Carbohydrates

-an organic compound which consists of many carbon atoms attached to hydroxyl
groups.
-Simple organic compounds that are aldehydes or ketones with many hydroxyl groups
added, usually one on each carbon atom that is not part of the aldehyde or ketone
functional group
-a fancy word for sugar (a monosaccharide)
-gen. formula of CnH2nOn, where n is any number greater than 2
-can be viewed as hydrates of carbon. However, the arrangement of atoms in
carbohydrates has little to do with water molecules.
-includes monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides
-MOST abundant of the biomolecules which also include proteins , fats and nucleic
acids

Sugars
-white crystalline carbohydrates that are soluble in water and generally have a sweet
taste.

Monosaccharides
-are simple sugars

Monosaccharide classifications based on the number of carbons

Number
Category
of Examples
Name
Carbons

4 Tetrose Erythrose, Threose

5 Pentose Arabinose, Ribose, Ribulose, Xylose, Xylulose, Lyxose

Allose, Altrose, Fructose, Galactose, Glucose, Gulose, Idose,

6 Hexose
Mannose, Sorbose, Talose, Tagatose

7 Heptose Sedoheptulose

Many saccharide structures differ only in the orientation of the hydroxyl groups (-
OH). This slight structural difference makes a big difference in the biochemical
properties, organoleptic properties (e.g., taste), and in the physical properties such
as melting point and Specific Rotation (how polarized light is distorted). A chain-form
monosaccharide that has a carbonyl group (C=O) on an end carbon forming an
aldehyde group (-CHO) is classified as an aldose. When the carbonyl group is on an
inner atom forming a ketone, it is classified as a ketose.

Disaccharides

Three common disaccharides:

• sucrose — common table sugar = glucose + fructose

• lactose — major sugar in milk = glucose + galactose
• maltose — product of starch digestion = glucose + glucose

Although the process of linking the two monomers is rather complex, the end result
in each case is the loss of a hydrogen atom (H) from one of the monosaccharides and
a hydroxyl group (OH) from the other. The resulting linkage between the sugars is
called a glycosidic bond. The molecular formula of each of these disaccharides is

C12H22O11 = 2 C6H12O6 − H2O

All sugars are very soluble in water because of their many hydroxyl groups. Although
not as concentrated a fuel as fats, sugars are the most important source of energy
for many cells.

Carbohydrates provide the bulk of the calories (4 kcal/gram) in most diets, and
starches provide the bulk of that. Starches are polysaccharides.

Polysaccharides

Physical Properties

Stereoisomerism :
-Same structural formulabut differ in spatial configuration
-With respect to the Penultimate Carbon atomglucose has 2 stereoisomers D-glucose and L-
glucose
L-Glucose D-Glucose

Optical Activity :Rotation of Plane polarized light and(+)glucose or (±)glucose respectively

-Diastereo Isomers :Configural changes with regard to the C2 ,C3 or C4 in glucose. Eg :

Mannose ,Galactose

Chemical Properties

-Ozazone formation with phenlyhydrazine

-Benedicts test
-Oxidation
-Reduction to Alcohols

Importance of Carbohydrates
1. Provide major source of energy (4.1C)
2. Protein sparing action.
3. Breakdown of fatty acids and preventing ketosis
4. Biological recognition processes of immunoglobulins
and self MHCs.
5. Flavor and Sweeteners.
6. Dietary fiber (Cellulose).
7. Derivatives of cellulose such as cellulose nitrates are
used in explosives, lacquers, celluloid and collodion.
Cellulose acetate is used in photographic film and
packing materials.
8. Regulation of various metabolic processes in the body
as key molecules in the central metabolic pathways of
the body.
9. Serve also as stored forms of energy as glycogen in
liver and muscles.
10.Protection of bacterial cells as bacterial cell wall
polysaccharides, made up of muerin (N-acetyl
muramic acid (NAMA), N-acetyl glucosamine, and
several other amino acids linked by peptide linkage).
11.Stabilization of protein structures as in the case of
glycoproteins.
12.Important components of brain cells as neuraminic
acids, cerebrosides (Glycolipids) and gangliosides.
13.Carbohydrates form the chief components of
sulfolipids which are present in chloroplasts and in
chromatophores of photosynthetic bacteria.
14.Important component of nucleic acids as pentose
sugars ribose and deoxyribose.
15.Function as physiological anticoagulant (Heparin).
16.Storage form of food in plants as starch.
17.Hyaluronic acid is an important component of the
vitreous body of the eye, the umbilical cord and as a
lubricant in synovial fluid of the joints.
18.Trehalose (Disaccharide) is the chief component of
the hemolymph of insects, where it serves as the chief
source of energy.It is also present in yeasts and other
fungi.