Limits and Continuity

Numerical Exploration of Limits

We will not study all possible functions of 2 variables, but will instead limit
our attention to those functions of 2 variables which can be studied with the
familiar concepts from calculus. To do so, however, requires that we develop a
notion of limit for functions of 2 variables.
Intuitively, when we write

lim f (x; y) = L (1)

(x;y)!(p;q)

then we mean that if (x; y)approaches (p; q), then f (x; y)approaches L: To il-
lustrate this idea, let us de…ne the Cartesian product [a; b] [c; d] to be the
rectangle in the xy-plane with one side corresponding to [a; b] on the x-axis and
the other corresponding to [c; d] on the y-axis.

The interior of the rectangle [a; b] [c; d] is then de…ned to be the open rectangle
(a; b) (c; d) ; which in set notation is de…ned

(a; b) (c; d) = f(x; y) j a < x < b and c < y < dg

We then interpret (??) to mean that given any " > 0; there is an open
rectangle (a; b) (c; d) containing the point (p; q) such that if (x; y) is in (a; b)

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(c; d) and (x; y) 6= (p; q) ; then f (x; y) is within " of L:

That is, f (x; y) is between L " and L + ", or equivalently, jf (x) Lj < ":

De…nition 2.1: We de…ne the limit

lim f (x; y) = L (2)

(x;y)!(p;q)

to mean that for all " > 0; there is an open rectangle (a; b) (c; d)
containing (p; q)such that if (x; y) is in (a; b) (c; d) and if (x; y) 6=
(p; q) ; then
jf (x; y) Lj < "

De…nition 2.1 implies that limits of 2 variables can be estimated by constructing

a table in which the x’s are approaching p; the y’s are approaching q; and the
interior entries represent f (x; y) evaluated at the implied points.

EXAMPLE 1 Use a table to estimate the limit

x2 y 2 9x2 4y 2 + 36
lim
(x;y)!(2;3) xy 3x 2y + 6

Solution: To do so, we de…ne

x2 y 2 9x2 4y 2 + 36
f (x; y) =
xy 3x 2y + 6

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 and then use f (x; y)to complete the table

xny 2.9 2.99 2.999 3.001 3.01 3.1

1.9 f (1:9; 2:9) f (1:9; 2:99) ::: f (1:9; 3:1)
1.99 f (1:99; 2:9) f (1:99; 2:99) ::: f (1:99; 3:1)
.. .. ..
1.999 . . .
???
2.001
.. ..
2.01 . .
2.1 f (2:1; 2:9) f (2:1; 2:99) ::: ::: f (2:1; 3:1)

That is, we evaluate f (x; y)at all possible pairs to obtain

xny 2.9 2.99 2.999 3.001 3.01 3.1

1.9 23:01 23:361 5:999 23: 404 23:439 23:79
1.99 23:541 23:9 23:936 23: 944 23:98 24: 339
1.999 23:594 23:954 23:99 24:0 24:034 24:394
???
2.001 23:606 23:966 24:0 24: 01 24:046 24:406
2.01 23:659 24:02 24:056 24:064 24:1 24:461
2.1 24:19 24:559 24:596 24:604 24: 641 25:01

The values in the vicinity of ??? appear to be approaching 24, so

that we estimate that
x2 y 2 9x2 4y 2 + 36
lim = 24
(x;y)!(2;3) xy 3x 2y + 6

Check your Reading: What might numerical exploration imply is the value
of the following limit:
lim (x + y)
(x;y)!(1;4)

Limits along di¤erent paths

For a limit in one variable to exist, the limits from both sides must yield the
same value. The analogous result for 2 variable limits is that the limit

lim f (x; y) (3)

(x;y)!(p;q)

exists only if the limits along every curve through (p; q) are the same.

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 Theorem 2.2: The limit (3) exists and is equal to a number L if
and only if for every smooth curve r (t) = hx (t) ; y (t)i ; t in ( 1; 1),
for which r (0) = (p; q) ; we have
lim f ( x (t) ; y (t) ) = L
t!0

Conversely, if we obtain di¤erent values along di¤erent paths through (p; q) ;

then the limit (3) does not exist.

EXAMPLE 2 Use a table to consider the limit

xy
lim (4)
(x;y)!(0;0) x2 + y 2

Solution: If we let
xy
f (x; y) =
+ y2 x2
then a table of outputs for input points near (0; 0) is of the form
xny -0.1 -0.01 -0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1
-0.1 0:5 0:099 0:010 0:010 0:099 0:5
-0.01 0:099 0:5 0:099 0:099 0:5 -0:099
-0.001 0:010 0:0 99 0:5 0:5 0:099 0:010
???
0.001 -0:010 -0:099 0:5 0:5 0:099 0:010
0.01 -0:099 0:5 -0:099 0:099 0:5 0:099
0.1 0:5 -0:099 -0:010 0:010 0:099 0:5
Notice that along the main diagonal, the limit appears to be 0.5,
while along the o¤ diagonal, the limit appears to be -0.5. Moreover,
moving horizontally or vertically seems to indicate a limit of 0.

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To better illustrate the fact that the limit (4) does not exist, let us consider it
along di¤erent paths.

EXAMPLE 3 Evaluate (4) along the lines y = 0 and y = x:

Solution: Along the line y = 0; points are of the form (x; 0) : Thus,
we obtain
xy x 0
lim 2 2
= lim =0
(x;y)!(0;0) x + y y=0 (x;0)!(0;0) x + 02
2

However, along the line y = x; points are of the form (x; x) : Thus,
we obtain
xy x x x2 1
lim = lim = lim =
(x;y)!(0;0) x2 + y 2 y=x (x;x)!(0;0) x2 + x2 (x;x)!(0;0) 2x2 2
Di¤erent limits are obtained along di¤erent paths, so that we con-
clude that
xy
lim does not exist
(x;y)!(0;0) x + y 2
2

In fact, the surface represented by the function

xy
f (x; y) = 2
x + y2
is “folded” with the creases of the fold running through the origin, as can be
seen in the graph below:

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Check your Reading: What is the limit along y = x for the function in
examples 2 and 3?

De…nitions and Theorems

If we use the notation x = hx; yi and p = hp; qi, then

lim f (x; y) = L is the same as lim f (x) = L

(x;y)!(p;q) x!p

Moreover, the use of vectors shows the similarity of the de…nition of the limit
in two variables to the de…nition of the limit in one variable. It also allows us
to state de…nitions and theorems in their most general form:
To begin with, let us de…ne any connected open set that contains a point p
to be a neighborhood of p: For example, an open ball of radius > 0 about p;
which is the set of all x such that jjx pjj < ; is a neighborhood of p. Any
open rectangle containing p is also a neighborhood of p:

The neighborhood concept allows us to state a general de…nition of the limit.

De…nition 2.2: The limit

lim f (x) = L
x!p

means that for all " > 0; there is an open neighborhood O of p such
that if x is in O and if x 6= p; then

jf (x) Lj < "

De…nition 2.2 can be restarted in terms of open balls as follows:

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 De…nition 2.3 (Open Balls as Neighborhoods): The limit
lim f (x) = L
x!p

means that for all " > 0; there is a > 0 such that
if 0 < jjx pjj < ; then jf (x) Lj < "

The similarity of de…nition 2.3 to the single-variable de…nition of the limit is

due to the use of vector notation. The vector notation allows a straightforward
generalization of other concepts in calculus as well.

De…nition 2.3: A function f (x) is continuous at a point p if f (p)

is de…ned and
lim f (x) = f (p)
x!p

The following theorem is similarly a direct consequence of de…nition 2.3.

Theorem 2.4: If f and g are continuous at a point (p; q) and k is a

number, then kf; f g; f + g; and f g are also continuous at (p; q) :
Moreover, if g (p; q) 6= 0; then f =g is also continuous at (p; q) :

As a result, if f (x; y) is an arithmetic combination of functions which are

continuous at (p; q) ; then f (x; y) is itself continuous at (p; q) : For example,
f (x; y) = cos (x) sin (y) is continuous everywhere since cos (x) and sin (y) are
continuous for all x and y; respectively.
In addition, if (p; q) is a boundary point of an open region on which f (x; y)
is continuous, if f (x; q) is continuous as a function of x on a closed interval
with p as an endpoint, and if f (p; y) is continuous as a function of y on a closed
interval with q as an endpoint, then we say that f (x; y) is also continuous at
the point (p; q) :

EXAMPLE 4 Where is the function f (x; y) = x1=2 + y 1=2 contin-

uous?

Solution: The function x1=2 is continuous when x 0; and the

function y 1=2 is continuous when y 0: Thus, f (x; y) is continuous
on its entire domain, which is
dom (f ) = f(x; y) jx 0 and y 0g

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Check your Reading: If f (x; y) is continuous at (p; q) ; then is it necessary
that (p; q) be in dom (f )?

More with Limits Along Di¤erent Paths

There are functions f (x; y) for which the limit along every straight line through
a point (p; q) exists, but in which the limit itself does not exist. That is, in order
for
lim f (x; y) = L
(x;y)!(p;q)

it is necessary that the limit of f (x; y) along every path through (p; q) be equal
to L:

EXAMPLE 5 Evaluate the limit

x2 y
lim (5)
(x;y)!(0;0) x4 + y 2

along every line through the origin and also along the path y = x2 :

Solution: Along the y-axis, we have x = 0; so that along the y-axis

we have
x2 y 02 y
lim = lim =0
(x;y)!(0;0) x4 + y 2 (0;y)!(0;0) 04 + y 2

Every non-vertical line through the origin is of the form y = kx

where k is a number, so that along a line y = kx we have

x2 y x2 kx kx
lim = lim = lim =0
(x;y)!(0;0) x4+y 2 (x;kx)!(0;0) x + k 2 x2
4 (x;kx)!(0;0) x2 + k 2

Thus, the limit is 0 along every linear path through the origin. How-
ever, along the curve y = x2 ; we have

x2 y x2 x2 x4 1
lim = lim 2 = lim =
(x;y)!(0;0) x4 +y 2 (x;x )!(0;0) x4 + (x2 )
2 (x;x )!(0;0) 2x4
2 2

That is, the limit (5) does not exist, even though along every straight
line through the origin it has the same value. In the …gure below,

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 see if you can identify what is signi…cant about the curve y = x2 :

Exercises
Each of the limits shown below does exist. Estimate its value intuitively, if
possible, and then use a table to estimate the limit. Be sure to use radians when
trigonometric functions are involved.

1. lim(x;y)!(2;3) xy 2. lim(x;y)!(3;4) x2 + y 2

3. lim(x;y)!(2; ) x cos (y) 4. lim(x;y)!( ;2) sin (xy)

x2 y 2 x2 4y 2 +4 x2 y x2 4y+4
5. lim(x;y)!(2;1) yx x 2y+2 6. lim(x;y)!(2;1) xy 2 x 2y 2 +2

cos(x y) cos(x+y) cos(x y)+cos(x+y)

7. lim(x;y)!( ;0) sin(x+y)+sin(x y) 8. lim(x;y)!( =2; ) sin(x+y)+sin(x y)

sin(x2 +y 2 ) sin(x2 +y 2 )
9. lim(x;y)!(0;0) x2 +y 2 10. lim(x;y)!(0;0) x+y

Show that the following limits do not exist by evaluating the limit along two

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di¤ erent paths which produce 2 di¤ erent results.
x y x + 4y
11. lim 12. lim
(x;y)!(0;0) x + y (x;y)!(0;0) x + y

x2 y 2 x3 y3
13. lim 14. lim
(x;y)!(0;0) x2 + y 2 (x;y)!(0;0) x2 y2

2xy 4xy
15. lim 16. lim
(x;y)!(0;0) x2 + y 2 (x;y)!(0;0) x2 + y 2

xy 2 x2 y + xy 2
17. lim 18. lim
(x;y)!(0;0) x2 + y 4 (x;y)!(0;0) x4 + y 4

x3 + y 3 x3 y3
19. lim 20. lim
(x;y)!(0;0) x3 + y 2 (x;y)!(0;0) x2 y2

sin (x) sin (x)

21. lim 22. lim
(x;y)!( ;0) x + y (x;y)!(0;0) x + y

Determine where the following functions are continuous.

x+y x+y
23. f (x; y) = 24. f (x; y) =
x y x + 4y

ln (x)
25. f (x; y) = ln (x) sec (y) 26. f (x; y) =
ln (jx yj)
y
27. f (x; y) = ln 1 x2 y2 28. f (x; y) = tan 1
x
29. Evaluate the limit
x2 y 2 x2 4y 2 + 4
lim
(x;y)!(2;1) yx x 2y + 2
by factoring the numerator and the denominator to obtain the limit of function
which is continuous at (2; 1) :
30. Evaluate the limit
cos (x y) cos (x + y)
lim
(x;y)!( ;0) sin (x + y) + sin (x y)
by simplifying the numerator and denominator to obtain the limit of a function
which is continuous at ( ; 0) :
31. Prove the following: If g (x) is continuous at x = p; then f (x; y) = g (x) is
continuous at (p; y) for all real numbers y:
32. In example 5, we showed that the limit
x2 y
lim
(x;y)!(0;0) x4 + y 2

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does not exist by showing that it has a value of 0 along any line through the
origin, but that it has a limit of 1=2 along the curve y = x2 : Use a table to
explore this limit. How would you choose the x’s and y’s so as to reveal the
limit of 1/2 along the curve y = x2 ?
33. What is the domain of the function
x y
f (x; y) = sin
y x
Then determine if the following limit exists:

lim f (x; y)
(x;y)!(0;0)

34. Let us de…ne

0 if x=y
f (x; y) =
x y if x 6= y
Determine if the following limit exists:

lim f (x; y)
(x;y)!(0;0)

Where is f continuous?
35. Use the de…nition of the limit to prove that if

lim f (x; y) = L
(x;y)!(p;q)

and if k is a number, then

lim kf (x; y) = kL
(x;y)!(p;q)

36. Use the de…nition of the limit to prove that if

lim f (x; y) = L and lim g (x; y) = K

(x;y)!(p;q) (x;y)!(p;q)

then the limit of the sum exists and

lim [f (x; y) + g (x; y)] = L + K

(x;y)!(p;q)

37. Write to Learn: In a short essay, explain why

x 1 y+1
lim d:n:e and lim d:n:e
(x;y)!(0;0) x+y (x;y)!(0;0) x+y

where “d.n.e.” means “does not exist.” Then conclude the essay by using these
two limits to show that

lim [f (x; y) + g (x; y)]

(x;y)!(p;q)

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may exist even when the individual limits of the summand do not exist.
38. Write to Learn: A polygonal path is a piecewise linear curve with vertices

(x1 ; y1 ) ; (x2 ; y2 ) ; : : : ; (xn ; yn ) ; : : :

where xn approaches p and yn approaches q:

Write a short essay explaining why if

lim f (xn ; yn ) = L
n!1

for every polygonal path to (p; q) ; then the limit of f (x; y) as (x; y) approaches
(p; q) exists and
lim f (x; y) = L
(x:y)!(p;q)

39. In this exercise, we show that the norm kxk as a function of x is a

continuous function.

1. (a) Explain why 2x p 2 kxk kpk (i.e., how big can the cosine of an
angle get), and then use it to explain why
2 2 2 2
jjxjj 2 jjpjj jjxjj + jjpjj jjxjj 2p x + jjpjj

(b) Factor both sides of the inequality in (a) and apply the square root
to show that
j jjxjj jjpjj j jjx pjj
(c) Use (b) and the de…nition of the limit to prove that

lim kxk = kpk

x!p

40. Let us suppose that we de…ne

1
f (x) = x
kxk

Show that the limit of f (x) as x approaches 0 does not exist.

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