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293
World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 51 2009
294
World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 51 2009
It is obvious that black surface will absorb more light than a By combining (2), (3), (4) with the assumption that C 2 = 0, n
white surface, and a shiny smooth surface will reflect more
= 1 and A is constant, the energy absorbed by the sensor can
energy than a rough surface. The Phong Model can provide a
be expressed as
simplified description of these effects into four constants: C 0 ,
C 1 , C 2 , and n. The Phong equation for intensity of energy, I, C 0 cos(α ) + C1 cos(2α )
reflected from a surface is E= 2
(5)
⎡ d ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
r r r r ⎢ + r ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟⎥
I = C 0 ( μ s . μn ) + C 1 ( μr . μv ) ⁿ + C 2 (1) ⎣⎢ cos(α ) ⎝ cos(α ) ⎠⎦⎥
r r r r
where, μ s , μ n , μ r , and μ v are the light source, surface Finally, C 0 and C 1 in (5) indicate the infrared characteristics
normal, reflected, and viewing vector, respectively, as shown of an obstacle. One can determine these values by taking
in Fig. 4. infrared readings at known distances (d), and angles (α). Once
A sensor emitting infrared energy and the interaction of the C 0 and C 1 are known, E can be obtained for a given angle
energy with a flat surface is shown in Fig. 5. When comparing
r r and distance by using (5).
Fig. 4 with Fig. 5, one can determine of the value of ( μ s . μ n )
r r
and ( μ r . μ v ). The angle between the source vector and the B. Determination of the Angle of a Surface
normal vector of the surface is α. Also, if one assumes that the The relative angle of the sensor to the surface must be
emitter and receiver are in the same position, then the angle determined to simplify the calculating the surface properties
between the viewing vector and the reflected vector is 2α. and the distance of an obstacle. The maximum reading of the
Therefore, Equation (1) becomes: sensor will occur at α = 0. In Fig. 6, the spike occurs where the
direction of the IR signal corresponds to the surface normal (α
I = C 0 cos(α) + C 1 cosⁿ (2α) + C 2 (2) = 0).
2.5
IR S ensor Reading (V )
View 1.5
Source 0.5
C 0 cos(α ) + C1 cos(2α )
d = r (cos(α ) − 1) + cos(α) (6)
E
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World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 51 2009
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Distance (cm)
2.5
ranging from 2.1 to 3.5. Therefore, we can conclude that for
2
small distances US sensor has better resolution than IR sensor.
1
1.5
2
1 3
4
0.5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Distance (mm)
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World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 51 2009
25
20
Distance(cm)
15
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Reading
(a) Series1
Measured Series2
Calculated
120 mm. As can be seen in Fig. 12, the error is higher than
Distance(cm)
that of the small distance analysis for both sensors. 15
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Reading
(b) Measured
Series1 Calculated
Series2
25
20
Distance(cm)
15
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World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 51 2009
REFERENCES
[1] P.M Novotny, N.J. Ferrier, “Using infrared sensor and the Phong
illumination model to measure distances,” International Conference on
Robotics and Automation, Detroit, MI, vol. 2, April 1999, pp. 1644-
1649.
[2] G. Benet, F. Blanes, J.E. Simo, P. Perez, “Using infrared sensors for
distance measurement in mobile robots,” Journal of Robotics and
Autonomous Systems, vol. 10, 2002, pp. 255-266.
[3] A. Sabatini, V. Genovose, E. Guglielmelli, A. Mantuano, G. Ratti, and
P. Dario, “A low-cost, composite sensor array combining ultrasonic and
Fig. 15 Collector current vs. Temperature plot infrared proximity sensors,” International Conference on Intelligent
Robots and Systems, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, vol. 3, August 1995, pp.
120-126.
V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS [4] V. Colla, A.M. Sabatini, “A composite proximity sensor for target
In this project, we focused on the ability of the sensors to location and color estimation,” IMEKO Sixth International Symposium
detect the range of objects of flat surfaces and of different on Measurement and Control in Robotics, Brussels, 1996, pp. 134–139.
materials. The experiments indicate that the low cost US and [5] L. Korba, S. Elgazzar, T. Welch, “Active infrared sensors for mobile
robots,” IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measuremen, vol.
IR sensors are able to give reliable distance measurement. The 2(43), 1994, pp. 283–287.
results obtained show satisfactory agreement between the [6] A.M. Sabatini, V. Genovese, E. Guglielmelli, “A low-cost, composite
Phong Illumination model and the real data obtained in the sensor array combining ultrasonic and infrared proximity sensors,
validation tests. IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems
(IROS), Pittsburgh, PA, vol. 3, 1995, pp. 120–126.
It has been shown that US sensor has slightly higher [7] H.R. Everett, Sensors for Mobile Robots, AK Peters, Ltd., Wellesley,
resolution than that of the IR sensor, especially for small MA, 1995.
distance measurement within their usable ranges. Differences [8] A.M. Flynn, “Combining sonar and infrared sensors for mobile robot
between the measured distances and actual distances indicate navigation,” The International Journal of Robotics Research, vol. 7(6),
1988, pp. 5-14.
necessary re-calibration. More care should be taken when [9] G. Benet, J. Albaladejo, A. Rodas, P.J. Gil, “An intelligent ultrasonic
placing the objects from the sensors during acquiring data sensor for ranging in an industrial distributed control system,” IFAC
since the small change in angle could show very different Symposium on Intelligent Components and Instruments for Control
distance than the actual one. The amplitude from the US Applications, Malaga, Spain, May 1992, pp. 299–303.
[10] B. T. Phong., “Illumination for computer generated pictures,”
sensor is dependent on the distance and orientation of the Communications of the ACM, vol. 18(6), June 1975, pp. 311-317.
obstacle relative to the sensor, where small orientation of the
reflecting surface does not have much effect on the IR sensor Tarek Mohammad received Bachelor of Science degree
amplitude. However, the amplitude from the IR sensor is in Mechanical Engineering from Chittagong University
of Engineering & Technology, Chittagong, Bangladesh
dependent on the reflectivity of the obstacle, where surface in 2007.
color and smoothness does not have much effect on the output He is currently pursuing Master of Engineering
signal from the US sensor. Science in Mechanical Engineering at the University of
For the simplification of the calculation for Phong model, Western Ontario, ON, Canada. He is also working as
teaching assistant and research assistant under the
we take α = 0. Therefore, a great care is taken in acquiring Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering at
data so that the direction of the IR signal corresponds to the the University of Western Ontario, ON, Canada.
surface normal. We assumed C 2 = 0 and n = 1 for simplicity. Mr. Mohammad is a student member of American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) and Bangladesh Society of Mechanical Engineers
Since we used flat surfaces in this experiment, we achieved (BSME).
298