunities for efficiency savings. Similar
In parallel with the development of the SIU, the Ministry has developments have occurred at the Northeastern University
also worked with the universities to set up a computerized (Universidad del Noreste). At the National University of the
network linking Argentina’s 36 public universities through a South (Universidad Nacional del Sur), the introduction of the
national Intranet and giving them worldwide access to Inter- financial module has led to significant improvements in in-
net libraries, research centers and databases through four ternal processes.
national servers. This network, called RIU (Red de Intercon-
exción Universitaria), functions also as the technology carrier Finally, at the national level, a synthesis module has been
for the transfer of SIU data between the universities and the designed to consolidate and integrate information on budg-
Ministry of Higher Education. The RIU network started to ets, income and expenditure, students, graduates and aca-
function in November 1997 and SIU-RIU became fully op- demic programs coming from the various public universities.
erational in mid 1999. It is being used by the Ministry of Higher Education to ana-
lyze data from a system-wide perspective and make relevant
One important lesson from this experience is that the most inter-institutional comparisons to guide policy decisions.
logical technical solution is not always the best answer to a
technical problem. In Argentina, the political sensitivities
made it important to find an approach which, although less
straightforward from a technical viewpoint, succeeded in
*
promoting a greater sense of ownership among the universi- Respectively, Director of the SIU Program at the Ministry of
ties. Developing separate modules resulted in increased Higher Education in Buenos Aires, Argentina, and Education Sector
technical complexity. Additional work was required to pre- Manager in the Latin American and the Caribbean Region of the
pare the interfaces needed to integrate the different modules World Bank, Washington D. C., USA. The findings, interpretations
into a coherent system. But it has been worth the additional and conclusions expressed in this article are entirely those of the
effort because the resulting MIS has been fully accepted by authors and should not be attributed in any manner to their institu-
tions of affiliation or the countries they represent. More informa-
most universities.
tion on the SIU program can be found at http://www.siu.edu.ar.
Another interesting observation is that, by its very nature, the
SIU-RIU has forced universities to work together instead of
behaving as independent fiefdoms. It has also helped univer-
sities adopt a strategic planning mode, if only with respect to
their information system needs. Within each university, fac-
ulties which had traditionally operated as completely sepa-
rate units have been encouraged to cooperate and have actu-
ally, in most cases, managed to work as partners within the
wider framework of the overall institution in the design and
implementation of the computerized network and MIS mod-
ules.

! 56 ! TechKnowLogia, January/February, 2000 © Knowledge Enterprise, Inc. www.TechKnowLogia.org


Video
Projectors
In the September/October issue of TechKnowLogia, we popular and represent the latest technologies. LCD stands
briefly highlighted the benefits of the overhead projector, a for Liquid-Crystal Display and DLP are Digital Light
simple, yet highly effective technology. Here we focus on Processing projectors. They utilize differing technologies
video projectors, also simple and highly effective, yet and have their own advantages and drawbacks. In either case,
providing a different set of benefits to the user. the three important features to consider are resolution, weight
and brightness. LCD projectors are durable, cost less than
Video projectors are very similar to overhead projectors in DLP projectors, and do not require a completely darkened
that they are used to project images onto a large screen or room to be seen. On the other hand, they tend to be less
wall to a group of people. While overhead projectors have portable than DLPs, and create dimmer images because of
their benefits, the market for video projectors is dramatically the technology they use. Similarly, image quality is
increasing as people are finding them invaluable for using compromised when the image is enlarged.
the latest presentation technologies. Video projectors are
critical in the business environment where high quality DLP projectors are smaller and lighter and since they use
presentations are sometimes the deciding factor between micromirrors to reflect light, produce brighter images with
getting or not getting business. However, the education more contrast. They also produce more colors than and LCD
arena can also benefit from the use of video projectors as projector. Image quality is better, also due to the technology.
they significantly enhance the learning experience. However, DLP projectors get pricey the higher the
resolution.
The main difference between overhead projectors and video
projects (among others) is that the latter can be directly These points, in and of themselves, are not enough to help
connected to a computer. This simple point is responsible for one decide which type of projector to purchase. According
the most significant differences between the benefits of to Presentations magazine (http://www.presentations.com)
overhead projectors and video projectors. Some benefits of someone seriously considering making a purchase must ask
video projectors in the education arena are: (1) in an the following questions:
environment where resources and computers are scarce,
video projectors provide computer access to multiple users at What is my budget?
the same time; (2) teachers can enhance the learning
environment by incorporating interactive technologies such Clearly budget is a significant deciding factor and can be the
as the Internet, as well as providing students with hands on difference between low-resolution and high-resolution
participation; (3) teachers can create a more dynamic projectors. There are three types of resolutions: SVGA
learning experience by bringing multimedia into the (800x1000), XGA (1024x768) and SXGA (1200x1024). A
classroom through PowerPoint, Microsoft Word and Excel, low resolution projector, both LCD and DLP, can cost less
and other similar applications; (4) teachers can prepare than US$4000 now adays. However, the higher the
lessons ahead of time and save classroom time by not having resolution, the more expensive it gets, especially the DLP-
to write out lessons on the blackboard; and (5) video type. A DLP high-resolution projector can cost thousands
projectors save on photocopying and paper. more than its LCD counterpart and an SXGA DLP projector
There are currently three types of video projectors on the can cost as much as US$30,000.
market: CRT, LCD, and DLP. The latter two are the most

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What will I use the projector for? operated elevator feet; comfortable and sturdy carrying
handles; easy-to-use onscreen menus; and a lightweight
For weight consideration it is important to determine whether carrying case.
you will be carrying the projector around frequently. If
weight is not an issue, you might find that you could get What sort of warranty and service can I
extra features for those few extra pounds. You must also expect?
decide where you will place the projector and what size
screen you will use. This is important because some Because of the severe competition in this market, most
projectors are designed to work close to the screen, while vendors offer quality warranty and service options. Some
others provide zoom capability so you can place them farther also offer additional services such as overnight replacement
away. You must also consider whether you will be placing of a malfunctioning unit. Ask about warranties and added
the projector at an angle and look for one that has "keystone services. Warranties are typically one-, two- and three-years,
correction", a feature that corrects for distortions that occur though bulbs are sometimes only covered for several months.
from placing a projector at an angle. One important tip - get everything in writing!

How bright should my projector be?


Projector brightness depends on the size of the image it is In early 1999, PC Computing magazine listed the top
projecting and the size of the screen it is trying to fill. For manufacturers of presentation projectors. The list ranged in
example, a 600-lumen projector is optimized for a 60-inch price from a low US$4000 to approximately US$13000 and
diagonal screen, but will look dim trying to fill a 120-inch included only LCD projectors. Following are the products,
diagonal screen. In general, ultraportable projectors give off prices and comments made:
between 400 to 1000 lumens. Larger conference-room type
projectors give off between 1000 to 2000 lumens and large
venue projectors anywhere from 2500 to 10000 lumens.
NEC MultiSync $12,995 When cost is no object and
What is the lamp's life and replacement cost? MT1035 only the best will do.
CTX Opto ExPro $4,795 The runaway pick for
"Expensive replacement bulbs are one of the hidden costs of 680 presenters on a budget.
owning a projector, so how often you'll need to replace them Mitsubishi X200 $10,995 A good choice for mixed-
should be an important factor in your buying decision," states media presentations.
Presentations magazine. Proxima Desktop $11,999 A good-looking projector
Projector 9250 for a premium price.
What is the resolution? Epson America $12,999 Works best as strictly a
PowerLite 7300 video projector.
As mentioned above, resolution is a key determinant of price. InFocus LP750 $7,200 A solid workhorse display
You will need to know what you will be using the projector for both text & graphics.
for before you decide what resolution to get. If you're going Panasonic PT- $4,495 The price looks better than
to use your projector for simple bulleted slides, you don't L556U the picture.
need the highest resolutions. But if you are projecting images Philips Hopper $4,099 A fine choice for video and
with intricate detail, you might consider getting an XGA SV10 text.
projector or better. Toshiba America $10,995 Too much money for too
G7 little projector.
How much does it weigh and what else can it
do? * Source: PC Computing, May 1999, page 158.

If weight is important, consider not only the weight of the


projector itself, but the total carrying weight including the For more information, see:
case and any additional accessories. Those would include Presentations magazine at http://www.presentations.com
cables and remote control unit, which typically add about
two pounds to overall weight.

Features to look for include: inputs, outputs, and onboard


speakers; motorized zoom, focus and lens shift; easily

! 58 ! TechKnowLogia, January/February, 2000 © Knowledge Enterprise, Inc. www.TechKnowLogia.org


Higher Education
Software Sampler

This article presents examples of software that may be relevant to some of the major players in higher education: students,
parents, teachers and university administrators.

For Students
There are many software providers in this category, as well there are several categories of college preparatory software. One
category is the college entrance exam preparatory software, and one of the best-known software providers in this field is the
Princeton Review: Princeton Review has three products available: Princeton Review: Inside the GRE, GMAT & LSAT;
Princeton Review: Inside the SAT, ACT and PSAT 2000 Edition; and Princeton Review: Inside the SAT, ACT and PSAT
Deluxe 2000 Edition. Prices range from US$19.95 to US$39.95. All three products provide step-by-step methods to study and
improve scores for these exams, and the Deluxe edition includes a college admissions package as well. The software can be
purchased online at: http://new.shoptlc.com.

Another useful category of software for the college bound student, or even the student already in college, is the subject specific
tutorial software. One such provider is M&M Software, and its college product list includes tutorial software for logic,
calculus, statistics, and grammar. M&M Software provides a multitude of educational software, and utilizes shareware and
public domain features. Shareware is the ability to download software and evaluate it before paying the full purchase price.
Public domain software is software that is available for free. Only the logic disk is available for evaluation from among
M&M's college products. The other college products are in the US$ 5 price range, with an option for bulk disk purchases,
which decreases the price to around US$ 3. The products can be purchased at the company's website: www.mm-soft.com

And lastly, for the non-English speaking student, the English Plus+ website offers help. Among other software, English Plus+
provides relief in vocabulary, grammar and spelling for US$25, which can be ordered online at http://www.englishplus.com.

For Parents
Every parent's concern when sending their kids to college is how to pay for it. Think Ahead, Inc. developed the College Aid
CalculatorTM, which is available for either purchase or download on http://www.collegeaidcalculator.com. College Aid
Calculator provides parents "with an early estimate of your EFC (Expected Family Contribution), so you'll know how much
you might pay for your child's education. CAC estimates any number of years into the future, lets you ask any What If?
question, has a Savings / Loan planning module and many other features to assist you. The software includes a comprehensive
searchable Guide book to answer your college financial aid questions."

! 59 ! TechKnowLogia, January/February, 2000 © Knowledge Enterprise, Inc. www.TechKnowLogia.org


For Teachers

Blackboard Inc. offers a line of products called Blackboard CourseInfoTM and Blackboard CourseInfo Enterprise EditionTM .
These are server software products that "enable departments and institutions to create course and campus environments on the
Web." Blackboard can host the course or install it on local servers. The products enable institutions to maintain a private
institutional gateway to courses and other campus services as well as enable educators to enhance in-class instruction and/or
deliver distance learning by bringing their course materials, class discussions, assignments and quizzes to the Web.

CaNexus Web Design developed a valuable tool for teachers and professors. The product is called EVE and is designed to help
find essays and papers plagiarized from web-based sources. EVE uses a wizard-driven interface. It processes documents in
plain text format and returns links to Web pages from which students may have "borrowed" information. CaNexus claims EVE
is powerful enough to find plagiarized material without overwhelming the professor with false links. ZDNet evaluated the
product and stated: "Does it work? We grabbed a paper from a random Internet cheat site and put the program through its
paces. Sure enough, it found the paper -- on another site even." The product is available for download and free trial on
http://www.zdnet.co.uk/software/home/ under "Teaching Tools." If you decide to keep the product, it will cost you about
US$35.

For Administrators
What are the likely types of functions a university would be most interested in streamlining? Usually they include recruitment,
alumni and development, business office and administration, registrar and student information, and financial aid. Scan
Business Systems, Inc. has developed a Java-based software solution called Campus Café that covers all of the areas critical to
running an efficient higher education institution. The software is recommended for institutions with limited information
systems departments, or those with limited access to the resources needed to address expanded demand for administrative
software. SCAN provides on-site implementation, training, and support services to complement their software solution.
Campus Café can be customized to fit a school's individual needs. More information about Campus Café is available at http://
www.scansoftware.com.

Precision Computer Service is the national distributor of Surpass library automation software. Surpass is a comprehensive suite
of applications designed to automate the day-to-day functions of libraries. Surpass Central is the core administration portion of
the Surpass system. It includes features for editing and importing MARC records and maintaining patron records (including
photo IDs), a report generator, full-featured and versatile circulation control, and physical inventory control. Other available
modules are Surpass Safari, an on-line, public-access card catalog program, and Surpass Shuttle which provides support for
using portable barcode readers for physical inventory. The full version is available for download on a 10-day free trial and an
additional 60 days trial is available with free registration at http://www.precisionservice.com. Surpass central and Surpass
Safari cost US$875, and Surpass Shuttle is priced at US$300. These prices are for quantity one. There are product discounts
for bulk purchases. Precision Computer Service also provides the hardware needed to use the additional modules.

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This Issue offers a selection of websites
illustrating possibilities for using
information technology to
improve higher education.
The selection includes a
framework for action, a
higher education resource center, a regional tool
development initiative, electronic theses and
dissertations, resources for accreditation, a model of an
on-line course and finally a “game” for those who want to play seriously with new
models of universities.

Selected by Frank Method


Director, Washington UNESCO Office

Framework for Action: The World Conference on Higher Education


http://www.unesco.org/education/educprog/wche/index.html

New visions and challenges for higher education in a world of changing technology and new information and communications
systems was a major focus of The World Conference on Higher Education (October 1998). The site has the principal working
documents as well as the Declaration and Framework for Priority Action. This includes the thematic debates, a synthesis of
the regional conference results and links to other UNESCO sites concerned with higher education, such as the European Center
for Higher Education (CEPES) http://www.cepes.ro/.

Also, see http://www.unesco.org/education/educprog/unitwin/ for the UNITWIN / UNESCO CHAIRS PROGRAMME, an


international plan of action for strengthening higher education through appropriate mechanisms for enhancing inter-university
co-operation. The UNITWIN / UNESCO CHAIRS PROGRAMME is designed to develop university networking and other
linking arrangements among higher education institutions at the inter-regional, regional and sub-regional levels.

Electronic Resource Center


http://infoeagle.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/

The Boston College Center for International Higher Education (CIHE) provides service to colleges and universities
worldwide. The Center provides information and analysis for those involved in managing higher education internationally
through publications, conferences, and the maintenance of a database of individuals and institutions. The Center is especially
concerned with creating dialogue and cooperation among academic institutions in the industrialized and developing countries.

The CIHE site includes links to a wealth of other on-line resources on higher education internationally, including the Journal
on International Higher Education and the work-in-progress on the African Higher Education Project, a comprehensive refer-
ence guide and handbook initiative.

Readers can download Higher Education in the 21st Century: Global Challenge and National Response, co-published with the
Institute of International Education (IIE) and edited by Philip G. Altbach and Patti McGill Peterson.

! 61 ! TechKnowLogia, January/February, 2000 © Knowledge Enterprise, Inc. www.TechKnowLogia.org


Facilitation of Exchange Among Universities
http://ariadne.unil.ch/

The ARIADNE project of the European Union is an example of regional cooperation to address the challenges of tool devel-
opment and standardization. ARIADNE is a research and technology development (RTD) project under the "Telematics for
Education and Training" sector of the 4th Framework Program for R&D of the European Union. The project focuses on the
development of tools and methodologies for producing, managing and reusing computer-based pedagogical elements and
telematics-supported training curricula.

ARIADNE relies on a system of interconnected knowledge pools (the KPS) in institutions and industries across Europe. Pro-
totypes of the tools and basic methodologies for maintaining and exploiting the KPS, in all forms of classical, continuing, open
and distance education or training have been developed and tested in ARIADNE I, stressing the value of share and reuse.
ARIADNE II's scope is large-scale demonstrations to build evidence on usability, exploitability and general usefulness of these
tools and methodologies. The demonstrations cover various situations: Isolated Distance Learners; Resource Centre Learners;
Academic Workplace Learners and Corporate & Public Service Learners.

The tools are expected to assist: Authors creating new pedagogic material; Faculty orTrainers indexing their pedagogic
documents and storing them into the KPS Repository; Pedagogic Engineers creating or modifying courses, using the curricu-
lum editor, alone or in collaboration; Course Managers, administering their course with the ad-hoc functions of the
ARIADNE system; Knowledge Pool Administrators, using the KPS administrative and technical function set; and finally
Learners following KPS-based curricula.

Electronic Theses and Dissertations


http://www.ndltd.org/

The NDLTD (Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations) is an international consortium of research universi-
ties committed to improving graduate education by developing digital libraries of theses and dissertations. The consortium
connects to an international network of specialized libraries for Electronic Theses and Dissertations (ETDs). See
http://www.theses.org/

The NDLTD began with initial meetings at the University of Michigan and led to an initiative by Virginia Tech University
which, with support from the Southeast Universities Research Association (SURA), has grown to include more than 60 coop-
erating institutions in the United States and internationally. As a part of the Monticello Electronic Library project, Virginia
Tech also coordinates development of a distributed digital library system for ETDs from all participating institutions.

The NDLTD uses Adobe's Portable Document Format (PDF) and the Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) for
representation and archiving. Virginia Tech is developing tools for students to submit ETDs both as SGML and PDF docu-
ments. For the SGML version, SGML constructs can refer to non-text objects, and those objects would be stored in widely ac-
cepted standard representations (e.g., JPEG for color images, MPEG for video). SGML documents are more easily archived,
more easily searchable, more reusable (e.g., to copy an entry in a bibliography, or to test a new hypothesis using the data and
model in a spreadsheet), and therefore are more valuable to scholars.

See http://etd.eng.usf.edu/Conference/tmembers.htm for the upcoming Third International Symposium on Electronic Theses
and Dissertations. This site includes much information on other universities and repository libraries working with such new
media.

Accreditation and Maintenance of Quality


http://www.chea.org/

The Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) is a non-profit organization of United States colleges and universities
serving as the national advocate for voluntary self-regulation through accreditation. It includes links

! 62 ! TechKnowLogia, January/February, 2000 © Knowledge Enterprise, Inc. www.TechKnowLogia.org


http://www.chea.org/Directories/index.html to higher education associations, professional organizations and the regional and
specialized accrediting bodies used by U.S. universities for reference and accreditation. Of possible interest to international
educators and to regional, national or professional associations is the set of policies and guidelines adopted by CHEA members
as criteria for recognizing accrediting bodies. http://www.chea.org/About/Recognition.html

As new institutional forms and new types of multi-university collaboration emerge in the international environment, facilitated
by new technical possibilities for communication and exchange, it may soon be necessary to consider new mechanisms and
criteria for maintaining quality and recognition of good practices. Note that CHEA is concerned with the recognition of ac-
crediting bodies, with the actual accreditation of universities and higher education programs being the responsibility of the re-
spective associations.

Deakin University in Australia: An Example of a Fully Developed On-line Degree Program


http://arts.deakin.edu.au/masts/

Deakin University offers a unique, fully online Master of Arts in Science and Technology Studies MA(STS).
Deakin has an international reputation as Australia’s premier off-campus university. This MA degree program, available to
students around the world, is designed to be of interest both to students with backgrounds in the arts and those with science
backgrounds. It states its goals in a refreshingly open manner, offering both to stretch the thinking of the participants and to
help them get through the “technofear” of attempting such learning in a new environment. “Any successful course of study
ought to change the way one sees and experiences the world. If you undertake our MA course, you should hope for nothing
less than that.”

The program is described as “Investigating the major issues of science and technology demands in reference to many academic
disciplines, especially history, philosophy and sociology of science. This program offers students an opportunity to conduct
such investigation, within a professional training structure of directed reading and disciplined writing. Using the very latest
innovations in Web interactivity and presentation, the MA(STS) gives students a complete ‘structured learning environment’,
allowing streamlined library and web research, and online communication between students, staff and administrators.”

Application of Information Technology to the Management of Higher Education


http://cybercampus.rockefeller.edu/

The CyberCampus website invites the reader to role-play the “game” of running a university, just as simulators
already work for learning flight, programming oil refineries, and envisioning battlefields. The developers hope that the Cyber-
Campus project will help educators better manage the university. "In the spirit of Maxis Software's SimCity, CyberCampus
will be a 'Sim U'--a virtual alma mater of Malthusian forces, invisible hands, and stakeholders. The player is the president, and
the objective is to survive. You can spend for teaching, research, diversity in students and faculty, leaky roofs, division 1-A
sports programs, or larger development offices and fancier reunions. "

A simulation engine that models five broad areas drives the game: resource allocation and finance; academic operations; en-
rollment management; physical plant activities; and performance indicators. William Massy developed the designs covering
these areas and the University of Pennsylvania's Institute for Research in Higher Education extracted the needed data from sec-
ondary sources and converted them to forms useful for analysis. Sources include IPEDS, the College Board, and the High
School and Beyond survey. The website provides the technical documents and data sets for the model.

Note: Beta-testing was underway during 1999 and the product is expected to be available soon. Readers may in any case want
to explore the technical documents and impressive database created for the model. The developers continue to seek collabora-
tors and feedback on the prototype.

! 63 ! TechKnowLogia, January/February, 2000 © Knowledge Enterprise, Inc. www.TechKnowLogia.org


BIOMETRICS W K E NOW WHO YOU ARE!

Is there anyone that hasn't had to, at one point or another,


come up with a username and password to log onto a
website, or create a PIN number to pull money from a cash
machine, or perhaps scan your employee card to get into the
place of employment? And is there anyone that hasn't, at
some point or another, forgotten that password, PIN number,
or employee card and couldn't access that website, cash
machine, or place of employment? Yes, we've all been there, ©PC Magazine
and yes, it sure is inconvenient to forget. Biometrics is a
technology has been developed to help eliminate these A relatively new biometric technique is face recognition,
unwelcome instances, among other things. which uses a camera attached to a PC to record facial
features. Some systems also have features to guard against
What is Biometrics? the use of photographs.

Biometrics, as defined by the Association for Biometrics, is


the act of verifying an individual's identity by measuring a
unique characteristic of that individual and comparing the
result with a previous measurement of the characteristic. It is
a security technology and can be implemented in a myriad of
ways. Today, there are three distinct biometric security
schemes: fingerprint identification, face recognition, and
voice recognition.

How Biometrics Work


In all instances, Biometrics works relatively the same way. Lastly, voice recognition is achieved by using a phone or
First, there is the process of enrollment whereby each new microphone to record a voiceprint based on speech
user of the biometric system must first enroll into the system. inflection.
This requires that the system measures that characteristic
being used, such as face, fingerprint, or voice. In all cases,
the actual characteristic measured is not what is stored in the
system, rather a collection of data points extracted from the
measurement, that are compiled to create a "template" which
identifies that characteristic. This is the second process.
The importance of the template is that it simply contains
information about the measured characteristic that will help
in the matching process. This means that the template is
much smaller in size than the original (thus taking up less
storage space), and does not allow for the original to be
recreated. Why Use Biometrics?
Biometrics is used to aid in giving or denying users access to
Today, the most popular biometric scheme is fingerprint computer resources. It also ensures that the individual
recognition. Fingerprint readers create the fingerprint attempting to log on is indeed the authorized user, and not
template by shining light through a prim that reflects off a someone who has borrowed a password or ID. Biometrics
finger and back to an onboard computer that processes the will be invaluable as computers are used in the provision of
data. Then the data points are matched against the template educational services (by subscription) or for student
database. assessment. Biometrics is also convenient. No more
More information on Biometrics at: forgotten passwords, PIN numbers and ID cards.
http://www.zdnet.com/pcmag/features/biometrics/index.html
and http://www.afb.org.uk/

! 64 ! TechKnowLogia, January/February, 2000 © Knowledge Enterprise, Inc. www.TechKnowLogia.org


The Wearable PC:
Mobile Computing Like Never Before

When the first computer was introduced, it seemed rather map that can be zoomed, reduced and scrolled, and play back
normal to us that it would fill up an entire room, and a sound file with its sound viewer. And let's not forget the
sometimes more. Since then,computers have rapidly shrunk feature all computers must have - games!
in size as technology progresses. In fact, what used to sit on
home computers can now be carried on laptops, hand held What are its features?
computers, or even cell phones. The term mobile computing
takes on a new meaning every day. Seiko seems to believe The Ruputer comes in two colors: black and clear. It's a
that although laptop computers and compact mobile water-resistant shell that houses a 16-bit CPU that runs on
terminals have become smaller and lighter, they are still Windows. The latest model, the Rupter Pro4 has 4MB of
inconvenient in terms of mobility and immediacy. Since flash memory. It runs on two coin-type batteries that have a
they still have to be carried around in a briefcase or pocket, 4-month life assuming a display of one hour per day. The
they are not very accessible, and tend to be left behind. And display is 102 x 64 dot matrix LCD on which you can view
to solve that problem, Seiko came out with the world's first 40 full-size characters or 80 half-size characters. Seiko has
wearable PC - the Ruputer. Seiko terms the Ruputers, also included a serial port and an infrared port that can be
"wrist-type mobile information terminals that provide used to transfer data back and forth between the Ruputer and
superior mobility and outstanding performance." a PC. All of this weighs approximately 67 grams.
(www.ruputer.com) In other words, the Ruputer is a wrist
PC. How do you get one?

What can it do? Until the middle of November 1999, Ruputer was only
available in Japan using the Japanese version of Windows.
Seiko first introduced the Ruputer in early 1998, and has GlobalCom USA, Inc. unveiled its English version in
brought out two upgrades since. So what can this little wrist November under the brand name of Matsucom onHand. The
PC do? Well, everything. Aside from being a basic time onHand PC is upgraded from the Japanese Ruputer. The
piece that shows local as well as international time, the interface seems to be improved, processor speed is about two
Ruputer comes with a bevy of pre-installed applications times faster than Ruputer, communication speed between
including: file management, PIM (personal information onHand and a PC is faster, the applications have all been
management) tools, clock function, accessories, viewers, and upgraded, an Expense Memo application has been added, and
games. Its PIM tools alone rival any Palm Pilot and are CompanionLink (the software that allows onHand to talk to
compatible with most PIM applications available on the your PC) has been bundled. OnHand also comes with a
market today. They include a scheduler, address book, "To serial port docking station and built-in power management so
Do” list, memo book, general book used to store information you can save on battery power. Best of all, the onHand costs
such as PIN numbers, and a family memo book used to store only about $250. You can purchase it online at
names and birthdays of family members. Its accessories www.onhandpc.com.
include a calculator, timer, and chronograph that measures
time in 1/100-second units. You can manage files with its More information about Ruputer and onHand PC at:
filer, display text files up to 80 characters at a time, display a www.ruputer.com/english/ and www.onhandpc.com

! 65 ! TechKnowLogia, January/February, 2000 © Knowledge Enterprise, Inc. www.TechKnowLogia.org


Recognition
When People Talk, Computers Listen
Prepared by Sandra Semaan

It is relatively socially acceptable for a person to talk aloud types of dictionaries: active and back up. The active
to oneself, but it becomes a serious issue when that person dictionary stores frequently used words and related
answers oneself back. Thankfully, speech recognition can information in your computer's memory (RAM) for
help avert that. Now adays, it is possible to sit ALONE in immediate use. The back up dictionary stores the less
your office in front of your computer, talk to yourself, and frequently used words and phrases.
there's actually someone listening - or should I say
SOMETHING! And at times it can also talk back. Any speech recognition software requires training. As the
user trains the software by speaking to it, it creates a user-
Yes, your computer listens and can do as you say. It's called specific voice file that contains the user's voice qualities and
speech recognition. This is "the ability for a machine or pronunciations, patters of word usage, and any preferred
software program to recognize and carry out voice vocabulary. Some software on the market today allow for
commands or take dictation. Speech recognition involves the multiple users therefore creating voice files for each
ability to match a voice pattern against a provided or individual user. Correcting the software is also part of
acquired vocabulary." (www.whatis.com/speechre.htm) training it for better accuracy.

[The above feature is also referred to by the term "voice To use speech recognition software, you need a computer,
recognition", though erroneously. Voice recognition is one microphone, and sound card. The older, discrete speech
of the characteristics used in Biometrics to measure and technology can operate on older machines usually requiring
verify an individual's identity. (See Biometrics article, this not more than a Pentium machine with 32 MB of RAM and a
issue.)] 16-bit sound card. The newer continuous speech technology
requires at least a Pentium III machine with 128 MB of RAM
Breaking the Sound Barrier and a 32-bit sound card.
There are two kinds of speech recognition software: discrete
speech and continuous speech. Discrete speech is the older Question Before You Purchase
technology and requires the speaker to speak one word at a When you are looking to purchase speech recognition
time. Continuous speech, also known as natural speech, software, there are several things you should consider.
allows the speaker to speak at a more normal pace. When
you speak into a microphone, your voice is sent to the What do you want to do with it? Right now, the possibilities
computer as an analog signal. The software converts your are somewhat limited. You can do dictation, or application
voice to a digital signal, correcting for volume, pitch, control - meaning you can control any of your applications
speaking speed, etc. The software then uses acoustics and through speech rather than via the keyboard, or mouse pad.
word context information to guess what you are trying to say. Some software also includes Web surfing capabilities.
The computer then types what it thinks you said on the
screen. If you correct a misrecognized word, the software Based on usage, you also want to know the ages for which
will modify the acoustical and language models for better voice files were developed and if the software uses
accuracy the next time. Voice recognition software uses two synthesized speech read back of written work called text-to-

! 66 ! TechKnowLogia, January/February, 2000 © Knowledge Enterprise, Inc. www.TechKnowLogia.org


speech. You want to consider how easy it is to use: do you eliminate the piles and piles of paper reports. Insurance
want continuous speech or discrete speech? companies are using speech-enabled camera applications that
allow adjusters in the field to annotate photographs. Other
How accurate is the software? When you train it, does the hot applications include the use of speech recognition for
rate of accuracy increase? What methods does it use to translation, workforce automation, voice-dialers, personal
correct errors? Evaluation reports on the various speech assistants, auto-attendants, and the possibilities are endless.
recognition software on the market include accuracy ratings. In the future, sales people can potentially use their cell
Also, what is the length of training required? phones to check email and other important job functions.
What about using your telephone as a Web browser?
What are the command capabilities of the software? And
what is the degree of hands-free use allowed? This relates to There are even significant applications in the field of
the application control mentioned above and how important education. The most evident of those is the use of this
it is that you do more than dictation with your software. technology for the disabled - both physically and visually.
The benefits of speech recognition in those areas are clear.
Other features to consider include its usability with other Additionally, however, speech recognition is currently being
applications. Some software have the ability to dictate in used to aid those with learning disabilities as well, including
Microsoft Word and other word processing programs as well, those with spelling, writing, language (including
though they lose some functionality such as special pronunciation), and reading problems. There are
correction modes. Make sure your speech recognition documented cases where speech recognition has been
product is compatible with the particular software in which instrumental in improving the skills of learning disabled
you're interested. children. (See http://www.edc.org/spk2wrt/speechrec.txt)
While these are the most evident uses of this technology,
Does it allow for multiple users? Some software allow several companies are in the process of creating subject
multiple users. Some software also support diction for specific software, such as Metroplex Voice Technologies,
multiple topics, thus providing dictionaries or vocabularies with their MathTalk product, a math calculation program that
relevant to particular topics, i.e. medical vs. legal uses macros and the Dragon Dictate engine.
vocabularies.
How Much and Where
Does the software allow for the use of macros? Macros are Can anybody take advantage of these benefits? In the late
shortcuts used for frequently used phrases. For example, 1980s when the technology first appeared, the cost would
when dictating emails, you can create a shortcut that have prohibited the average user from experiencing this
represents your personal signature that includes your name, technology. The basic software cost as much as US $9,000
title, phone, fax, and email address. You would name it "My then, not including the cost of the hardware. Today, most
signature", and the software would automatically insert your basic speech recognition software on the market range in
complete signature information. price between US $100 to US $200. Some software that
includes extra features can run up to as much as US $700.
Benefits and Uses
You might wonder what on earth could speech recognition The vendors with the best known speech recognition
be used for. From a practical perspective, speech recognition software are: Kurzweil with VoicePad, Microsoft with
offers several benefits. In the business environment, speech Whisper, IBM with SimplySpeaking and ViaVoice, Dragon
recognition protects users against repetitive stress injuries, with Dictate and NaturallySpeaking, Philips with
such as carpal tunnel syndrome, which develops from FreeSpeech, and L&H with Voice Xpress. Most of these
overuse of the keyboard and mouse. Speech recognition come in a variety of versions - low end, medium, and high
simplifies computing for novice users. It frees hands and end.
eyes for other tasks and improves data entry speed and *******
accuracy. Though word processors have gone a long way Whatever the use, speech recognition, though not entirely a
towards this, speech recognition eliminates spelling errors. mainstream technology today, seems to be creating a
permanent and highly significant place for itself in this new
Today, some cellular phones use speech recognition to millennium. Perhaps the future may deem us "speech"less
eliminate the keypad dialing function. The medical field is about the possibilities….
using this technology for medical transcription of reports,
progress notes, referral letters, prescriptions, and records. *Sources: www.infoworld.com , http://www.iglou.com/vrsky/spfacts.htm,
Financial institutions are using speech recognition for data http://www.scottrell.com/speech/shopping.html,
http://www.whatis.com/speechre.htm, http://www.edc.org/spk2wrt/,
entry to expedite processing of loans and bearer bonds.
PC Magazine, December 1, 1999, p. 167.
Legal institutions use speech recognition for data entry to

! 67 ! TechKnowLogia, January/February, 2000 © Knowledge Enterprise, Inc. www.TechKnowLogia.org


CODECS Brings the Open University to Romania
Adrian Catalin Ionescu
Chairman/CEO, CODECS

The Center for Open Distance Education for CODECS has trained more than 5,000
Civil Society - CODECS has brought to “Knowledge is power” managers, each of whom graduated from
Romania the most flexible and accessible – Francis Bacon two management courses on average, that
management education, by using The Open means more than 10,000 registrations.
University (OU) distance learning system. The story is quite (Exhibit 1)
a long one and it is still going on. But let’s go back in the
1990s to see how it was all started.

In the early 1990s, 25 Romanians enrolled in The Effective Exhibit 1: Student Enrolments
Manager, with one of the Open University Business School’s
founders Professor Brian Lund as their tutor. Many of the Year Number of Students
original 25 students did not quite know that they were about
1993 81
to discover a new way of learning. The teaching was done by
specially written text, BBC videos and tapes, supported by 1994 510
tutors who did not lecture like the professors they had at the 1995 1405
University but who helped them understand the text by
1996 2188
involving them in activities that increased their
understanding. They also realized they were learning from 1997 2555
one another. 1998 3777
1999 1640
It was the time of new business in Romania and those
students in that first group understood and made that
possible. In that way a group of enthusiastic people, eager to
cope with new challenges, set up CODECS. It was neither Romanian managers have learnt a great deal and are
trade nor production, but a business school for busy people. developing themselves quite rapidly in the six years that the
program has been running. However, we believe that the
CODECS and the Open University recognized the huge need unique distance learning network introduced by CODECS
for Romanian managers to acquire skills and qualifications and the Open University is not just a drop of water in a
that would make them equal with their foreign counterparts. desert. Many of the managers, trained by CODECS through
At the same time CODECS sensed that Romanian business the 12 regional centers, are now outstanding practitioners
people could not afford the time to go back to the university. who have become tutors in the system in order to share their
Therefore, it made the university go to managers. CODECS experience with thousands of new students.
set up the only education learning network in Romania (12
regional centers throughout the country) and successfully The best thing about the program is that students do not leave
transferred the British know-how to Romania. their job while they acquire very specific management skills,
plus they get recognition for each step. First, they get the
Today, six years after we have registered the first Romanian Professional Certificate in Management, and then they can
students at an Open University Management course, we can go up to the Professional Diploma in Management and at the
see the substantial impact among managers of all levels. end of the road the Master of Business Administration degree
They had gained the techniques and management tools that awaits them.
allowed them to start to become effective and efficient in
their work. Besides, they could understand what was The interactive course materials include specially written
happening in their organization and could talk the same texts, BBC-produced audio and video, course software and
language as their European or American partners. They computer conferencing. Tutors run local seminars and
benefited from the British know how and experience and provide detailed feedback, as well as grades for written
were getting at the end of each stage OU degrees, assignments. The unique on-line conferencing system
internationally recognized. enables all MBA students to “meet” their tutors, their course
team and each other via their keyboards. Students find that
networking and learning with others provides exceptional

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support and a huge resource of like-minded managers to
collaborate with, as well as a way to customize their During this process a wonderful thing has happened:
individual learning. CODECS has grown at the same time with its students. Their
problems were our problems. Thus CODECS has started to
The unique system set up by CODECS has attracted an offer its clients solutions to their problems and to meet the
average of 43 percent of managers (Exhibit 2) mostly from training and development needs of each organization. We
private companies and has led corporations to invest more in have offered them more than training and we can say that
their personnel’s management skills: 75 percent of students today CODECS is a management school fully involved in all
are sponsored by their companies to get the Certificate or the levels of personal and corporate development – education,
Diploma. (Exhibit 3) training and consulting services. Fuelled by experience in
management training, CODECS has set up its own
In 1999, we launched the first full International MBA publishing house, specializing in business literature.
program in Romania. Since the spring of 1999,
approximately 50 Romanian students have enrolled in the CODECS’ success is a clear proof that Romanians have
Open University's MBA program alongside thousands of understood what a former IBM president once said: “If you
students from the UK, Europe, and other countries around think education is expensive, think of the costs of
the world. ignorance”.

Exhibit 2: Student's Distribution by Position

Year Top Manager Middle and Line Manager Other


1993 15 5 7
1994 213 99 119
1995 843 112 413
1996 1055 106 949
1997 1249 184 1077
1998 2070 178 1450
1999 820 310 470

Exhibit 3: Student's Distribution by Type of Sponsorship

Year Employer Sponsored Individually Sponsored


1993 19 62
1994 331 179
1995 1096 309
1996 1661 527
1997 1947 608
1998 2812 965

! 69 ! TechKnowLogia, January/February, 2000 © Knowledge Enterprise, Inc. www.TechKnowLogia.org


Half a Millennium:
Landmarks of Higher Education in the Americas
It is generally considered that the University as an independent institution dedicated to non-religious education and research
began in 1088 in Bologna, Italy1. Since their beginnings, Universities have been at the forefront of scientific and technologi-
cal knowledge. They have also been a stage for society’s struggle between change and status quo, progress and tradition.
This "profile" highlights two moments in the history of Universities on the American continent. The first vignette describes the
commencement ceremony for a new doctor at the University of San Marcos in Lima, Peru, during the 1600's. During that
period, knowledge was deemed a monopoly of the Universities and generally bestowed upon members of the social and eco-
nomic elites, as reflected in the pomp that surrounds the ceremony. The second vignette portrays the Chautauqua society in
the late 1800's and early 1900's in the United States, a pioneer movement intent upon the democratization of higher education.
The third vignette describes the use of information and communication technology in Mexico to expand access to higher edu-
cation beyond the campus walls.

Pomp and Circumstance in Colonial America2 - During the posing and the display at the granting of whatever degrees
Colonial period in the Americas, Lima, the Capital of the are given is also imposing. (For the granting of degrees)
Viceroyalty of Peru, was one of the richest cities in the New they invite the city's nobility as an escort, and meet at the
World, controlling the silver trade from the Andean region to house of the Doctor-to-be in a blare of trumpets, flageolets,
Spain. One of the initial presents of the Spanish Crown to and bugles, with a banner which hangs from a window of the
the Viceroyalty was the University of San Marcos, founded house over a canopy on crimson velvet cushions and has the
in May 12, 1551. Antonio Espinoza, who visited the region arms of the University and of the graduating Doctor. These
in the early 1600, left us a description of the ceremony sur- arms are likewise set up in the theater erected in the Cathe-
rounding the commencement of a new doctor into the Uni- dral under the royal arms; they remind and notify the invited
versity’s rolls: guests and doctors, who form an escort the evening before.
The nobility follow the banner, then the Beadles with their
silver maces, then the Masters and Doctors with their insig-
nia, in order of age, closing with the Dean of the faculty and
the graduating Doctor. In this order they repair to the Rec-
tor's house, where the members of the Circuit Court await
them. With the Rector in their center, they continue in the
procession, in order of age. And in this same order the fol-
lowing day they parade till they arrive at the Cathedral,
where the theater and the stage have been decorated and pro-
vided with seats. Mass is said for them, and at its close after
leaving the Cathedral, the newest Doctor of the faculty deliv-
ers his burlesque invective, and the Chancellor gives him his
degree, just as is done at Salamanca."

Trains, Cars and a New Access to Education 3 - From the


very beginning, the North American colonies were charac-
terized by a rebellious spirit and a desire for democratic par-
©University of San Marcos ticipation. The Chautauqua Society reflected these charac-
teristics. The Society was a private enterprise founded by a
clergyman and a businessman as a summer school to prepare
Sunday school teachers. The first of these schools met on
“The University’s faculty is important, for it comprises more the shore of Lake Chautauqua, New York, in 1874, and
than 80 Doctors and Masters. The members of the Circuit mixed instruction on academic subjects with religious topics
Court join them, for at the end of the year the fees amount to and recreation. The public interest was so intense that four
many ducats. The lecture halls in the schools are excellent, years later, Chautauqua evolved into a correspondence
and the chapel very fine, but the most remarkable feature is school, the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle
the amphitheater, where they hold the public functions and (CLSC). The school was initially composed of a four-year
commencements. The amphitheater is very large and im- reading course in the humanities, sciences, theology, and

! 70 ! TechKnowLogia, November/December, 1999 © Knowledge Enterprise, Inc. www.TechKnowLogia.org


social studies. After passing final exams, students received a education is almost fifty years old. It started in 1948 with a
college degree that was accepted as a basis for entry into government experiment to provide training for public school
graduate courses in many traditional universities. Besides teachers without disrupting their regular work schedule.
the printed materials that the students used at home, they Currently, every institution of higher education and a grow-
were required to attend the summer meetings, where they ing number of schools, from Kindergarten to 12th grade, are
were lectured by some of the most important scholars of the equipped with Internet services. The government provides
day. the infrastructure and support via the Educational Data Proc-
essing Network and the Educational Satellite Television
Network. The Data Processing Network is a computerized
system based on the Internet that provides support and in-
formation to teachers and students across the nation. The
Network is connected to over 1,000 elementary and secon-
dary schools. The Satellite Network is a closed-circuit sys-
tem with six television and 24 audio channels that broadcast
all over Mexico, southern United States, Central America,
and parts of South America. The system reaches over 10,000
primary, secondary and tertiary educational institutions with
a total of 20,000 receivers. Its programs range from parent-
ing skills to complex scientific courses. In addition, the Na-
tional Educational Video Library provides easily accessible
information to educational institutions across the Nation.

More than 20 Mexican institutions offer distance education at


©University Libraries. University of Iowa the tertiary level, eight of them operating on a national or
regional basis. The two most famous are the Universidad
As the correspondence school began to attract students Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) and the Virtual
throughout the country, travel to the summer meetings in University of the Technological Institute of Monterrey (See
New York became difficult. Many cities decided to develop article in this Issue). Adding to that Teleprimaria, Telesecun-
their own summer assemblies, such as the Clear Lake Camp daria (See article in TechKnowLogia, September/October
Meeting and Assembly Chautauqua, in Iowa. Entrepreneurs 1999) and other initiatives to bring open and distance educa-
also developed a system of mobile Chautauquas, or a tion to populations of all ages across Mexico, the country is
Chautauqua Circuit. These were train or car caravans that at the forefront of the use of information and communication
visited smaller towns during the summer and offered a mix technology in education.
of classes, plays, operas and recitals, together with athletic
events and entertainment. Similar to a circus, the
Chautauqua Circuit paraded through town to its grounds, 1.A brief history of the Università di Bologna can be found at the
where a large tent was erected. Families would come from University’s Web Page, www.unibo.it/avl/storia
far away and camp at the site to attend the events. From the
presentation of “Il Trovatore” to lessons in science, the trav- 2.Adapted from Espinosa, Antonio Vasquez de. Compendio y De-
eling tour had something of interest for everybody, young scripcion de las Indias Occidentales, circa 1620. Translation by
Charles Upson Clark, 1948, pp. 445-46. Washington, DC: Smith-
and old, men and women alike. Children had their own spe- sonian Miscellaneous Collection #108.
cial program called "junior Chautauqua." The meetings of-
fered the presence of famous opera stars, talented artists and 3.Ingalls, C. (Albany Democrat-Herald), Chautauqua at
renowned scholars, some trying to make extra money during http://www.gtconnect.com/celebrate2000/Focus/leisure-culture-
the summer, others coming for pure idealism. Warren G. 01.html; McCown, R., Records of Redpath Chautauqua at http://
Harding, who would become president of the United States, www.lib.uiowa.edu/spec-coll/Bai/inventory/article.html.
was a popular Chautauqua speaker. In 1920 and 1921,
Chautauqua companies operated 93 circuits in the United 4.Ortiz, V.G. (1999). Open and Distance Education Programmes
States and Canada. The decline of Chautauqua is attributed in Latin America, Chapter 5. In Farrell, G.M. (Editor). The Devel-
opment of Virtual Education: A Global Perspective. The report can
to a mix of dwindling quality, the introduction of the radio be found at The Commonwealth of Learning home page:
and the change of culture of American towns. Its deathblow http://www.col.org. More information on the University of West
came with the Great Depression of 1929. Indies can be found at http://www.uwichill.edu.bb/bnccde

Removing Barriers with Information and Communication


Technologies4 - Mexico’s tradition with distance and open

! 71 ! TechKnowLogia, November/December, 1999 © Knowledge Enterprise, Inc. www.TechKnowLogia.org

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