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Culture Documents
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Chapter 3 Chapter 6
Planning: an overview Project review
Creating a plan Creating a culture of learning
From WBS to activity plan Learning systems
Estimating time in projects Case study: learning systems
Precedence diagrams Reviewing individual performance
Determining the critical path Project review action points
Calculating "float" time Project review checklist
Practical use of critical
path analysis Index
Risk Further reading
Ide ifyi~- projects
Setting priorities
understanarnaroles
How can I make things go according to plan?
How much time can I spend on this?
Who has a stake in mypmject?
Project management
i What is a project?
--,
00 YOU NEE0 TO SHARPEN 1 ?
Take a moment tooonsider wlhether any of the fallswing stai . If so, the1
- .Ilsururlllu
you can benefit fr0111 -- ..-.- .vuur
-..-..- .-urlriect
-- ----- 1-8.an"'-
manauelllelli
-
I Critical considerations
Quality critical
profits, for example, then keeping costs Some types of project demand that the
low will be a high priority. outcome reach certain standards, even
In some cases, one of the three will if this means that times extend and
be fixed by circumstances and can costs rise. In engineering and medical
therefore be said to be "critical" to projects, for example, certa:in standards
success. In practice, of course, all three of quality must be achieved before a
elements need to be kept under control product can be used legally.
for a project to be deemed successful.
Cost critical
Time critical Most commercial projects are cost-
Event-planning projects are usually critical; that is, for the project to be a
time-critical. In the case of a trade success it must stay within the budget
exhibition, for example, the deadline set when the fee to be paid by the client
i s immovable because the date of the was negotiated. If the fee is fixed and
event is fixed from the outset, a venue is the project does not stay within its
booked, and the place and date are budget limits, it may lose money.
Politics
T
he study of project management
usually takes place in a business National election campaigns in most
context. However, projects are democracies last between three and six
about creating beneficial change, so months, but the planning and
you will find them in every field of fundraising required for success will
human endeavor. have begun years ahead.
Charities Engineering
Charities are reliant on profile and Every branch of engineering uses
fundraising events to remain viable, projects as the means by which vision is
and in many cases their humanitarian turned into reality. The project
activities involve highly complex feats sequence is equally relevant whether
of planning and organization. you are building a road, a printed
circuit board, a ship, or an airplane.
Sports
Bids for Olympic Games are now Research and development
awarded seven years ahead of time to Today universities receive a large
allow the host city to complete all the proportion of their funding against
preparations. These cost billions of tightly defined research briefs. In
dollars and involve the coordinated addition, large organizations often
effort of thousands of people. maintain their own research and
development departments to work on
the projects that will give them future
ANlZATlONS competitive advantage.
In an increasingly corn! l l t i v g g l o b a l economy, the compani
thrive are thrtse who have both the vision to identify their clients' At home
neteds and th e flexibilit y to meet them most fully, quickly and cost- We all carry out projects in our daily
effectively. 111 service i~ mdustries, particularly those such as lives. Carrying out major home
,."d:"L""
ad\., LI.IIIB ".,I"":""
uDaaerr ihere there is a high degree of creativity
n3.
renovations, planning a vacation, or
rerluired, conmpanies have replaced old-fashioned management organizing a surprise party for a family
hieIrarchier Hrith newer, more flexible structures that allow them to member, for example, are projects
... ..
pull together project teams from across functions to focus on the involving time, resources, and
needs of the custo outcomes, although we might not
think of them in these terms.
Projects and priorities
IMPORTANCE
11 L2
low Distractions Maintenance tasks
--
low (2)
URGENCY
Project management
Implementation
P
roject management in its
simplest form is a sequence of Once the plan is in place, you are in a
activities that follow a logical position to begin working toward your
order. The sequence is the same goal. The implementation process also
whatever the circumstances. includes opportunities to monitor
progress and adjust the plan as
Definition necessary. Communication and people
The first step is to identify what you management become very important
want to achieve, by when, and within at this stage.
what cost constraints. This process
is sometimes called "scoping" or Handover
"specing."This is the point at which The result of the project needs to be
you decide the relative importance of handed over to those who will be using
time, cost, and quality. it. This will normally require them to
modifytheir behavior in some way,
Planning which in turn may mean having to
Most projects consist of a number of learn new skills. The handover phase
tasks. By planning you can ensure that concentrates on all these issues.
you have a clear idea of what these are
and the order in which they can best be Review
done. Planning is also an opportunity Projects are an excellent opportunity
to confirm that the project as defined is for corporate and individual learning.
likely to be achievable. The planning You can maximize the benefits of this
stage may involve some repetition of by looking back on what you have done
the definition stage-the plan making to get a balanced view of what you have
it clearer what is possible within time learned, and implement actions to
and cost constraints. incorporate this into future projects.
Project management
rr ., - -. , ~ - - - - - ~ - - - . - - - - c - - - -- 7
pan F C T STAKEHOLDERS
'reject Sponsor
- Project hlairmrm
-
Internal Tearn
Projects and priorities
-
lThe paectsponsor
T
he project sponsor is the person authorize handover of the
under whose authority a project completed product
takes place. This means that they conduct or oversee final
are the ultimate arbiter of whether the project review
project has succeeded or failed. The The sponsor is the only person who can
sponsor also has authority over the terminate a project.
resources required for successful
completion. The sponsor should Choosing a sponsor
"champion" the project within the O n occasions where the project
stakeholder group and acts as mentor or manager is in a position to choose a
coach to the project manager and team. project sponsor, availability and
authority are two important factors to
The sponsor's tasks take into account.
The sponsor is involved at all stages of The ideal sponsor should be
the project, and in particular should: contactable at a moment's notice
agree the specification, signing off and have the time to take an active
any project definition document interest in progress.
review any initial plans The more powerful the sponsor, the
agree the escalation procedure- less likely it is that your project will
that is, the circumstances in which run into opposition.
the sponsor should be informed or There usually has to be some trade-off
involved when things go wrong between these two factors. Sponsors at
conduct regular reviews of progress senior level will often be too busy to be
through the implementation phase intimately aware of the progress of a
authorize all changes to the project project. While junior sponsors tend to
scope during implementation have more time they often lack the
conduct or oversee quality authority to be taken seriously by the
assurance reviews wider stakeholder goup.
Project management
[Thepmject manager
T
he project manager is
responsible for the day-to-day The project manager is responsible for:
running of the project. They are preparing project plans
at the center of the communications building a strong team
diagram and the success of the project motivating individuals
will to a large extent rely on their ability defining roles and setting objectives
and enthusiasm. Ideally the project for team members
manager will be involved in "scoping," scheduling control points and
and will have the opportunity to meet milestones
the clients and end users. Skillful monitoring progress of work
project managers will identify key against plans
stakeholders at the outset of the project keeping the sponsor appropriately
and take active steps to harness positive informed at all times
stakes and minimize the effect of preparing reports on progress as
negative ones. required
ensuring smooth passage of
information throughout the project
hierarchy
representing the needs of the
project to the stakeholder group
documenting all changes to the
original specification
conducting regular learning reviews
Projects and priorities
-- -~
Ell DOXES OF MANAGE!
According to the American maria!lement g uru~ Tom Peters, there are eigb :ey parado:nes in a good project manager.
l ~ balancie tho qu ities in the! left-hand column with their
The truly successful prnject man;ager needs;tlo be a b !to
opposites on the right:
Confidlent in nlsrner own aoll~ryano rlgnr ro mane Not ane to pull rank-a true servant leader.
dema~ ~ d of
s people.
AUTO1 DELEGATI
Oecisi thoritative where net Encourag~ rmbers to act on theiir own
initiative.
MANAGER
Has a vision of tihe future a~ n inspire
d s people. Manages the nuts a1nd bolts of
-
The project team
he makeup of the project team get the initial agreement right, you will
will vary considerably according rarely need to become involved in the When thinking about
to the nature and context of the day-to-day management of outsourced proiect team members
project. Typically, however, it will fall contracts. If you get it wrong, on the and whether tasks
into three subgroups: other hand, correcting it later can be should be outsourced
technical specialists time-consuming and expensive. or done internally,
external team there are some key
internal team Internal team questions that you
Each group needs to be managed in a Members of your internal team tend to need to ask yourself.
different way. come from your own organization or Dowe need
department, so you will generally find constant access
Technical specialists yourself adopting a less formal style to this person's
Team members with specialist when delegating tasks to them. Beware, skills?
technical knowledge are usually however, of equating a less formal style Will they be
employed as consultants. They tend to with a less tight definition of what is needed at every
be expensive and can often offer only required or by when. This is stage of the
limited time to your project. They particularly crucial when delegating to project?
should therefore be given a very more senior members of the team. Does our
specific brief or used to oversee or Often the internal team is the most organization have
advise on more general matters. difficult group to manage because its the expertise to
members are busy with other things and carry out this
External team do your project work as a "favor."The function?
You may be able to outsource certain advantages of the internal team are that Are potential
parts of project to other organizations. there is rarely an out-of-pocket cost internal
You will probably need to come to a associated with using it, andits candidates already
formal agreement about the timescales, members'strengths and weaknesses are heavily committed
scope, and cost of work. Provided you generally known to the project manager. elsewhere?
Project management
- --
--
I Cheeidist for eumnthie&
Y
ou may already be involved in a regard to your own role and the roles
number of projects at work. If of any other people involved. If you
so, you may find it helpful to are involved in several p~ojects,make
start thinking about these in a more copies of the checklist and use a
structured way, particularly with separate one for each project.
PRO4IECT ASSE
....,
Whai;project am I currently involvell in' .v,,m.role am I playing in this project? [You may
have Imore than one role-l e, project
manalger and quality contr
[lualih Cnnnn
upulur
percent
Who aIre the majjor stakehc iy project?
r a:-.) ...hat Are th - 3 - -.-I.-- ---:a:..- - ..---A
- :..-n
Projectinitiation
H
ow a project is initiated will cannot be met by the project
depend largely on the type of management teams. This results in
organization carrying out the customer dissatisfaction, unprofitable
project and the level of authority ofthe trading, and recrimination between
person who originated the idea. departments.
This is often no more than a simple
Commercial projects communication problem that can be
These days, much of the trade between overcome by involving project
commercial organizations takes the managers earlier in the sales process.
form of projects. Sales forces sell the (Of course, this can only be done if
benefits of some change or other, they have the interpersonal and
attaching a price tag and a time frame commercial skills to cope!)
that they believe can be met profitably
through good project management. Change projects
Ironically, many of these companies Projects that are initiated within an
separate sales or account management organization for its own purposes are
from operations or project often change projects; they may be
management. This can mean that the intended to develop newworking
project is effectively being initiated by practices or find new sources of
the sales team, who may agree to business. Generally speaking, change
unrealistically high specifications, low projects are initiated in one of two
budgets, or short time frames that ways: "top down" orUbottomup."
Project definition
"TOP DOWNYPROJEC
Maniy pointles:a projects ale ~ V I I V I U~tedin this
Ideas that are genlerated "to1p down" olYen have f~unds .
way, Because 'they begarI life as t he~brainchild
allocated to them from the sl of a serlior exe!cutive, no1one has quiestioned
4 Having an explicitly defined i r value unl:iltime antI resource!s have been
thei~
projects means that there is a clear procedure lo1 committed.
. .
people t 0 follow wlhen they wrant to pre!sen1new The project manager may only become involved
project iideas. aftelr initial scoping, which can reduce their
llvsI of ownership. This leads either to the
proj~ect failing or the sponsor getti1ig more
invo lvefl than 1 d be.
"BOTTOM UP'PROJECTS
- oo many good ideas fail because to spend time putting together a selling
W What is unique they remain the brainchild of document or presentation. The central
about your one individual. Here are several strand of your proposal should usually
idea? things you can do to assess the quality be a costtbenefit analysis.
W What benefits can of your initial ideas and make that vital
it offer to your step between a good idea and a 3 Allow others to build on your idea
organization? workable one. On occasion the originator of an idea
W Who can help you prevents its realization by refusing to
to refine it? 1 Involve others allow others to modify it in any way.
W To whom can you Many projects fail to become reality Not only can other people help to test
sell it? because the people with the original the idea and improve its quality, but
W Can they help you ideas keep them to themselves. They they will also feel more motivated to
sell i t to others? may do this for any of a number of work on your project if they feel at least
reasons, usually because they are afraid part-ownership of it.
of losing control and fear having their
ideas "shot down." However, all but the 4 1111'1give up
most limited projects will affect other According to Einstein, "If an idea does
people, and unless you take steps to win not have some element of absurdity at
their understanding and support, the the outset, it probably isn't worth
project is almost bound to fail. Some pursuing." Unfortunately, seemingly
ideas for involving people in the insane ideas are more difficult to sell to
preliminary stages of the project are the people you need to make them
given on page 27. reality, so you will need to persevere.
Many revolutionary ideas, such as Post-
2 And a sponsor it notes or the clockwork radio, have
Unless you have the authority to only come into being because of the
sponsor the project yourself, you will persistence of their inventors. If you
need to identify and approach someone think you have a good idea, don't allow
to fill this role. To do this, you may have initial rejection to stand in your way.
Project definition
7
How to involve others
3
1
FORCEFIELO ANAlYSl :BUYING A NEW CAR
TU nuo RESTRAINING t~RCES
More comfort I
Not e
Better fuel consumpiion
Old on
Lower r
Greater
Project management
ICostlbeneft analysis
Examp Example:Secntary
HIGH IN1 keen, I very positive and
much as possible and willing to help.
Support critical to I pposition 1mlilll preven keep il Involve and try to
LOW INFLUENCE find a role on team.
.,.
Support desirable but not ess., -m+i.,1 , #illlot infl =
i1 .
3,
HlEH INFLUENCE, LOW INFLUENCE,
success c NEUTRAL-~~
ATTITUDE NEUTRAL ATTITUOE
s ~
Move to positive il
possible, but don't
-- . ... ..
Meet wltn a l l major stakenolaer groups to asse s their attitude spend too much
11s:Senior time or eHort.
vard your I ?mto one Ioft ree categories: ~ementteam
POSlTlVl mmittal. Example: Freelance
".
bommrneo 10 or ooslIlve ~OOUIline process; no 01ncome
".---A!-
lea brief
. .. .
prssarltatlon to
staff not interested-
discuss with them
NEGATIVE
8 feelings Ieither way I n the benefit
explai~
and invita their iup
r HIGH IMFLUENCE,
NEGATIVE ATTITUOE
informally and invite
suggestions.
LOW INFLUENCE,
NEGATIVE ATTITUDE
GenerallyInegative iabout or opposed to the rrocess and outcome 3 Try to to Try to mme to
nautral or positive. neutral or positiw.
Make plans to maintain positive st;akI S, move II~IU tral sti to h a wIs:Finance Eaampls: Packers
positive, and neutralize iany negativre:i,making1 a 11 iority of high- din& Ir scepljcal. worried about job
... . . . ... lrmolvl!them in losses as result of
creat~r'.-,,.-
A
Influence stakeholders. 'vou may t ~ n d~tnerptul to t raw a matrlx lltie the q, um project. Give brief
on1 lroml: to on1 K~S. enefit analysi!S. presentation to
reassure them.
Project management
How?
W How will it be implemented? he clientle
. ... .
W How long will it be in use? ups you are talking to will have a les
PROJECT MANAGER:
J. Fisher, Call Center Nlanager Warp, Vice! president
END USER(S)
Call center staff in Aknon and Spl
-
I
BENEFITS 15 percent ,i,,.,. menue clatul
--
SCOPEIOBJECTIVES
Essentials: Desirables:
- Reduce query response times -Automated management ~nports
- Remove need to call customers back - No more than 2 hours' training requlrea
- -
TI1
-
COSTIRESUIURCES
A-
IIout corn1plete: AkraIn, June; Spri gfield, Septembc
-
:
Total budget $300k. P ~ I g $80k; pmject support $20k
PARAMETEAIS iUMPTlORIS
No interruptitons in callI center op work upgriade compllete by end March
- -
AU LEVELS
Sponsor ro sign all expenalture over SIUK
I
Sponsor to be informerI of any valriance greiate than 10 percent
AGREEMEN1r
SPONSOR
Identify tasks
Estimate timescales
Allocate responsibilities
Assess risks
What is ml pmject suppo!;ed to deliver?
What is ttal logical sequence of tasks?
Who will dl what and when?
Project management
i Planning: an ovenriew
P
lanning is a means of creating a
Although the plan is mental model of what lies ahead achieve this. For example, a
captured on paper (or of us. It allows us to anticipate company building houses to sell
on a computer), the the need for resources and maximize might identify the following
project manager our chances of success. The plan is a deliverables: planning permission,
should have an route map by which the project finances, building, utilities,
intuitive grasp of all manager navigates and measures marketing.
work in progress. As progress. It should be consulted and W Identify the tasks that must be
soon as a plan is leff to updated regularly, at the very least carried out to produce the
solidify, it starts to during every review meeting. The deliverables. For example, to obtain
lose its value. To quote project manager should take every planning permission, the tasks
Dwight D. Eisenhower: opportunity to familiarize the team might be: Fill out planning
"A plan is nothing, with its detail. permission application, attend
planning is everything:' meeting with planning authority,
The planning sequence negotiate any changes required.
The following is the usual sequence by W Identify the timescales and
which a project plan is created. resources required to do these tasks.
W State the scope and objectives of the Identify the dependencies between
project. The detail of this will have tasks. (See page 41 for more about
been worked out during the dependencies.)
definition stage. Allocate responsibilities for tasks.
Refine the plan by assessing risk,
rwmT-y'-6W&W ~lfSpWLWpqTPa*irw setting review milestones, and
PLAN TO SAVE Mar-" SO on.
Failure to plan
A common mistake people make is not n
1 Creating a plan
he first step in creating a detailed 2 Take a Post-it pad and write o n each
plan is to develop a Deliverable sheet anything you might need to
Breakdown Structure (DBS) and produce (for DBS) or might need to do
Work Breakdown Structure (WBS). (for WBS). Do not attempt any
The DBS is simply a breakdown of all evaluation at this point; just generate
the deliverables-things that the ideas as quickly as possible. Speed often
project needs to produce-some of has the effect of increasing creativity.
which may have been identified in the For a DBS, the Post-its should refer
initial definition phase; the WBS is a to tangible objects-nouns. For a WBS,
breakdown of all the tasks required to Post-its should contain activities-
produce the deliverables. verbs. In practice, you may find
yourself confusing the two, but don't
Producing the DRS and WBS let this restrict the flow of ideas.
Although the DBS and WBS are
different, you may find you start to 3 Stick completed Post-its onto the
generate the two simultaneously. flip chart. Do not worry about
Both start with a creative phase, and duplication. Try to produce as many
continue with a logical phase in which Post-its as possible.
you evaluate and order the ideas
produced. The basic materials for the 4 Once you have run out of ideas,
process outlined below are: divide the deliverables from the tasks.
Post-it notes At this stage you may find that you
pens need to write additional Post-its.
Flip chart or any convenient
flat surface. 5 Look for patterns by which you can
group your Post-its. With the DBS, the
Order of work usual logic is to identify a hierarchy of
deliverables, creating subgroups under
1 Restate briefly what it is you want to the main deliverables. In the WBS, the
achieve as a result of your definition patterns may relate to the order in which
phase. This should include any tasks should be carried out, or groups of
constraints you are aware of. tasks that will be done by the same
individual or department. Again, this
process may generate some new Post-its.
Project planning
Amenities
Windows1
Foundations Walls Roof Lighting ,arpets Painting
Doors
- -_ - .'
Put
Prepare f~oo, down Lay
carpet
'--lay
Cut Measure
and ,- - Cut edging
floorboards cut
unt erlay strips
any creak
.boards
Project management
on a WBS is to divide
E
each Post-it into
three: RESOURCES
H Element of work
(task) Fees: $300 per day E
H Resources
required
H Task time
Project planning
E
stimating the time required for time is ten days. Pressure from other,
tasks can be one of the most shorter-term deadlines and the need to
difficult parts of planning a coordinate the diaries of busy people
project. A major reason for this is that are major causes of lapsed time.
time estimation techniques are based
on experience, and many projects take Tips for estimating time
place in unfamiliar territory. The following tips should help you
estimate time accurately:
Lapsed time W Break down larger tasks into
Another difficulty with estimating time smaller, more manageable elements.
is that there is often a substantial W Do not confuse "task time" and
difference between "task time" and "lapsed time." Allocate "task time"
"lapsed time."To give an example, to tasks, then work out a realistic
writing a magazine article might take deadline for each one.
two days, but if the author has other W Use similar tasks as a yardstick for
time commitments, it may be ten days your estimates.
before she can submit the article. Thus W Use other peoples' experience to
the task time is two days, but the lapsed supplement or confirm your ideas.
A FORMULA FOA ESTIMATING TIME - To come up with a reasonable time estimate. calculate:
,pose you have to re!:ruit a me1nber of stiiff with a
ime + 4(lilkely time) + pessimi:stic time
!cific tech1mical skill. You have 1he resumeI of a
..
-.".-- a". -,:.I-,- .... .I ^....I., "1 -"a :---.I :-'-,.. ".
..I
6
YOUI are duet1o inter vie^r them bef~ ore the en1I of the 48 + 14) + 6 = 10.5wee
we1ek. In addi tion, you have briefeld a recruit1ment agen
and will be advertising in a newspaper next Sunday i f If the consequences o re, YI ou may
necessary. Yo ment for t t recruit need the formu m, using:
timistic ~~IIIC 7. Ill,:,..
someone is:
q l ~ n s l ytime) +L~~GDDIIIII
6
Optimistic tinme: 1 week
Likely time:
.- .
IZweens r tne recru~rmenrexample, this woutu g~ve
Pei .-- reeks
Project planning
IPrecedence diagrams
r Account D;scutiv~
a salesnireet~
3%
1 hour l hour
J
l c c ~ u nBacutivs
t
Pnduca
V ~ S U Ealds
~ , Pnrduce
handouts
",
LIES
D~nctor
Y
amWw-3
The critical oath
-
viswl aids handouts c
bb Sales Director Z
iRisk
- -- -7
POSSIBLE Sol
PEOPLE
Are they available?
Are they committed?
Are they skilled? CIINTRACTUAULEGAL
Do they know what is required of them? .."""...""..
Am I, or is m, .,,.,, ""
.,,ntract~
legally liable for the failure of an;
W TECHNICAL element of the project?
Is the technology proven?
Is it reliable? PI
Is it available? Are mere any pnyslcai rlstrs lnnerent in
Is it understood? un project ta!sks?
POLITICAL ..,...,
:NIAL
Is the need for the project agreed? IWcan the weather affel:t my project?
Does the sponsor control the hat geological factor s might put the
stakeholder group?
Are negative stakeholders influential?
IS communication with stakeholders
good?
Project management
2 5
--- ---
HOW SERIOUS?
-- - - .-____1
Team planning
T
he planning activities discussed concerns. Finally, in the planning
Don't assume that so far can be carried out by the phase, they should prompt the group to
everyone in the team team rather than by the project commit to specific actions, timescales,
planning meeting manager alone. and responsibilities.
should be a
prospective member of Planning as a team The problem owner
the team. Familiarity Where there are several people Ideally the role of problem owner
with the subject under involved, planning is best carried out should be played by the client or end
discussion can cut along the lines of a brainstorming user. Failing this, it may be a good way
down on briefing time, session. Like a brainstorming session, a of involving the sponsor. The problem
but detachment can team planning meeting should have owner is responsible for focusing the
offer the benefits of a three stages: the creative phase, in group on any specific problems that
fresh perspective. which the team generates as many ideas need to be resolved and identifying the
as possible; the evaluation phase, in value in the ideas they come up with.
which the merits of the ideas are The problem owner gives a
assessed and the best ideas selected; and summary outline of the objective, then
the planning phase, in which the team takes a back seat while brainstorming
decides how to put the ideas into action. takes place, intervening with further
clarification of the problem only if the
Facilitator creative session is going off-course. At
The facilitator has prime responsibility the end ofthe creative phase, they are
for the brainstorming process. The responsible for choosing the ideas that
project manager often takes this role. have greatest merit.
The facilitator should start by
ensuring that the objective and scope of Resources
the project is understood by all. Everyone else in the meeting acts as
Next, they must maintain the resources. Their function is to generate
discipline of postponing judgment of a volume of ideas. If the facilitator and
ideas until the creative phase of the problem owner are doing their jobs,
meeting is complete. people will enjoy acting as resources.
During the evaluation phase, the Ideally these resources will be
facilitator should concentrate on members of the team who will then
ensuring that everyone has an work on the project, though this may
opportunity to input ideas and air not turn out to be the case.
Project planning
I
Representing a project plan
Gantt chart I
Project management
Ilapresentinga projectplan
ENGINEERS Histogram
10 -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10
TIME
Project planning
I Software
Spreadsheet applications
S
ome computer software packages
have been designed specifically to A standard spreadsheet application
help project managers plan and may be able to generate graphs showing
coordinate projects. If your project is budgeted and actual cost and time
too complex to plan and coordinate usage with far less fuss than specialized
manually, you will almost certainly find software. The advantage of a standard
a package to suit you. package is that you can decide how
much or how little detail to include. In
Do you really need it? addition, if you are already familiar
Project software is no more than a with the program you will not need to
vehicle to carry your project plan. If spend time learning a new system.
your plan is relatively simple, the
demands of the software may be out of Specialized project software
all proportion to the benefits you can If you are certain that you need
derive from using it. You may even find specialized software, decide in advance
that instead of making your job easier, what you need, then look for the
the software is creating extra work. program that will deliver this. Do not
design your specification around what
Computerized diary systems the program can do. If you do, features
If you are running a project that you do not really need may seem
substantially on your own and with a essential as soon as you are aware that
relatively simple budget, an electronic they exist.
diary system may suit your scheduling
needs. These now come as standard
with many major office software
packages. They can schedule tasks for Some questions that may help you clarify wh d are:
particular times or days, post How man]I people nt!ed access to the software?
reminders for you and others, and What software are t hey alread y used to?
allow you to monitor progress. How much additional training will they n eed?
- .
If you and your project team are all What paclkage can b ed in my I.'I.environment?
on the same computer network, you What rep1114sdo I nc
can have access to each other's diaries, .. , . . . ..
now no I w a n ro alsplay my pl- .
making it easy to coordinate meetings How muct
and monitor activity.
Project management
IPlanning checklist
Brains! torm the telsks requir plete each Identify resource dependencies. Confirm all
.. - . ... . .
deliverable. Create a Work Breakdown dependancia*
Ire (WBS).
m.
RIIocaIe 11mes TO 1asKs (rememoer rnese are
~ . 5 ~ . ~ - .
Where '"task time" and "lapsed time" are the
,- - --..--.A ---- _ I _ - - - I , A_-. --A ---..
-
same, sIU a lurwaru uass atunu a11ueutIIIUeIIUy
2
"task times" at tlhis point). paths Lo identify 1:he shorte!it possible start to
finish tiime-the GIritical pat11.
Work out an initial order of tasks.
Do a backward pass throughI the diagri
identify float time.
ependenci
Conduc d risk assc
tven wnen you havr d all the s'teps listed mere, remember tha t things will change i
... .. -.. ...----e. . :
assumptions WI prove Incorrecr, so planning remains a key respons~uilityof the project mblldger utruugho~t
-.&
the implementation
Project planning
1Planning glossary
Deliverable Histogram
The product of all or part of the Bar chart representing levels of resource
project. required at various stages of the project.
I ~ a R a ~a ipmject
n ~ team
- -
PHASE ""K
Delirrerable: ca
- -
REVIEW Conduct postpmject review. Agree learning points.
- -- - -
INDIVIDUAL
Name the project-this will give the team a point of Identify t tre people yrou would Ilike to t a kr~part. Tak~
reference as it forrns. preliminelry soundinigs on availlability andl interest.
. .... .. . . .
Negotiat e a "team bullalng" budget. Assemble the "planning team!
- -
- ---
...
ent goals.
A"-" ,I"
4"" 8.. u.,
-gt=c uar.3 MU, d i e w meeti~ I
______,,,
_-
1:I_ ___L
uuerl a uersurlal rue un eilcn ream memuer.
-L--
-
- - -
Involve the team in handover. Debrief in1dividual pe !s. Agree any feedbat
Represent team in success or '-:I..-- .L-* ...En,
mar WIII
- ..----A
n. L
ue uasseu IU manager
Pass on Ifeedback a~ n reward
d Reward su
to team. Thank indiividuals.
--
Combine the postproject review with a social even Write reports on individuals noting any skills
to say th,ank you to all participants. learnedlerrperience ! h recomme
for the iuture.
Project management
IDelegation
BL.OCKS ON OELEGATll
Miany projeclt manager!s rreely aomlr rnar rney oo not r~oaoeflw ~ r nrasns wnue your ream memosrs oecome
delegate as Imuch as thley should. This is usually either ~1st because thley are not entrusted with moreI
b e ~ u .bh".
I
.
"
ulcy
. "." ^.
because the] have a nergative attiitude to delegation or
~ a l e .J:..IIIPIY U I I ~ W ~ I G UI UILII... UII~ when to do
-I
resl
s t o r r ~ YUU.
,so it is im porta ant to recognize what is
~ ~ uTL-
IIIE
8-
11
... . ".-
IUIIUW~~U factors OIE ~IIIUIIIJ W
III
-mm1
IIIUD~
.
it. If you find it difficuli te, you may end up cs to delegation.
",.
FEAR OVERENTHUI Il"UI.l
unu LWW
of losing control We some1:imes cont inue to do I The mistal[en belief 1ihat there i
of upset!ling subon tasks we should delegate noone to d elegate to.
.. ..
01 lallure because we enjoy them.
- . . -.
Power~essnessis rirrit ano
of being outshone lby able 1foremost aI state of nlind.
subordinates IIBtGUHIIV
r . ----7m--- - - - - m B F h - w
STYLES OF DELEGATll
Active listening
T
he project manager has a vital
Whenever you are role as the facilitator of A skilled communicator can see the
taking any action on communications both within the world through the eyes of the person
your project, get into team and between the project and the they are communicating with. This
the habit of asking wider group of stakeholders. This is perspective can only be gained if you
yourself: "Who else particularly true in the implementation ask appropriate questions and take
needs to know?" phase of a project. time to listen.
H Draw up a project team Open questions will help you to
organization and stakeholder chart ascertain people's views, and
during the planning phase. summarizing their answers accurately
Remember to include the external will show that you have understood
team in your reckoning. Review this even if you do not agree with them.
at intervals during implementation.
H Take time at any initial team
building session to agree the
frequency and format of
communications that will take place are open Iquestions. For exam1
within your team. If you do not
have a team, remember that you
- ...L-a
I wnar IS
- .your
! .- ..- - -inion about this
up
should still agree how you will project?
communicate with your sponsor.
W Where appropriate, discuss and Why1l o you wan urce this
agree what information your main part c~fthe projr
stakeholders-in particular any end
users-need. How! nil1you and your teal
W Minute any decisions or track during the!final phar
understandings in writing for
future reference. wnere do you see your priorities lyir
W Set up e-mail address groups for in the next three weeks?
your project team and stakeholders.
H When do you an is task
being complete
Project implementation
En ere is my Ex,ample: "W e want the'se Exa lyI nave Exa~mple: "TheI projecr WII
--nJ..-L.....
ComoIexe cllenx oaraoase. .
L .---.
three cnanges - mane nro
- - m. . 1L -
me anorner copy of that not oe reaoy.
L-
on time.. ."
SCIope of the project.'' doc:ument pleasel'
1 Projectreview meetings
-
"It is not a crime for a
project not to run
...
according to plan It is
a crime for the Project
A project should start with a
definition meeting and end with
a project learning review
meeting. In addition, there should also
be interim review meetings.
lnvitees
Venue -
2s1- -
1.
.
you need, what facilities are required, I 1111: BLC.
Final agenda
Two to five days before the meeting,
send out the final agenda incorporating
and that a deadline is set prior to the
next meeting. Ensure you note this in
your diary so that you can follow it up.
-
CHECKLIST FOR
REVIEW MEETINGS
all changes to the draft and confirming Prepare
timings and attendance lists. After the meeting Inform
Produce minutes in good time. You Control
At the meeting may find it useful to get "Action Record
Always try to start your meetings on Minutes" out within 24 hours of the Minute
time. This is not only good manners to meeting. This is a brief resume ofwork
those who have made the effort to that needs to be carried out.
attend; it also sets a professional tone Action minutes can be followed by a
for the rest of the proceedings. fuller record of proceedings, produced
State the purpose of the meeting and within about a week, if necessary. Do
the purpose of each item. Keep an eye not allow minutes to wait until the next
on the time and keep things moving. review meeting before they become
Do not allow waffle or deviation public.Working on the principle that
and be quick to stamp on personal most people complete their actions
attacks. However, do not be afraid to either immediately after being given
confront poor performance or them or just before the deadline, you
unacceptable behavior. may find it useful to circulate a further
Summarize what has been said to copy of the minutes with the draft
ensure that you, and everyone else, agenda for the next review meeting.
have understood it. Record action Where appropriate, follow up action
points so that you have something points personally to ensure they are
to refer back to in case of any being carried out. This may be done in
misunderstandings. Make sure they are a series of one-to-one reviews with
allocated to a person at the meeting individual members of your team.
Project management
IProject records
,.
- - -- ---
A
- . - ,= .*-
successful project is founded on -
I
a clear definition and a robust CHANGE REQUEST FORT' Ensure you are not
plan. While the plan may change trading off an essential
to overcome unforeseen problems, W feature to gain one that
changes to the scope should be rare. - - is merely desirable.
However, sometimes it is necessary or REQUESTED BY -
desirable to rescope a project.
REASON FOR CHAN
Put it in writing
Changes to the scope of the project
should always be agreed in writing with W METHODTD BEADOPTED
the project sponsor. By creating written
records, you ensure that no -
misunderstanding can exist between OPLE AFFt
you, and encourage detailed thought
about the impact on time and resources. W ttttLlJUN:
The framework given here covers the a. QUALITV
items that should be considered when 1) Essential features affected? -
making changes to time, cost, and
quality. The format may seem a bit DesirableI features a
formal in some circumstances, in -
I project handover
H
andover marks the point at
Handover takes place which the project team's For the end user, handover is the point
at the end of the responsibility for development at which they should take
project, but handover ends and the end user is fully capable of responsibility for what has been
activities take place taking on whatever the project produced. This will normally mean a
from the very produced. Purely at a practical level change in the way they operate, which
beginning. this requires certain adjustments by in turn may demand new skills or
both parties. However, there is also an impose new responsibilities. Even when
important psychological element in they recognize the long-term benefits,
handover that project managers ignore people tend to react negatively to any
at their peril. change imposed on them without
explanation. Handover activities are
Significance to the project team designed to make end users aware of
Without a clearly defined point of what they can expect and to give them
handover, project workers can drift off the support they need to make the
into a kind of limbo and find it difficult transitions required.
to move on. Often they feel dissatisfied
that their efforts have not been Handover activities
recognized, let alone rewarded. Although logically the handover phase
Sometimes, particularly in large and comes between implementation and
complex projects, workers are unsure review in the project sequence, success
exactly what has been achieved until depends on a continuous stream of
they see it handed over to the end user. activities that begin in the definition
Finally, there is a real danger that, phase and are planned into the
unless the point of handover is clearly implementation phase. Management
marked, project workers will find their experts W. Chan Kim and Rene
future productivity hampered by Mauborgne have identified three
requests for support from end users categories of handover activity:
that should properly be referred engagement, explanation, and
elsewhere. expectation clarity.
Project handover
The project
The ITIoffice manager of a medium-
sized PR agency was tasked to look for
The result
To his surprise, they unanimously
suggested the system that completely
-
H handover is carried
out successfully,
ways of using technology to reduce the abolished the need for dedicated end users will feel
size of his team in order to make it switchboard operators. When he ownership even of
possible to develop a library and pointed out that this would mean an the more unwelcome
research function without increasing end to their role, he found that two of changes the project
staff numbers overall. the three operators were prepared to brings.
His first move was to call a meeting take early retirement and the other had
of his team where he explained what identified another position within the
was being asked of him and invited company that she was interested in.
suggestions for areas to investigate. After further investigation she was
During the meeting, he suggested they retained and continued to contribute
might look at replacing the telephone in her new role.
exchange, currently run on a rota basis
by three people, with a more modern
one that could be run by fewer people. ANALYSIS
Not unnaturally the switchboard By involving the operators at every stage,
operators were quick to see the danger the! office manager made i t difficult for
to their jobs in this suggestion. the!mto oppo se a plan that made such
. m .
obv~ousoustness sense. Even if them had
Engaging the stakeholders be1 r opportunities availcIble, no
Over the next two months, the manager on1 re complained that tlley had
invited several companies to come in behl ueateu unfairly.
and explain their systems, ensuring
that at least one and sometimes two of
the operators were involved in every
meeting. At the end of the process he
asked them which of the systems
offered the best value for money.
Project management
I Handover checklist
2 Planning phase
T
o make the handover of your
project a success you should W Incorporate time and budget in
consider some or all of the your plan for handover activities.
following activities in the various W Plan progress reviews with
phases of the project. interested stakeholders.
W Set a target date for a launch
1 Definition phase event(s).
W Produce a model or prototype of W Bid for any facilities and equipment
the end product for your end users. needed.
W Agree when they should expect to W Warn people to set aside time for
get it. the event.
Explain the reasons for the project In a long-running project, your target
and the benefits of its product. date may not be more exact than the
W Explain, as far as you are able, the year in which you anticipate
impact the product will have on completion. This is acceptable as long
them (warts and all!). as you tighten up on timings as soon as
The way you communicate these things possible during implementation.
to your end user will depend on the size Equally, you may be involved in a
of the project. For a small-scale project project that will end with a phased "roll
within your own company, it might be a out," where handover takes place over
matter of sitting at someone's desk and months, or even years. This situation
sketching out your proposal on the back contains potential for confusion, so
of an envelope. At other end of the scale, ensure that people are clear exactly
you might decide to run a"roadshow," what to expect and by when, and think
which in itself could be quite a complex carefully about your communication
event requiring careful planning. plan. Simple messages are usually best.
-
Project handover
3
3 Implementation phase 4 Handover phase
4 Inform stakeholders of any changes 4 Test what you have produced. Even if handover will
to the original product or launch Involve the sponsor and end users. take place by degrees,
date as soon as possible. 4 Produce supporting documentation always consider how
4 Spend time listening to your and carry out trials to make sure it you wish to present the
stakeholders' hopes and concerns is adequate. results of your work.
for your project. Produce and do a trial of any Rrst impressions are
4 Address any change management training needed to allow end users powerful and a little
issues that the product will create. to interpret and operate the results. stage management
For example, find out what help Plan the handover event(s). can go a long way.
people need to react positively to 4 Rehearse the handover event(s).
the product. 4 Hold a celebratory event for the
4 Take time to plan and rehearse the project team.
details of any handover event. 4 Reassign project personnel.
Take every opportunity to confirm 4 Reassign or dispose of any project
people's understanding of what you are equipment, material and supplies.
doing-you will be amazed at how 4 Activate any "help desk"
quickly people forget what your project arrangement that will provide
is about and either dismiss or overplay ongoing support for the end user
its significance. The project manager following your project.
needs to manage stakeholders' However successful your project has
expectations throughout the been in objective terms, the way people
implementation phase using every view its success will be greatly
means of communication available. influenced by the way the handover is
Avoid seeming to take yourself too handled. Remember, too, that handover
seriously, but beware of undermining is for two audiences: the end users and
your project's credibility by flippant or the project team. Ensure that you take
cynical assessments of its chances. account of the needs of both groups.
Project management
1 Celebrating success
T
op sports events usually end with
the presentation of a trophy. recognize that success. Even in projects
Watching the emotion displayed that have had only moderate success,
at the moment of presentation, you where mistakes have been made and
could be forgiven for thinking that the lessons learned (and that is the
trophy is more important than the majority of projects!) there will still be
actual winning-even when the prize things to celebrate. If you miss the
has little intrinsic value or has to be opportunity to do so, you and your
given back afterward. team may feel the effect. How you mark
If you have managed a team that has completion will depend on your
achieved a successful result in a project, personal style and circumstances.
At the height of the troubles in Northern Ireland, a troop of 45 men from the British Army
went to West Belfast on an emergency tour. For four and a half months they l i e d in
cramped conditions and did a job that was both tiring and potentially dangerous. They were
involved in a numb1sr of incidlents from I?iotsto s hlotings.
~ Honever, no1one was killed and
.--...-. .. c. -.
. .. ..
there were no injuries beyonfiI a few mirlor scrape!s and bruir;es. By the end everyone was
.L.! -..-.,--.
IooKlng rorwarn UI genlng nume ro rnelr love0 ont!S.
The weel(before t hey~ were due to leave, the troop sergeant suggested that on return to
&I.^ I."..". "I.^..l* .4^,
LIUIIUG~D t i l e LIUUII DIIU~~IIV I O ~together for a barbecue before dispersing. This would mean
*"..^rt.^
keeping lthe men in barracks for one extra night. Initially pear~ l were e not keen on 1the idea,
but in thle end it wen t ahead and was much enjoyer I (though scarcely re!membered!I) by all.
In the months that the morale of the pen ad been in tnat troop was
.. , -
uniformly high, while that 01their colleagues was more vanaole. reople who obsewed this
k successful pa~ssingof a
attribute ditto the fact that those without some event to mr~ r the
.a .->
successrul ano
t .
shared experience were still working out in their I
...... .
worthwhile.
whefher r:lr not it had been
Project handover
1 Projedreview
ILearning systems
P
roject reviews often offer an
excellent opportunity to focus on 61VIN6 PERSOMAL FEEDBACK
people's individual performance. I SETLEARNING AM 0 PERF01IMAWCE G OALS AT THE OUTSET
The sponsor should offer feedback to the Meaningi u l review must be prefaced by ImeaningfulI goal-setting.
project manager, who should do the
same for members ofthe project team. AGAEETHE FORMAT, OlSTRlBUTION, d
The assessment should take the form of a OF ANY FEEOBACW
discussion, but you may also want to If you plan to give 1written fee ~ k it
e clear in advanc
provide a written record. that this will be t hI~case.
Hold the final review meeting as soon The checklist on page 92 outlines many
as handover is complete of the questions you may need to ask.
The usual response I get to this advice
is that it is unrealistic or even Involve all stakeholders
impossible. However, the longer you Review should take account of the
leave a review, the more you are likely views of everyone involved. Naturally
to have forgotten relevant facts and you need to balance this against
information by the time you get to it. practical restrictions on time and
Plan the review when you are planning availability. Remember to include the
the handover, and you should find it views of the clientlend user. In
easier to get time in people's diaries. commercial projects you may need to
Remember, holding an immediate think about how you will get these. It is
review does not mean you cannot hold often easier for the project sponsor to
a second one later to confirm or change invite feedback on the day-to-day
your recommendations once the dust running of the project. If more
has settled. Far from duplicating effort, impartial feedback is needed, you may
you will find that you actually save time choose to use a third party to conduct
because memories are clearer and formal market research.
conclusions are reached more quickly.
Re objective but sensitive
Take time to plan the agenda AC'wartsand all" appraisal of what
Be clear about which aspects of the happened can excite some fierce
projects you need to review. For a emotions if handled insensitively.
relatively small project, the agenda Project reviews should never become
might be as simple as: witch-hunts. In order to engender an
W What went well? open dialogue, make it clear that
What went badly? negative feedback will not be
What would we do differently? broadcast. It is often a good idea to
Action points agree the wording and distribution of
For more complex projects, however, any learning points drawn from
you will have many issues to address. mistakes with those who made them.
Project review
FINDINGS
Project management
1 Time
H How close to schedule did the Did people understand their roles?
project run?
H Was anyone overemployed or
H What variances occurred? underemployed?
H Were there any areas in which we H How well did people work together?
should have spent more time?
H Did we have the right roleslskiils
H What have we learned on within the project team?
scheduling?
H Was the process for monitoring
2 Cost performance successful?
H How close to cost was the project?
H Were there any "people" issues that
H What cost morelless than expected? we can learn from?
8 External suppliers
What new technology was How did outside suppliers perform?
employed in this project?
What can we learn from feedback
How might technology have helped on how we dealt with them?
it run more smoothly?
What have we learned as a result
7 Methodology of our dealings?
Did the project definition and
planning phases work as expected?
If I had the opportunity to do this
What new tools and techniques project again what would I do
have been developed? differently?
Technology
. -
Unsatisfactory .
Review , SATISFACTORY
Project management
1Index
If you liked Project Management, by Peter Hobbs check out these other
great career-building books from AMACDM.