Aircraft Maintenance Engineering Series

Aircraft Electrical Systems

Shahzad Khalil shahzadkhalil@piac.aero

Module 13.5 EASA Part-66 Cat.B2

13.5 Electrical Power (ATA 24) level 3

13.5.1 Batteries Installation And Operation;
13.5.2 DC Power Generation;
13.5.3 AC Power Generation;
13.5.4 Emergency Power Generation;
13.5.5 Voltage Regulation;
13.5.6 Power Distribution;
13.5.7 Inverters, Transformers, Rectifiers;
13.5.8 Circuit Protection;
13.5.9 External/Ground Power.
 13.5.1 Batteries Installation and Operation

An aircraft is fitted with one or two main batteries depending on its size and role. The battery is located as
close as possible to its point of distribution; this is to reduce IR losses through heavy-duty cables. In
smaller general aviation (GA) aircraft, the battery can be located in the engine compartment, alternatively
behind the luggage compartment in the rear fuselage, see Fig. 1.1(a). On some larger GA aircraft the
battery is located in the leading edge of the wing, see Fig. 1.1 (b). Other locations include the nose
equipment bay on medium size helicopters (Fig. 1.1 (c) ) or
attached to the external airframe , see Fig. 1.1 (d) . For larger aircraft, e.g. the Boeing 737, one battery is
located in the Avionics compartment.

Batteries are installed in a dedicated box or compartment designed to retain it in position and provide
ventilation. The battery compartment is usually fitted with a tray to collect any spilt electrolyte and protect
the airframe. Tray material will be resistant to corrosion and non-absorbent. The structure around the
battery compartment will be treated to reduce any damage from corrosion resulting from any spilt
electrolyte or fumes given off during charging. Batteries must be secured to prevent them from becoming
detached during aircraft maneuvers; they are a fire risk if they become detached from their tray.

Warning:

When installing batteries in the aircraft, extreme care must be taken not to directly connect (or ‘short
circuit’) the terminals. This could lead to a high discharge of electrical energy causing personal harm
and/or damage to the aircraft.

Key maintenance point

The battery must be secured without causing any deformation of the casing which could lead to plate
buckling and internal shorting.

Battery venting

Main battery installations must be vented to allow gases to escape, and accommodate electrolyte spillage.
Rubber or other non-corroding pipes are used as ventilation lines which direct the gases overboard, usually
terminating at the fuselage skin. On pressurized aircraft the differential pressures between cabin and
atmosphere are used to draw air through the venting system. Some installations contain traps to retain
harmful gases and vapors. Figure 1.2 illustrates battery venting, acid traps and how pressurized cabin air is
used to ventilate the battery.
 Fig.1.1 Typical battery locations: (a) battery compartment (GA aircraft); (b) wing leading
edge (Beech King Air); (c) nose equipment bay (medium helicopter); (d) externally mounted
(small helicopter)
 Fig. 1.2 Battery venting

Figure 1.2 Battery connections

Key maintenance point
Removal of the aircraft battery can result in loss of power to any clocks that are electrically. It will usually
be necessary to check and reset the clocks on the flight deck when battery power is eventually restored.

When no other power is on the airplane (B777), the hot battery bus supplies power to the static random
access memory (SRAM) of the AIMS. If you disconnect the main battery with no power to the AIMS
cabinets, you lose some data.

Electrical Power Introduction:

The Main parts of a typical alternating current (AC) aircraft electrical system are shown in Fig.1 and
comprise the following:
 Power generation
 Primary power distribution and protection
 Power conversion and energy storage
 Secondary power distribution and protection

Fig 1 Aircraft AC electrical system

 13.5.2 DC Power Generation

DC systems use generators to develop a DC voltage to supply aircraft system loads; usually the voltage is
28 VDC but there are 270 VDC systems in being which will be described later in the chapter. The
generator is controlled- the technical term is regulated – to supply 28 VDC at all times to the aircraft loads
such that any tendencies for the voltage to vary or fluctuate are overcome. DC generators are self-exciting,
in that they contain rotating electromagnets that generate the electrical power. The conversion to DC power
is achieved by using a device called a commutator which enables the output voltage, which would appear
as a simple sine wave output, to be effectively half-wave rectified and smoothed to present a steady DC
voltage with a ripple imposed. In aircraft applications the generators are typically shunt-wound in which
the high resistance field coils are connected in parallel with the armature as shown in Fig. 2.1

Fig. 2.1 Shunt-wound DC generator

The natural load characteristic of the shunt-wound generator is for the voltage to ‘droop’ with the
increasing load current, whereas the desired characteristic is to control the output at a constant voltage –
nominally 28 VDC. For this purpose a voltage regulator is used which modifies the field current to ensure
that terminal voltage is maintained while the aircraft engine speed and generator loads vary. The principle
of operation of the DC voltage regulator is shown in a Fig.2.2

Fig.2.2 DC Voltage Regulator

13.5.3 AC power generation

An AC system uses a generator to generate a sine wave of a given voltage and, in most cases, of a constant
frequency. The construction of the alternator is simpler than that of the DC generator in that no commutator
is required. Early AC generators used slip rings to pass current to/from the rotor windings; however these
suffered from abrasion and pitting, especially when passing high currents at altitude. Modern AC
generators work on the principle shown in Fig. 3.1.

Fig.3.1 Principle of Operation of Brushless AC Generator

This AC generator may be regarded as several machines sharing the same shaft. From left to right as
viewed on the diagram they comprise:
 A Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG)
 Exciter Generator-An excitation stator and an excitation rotor containing rotating diodes
 Main Generator -A Power rotor encompassed by a power stator Main Generator

The flow of power through this generator is highlighted by the dashed line. The PMG generates ‘raw’
(variable frequency, variable voltage) power sensed by the control and regulation section that is part of the
generator controller. This modulates the flow of DC current into the excitation stator windings and
therefore controls the voltage generated by the excitation rotor. The rotation of the excitation rotor within
the field produced by the excitation stator windings is rectified by means of diodes contained within the
rotor and supplies a regulated and controlled DC voltage to excite the power rotor windings. The rotating
field generated by the power rotor induces an AC voltage in the power stator that may be protected and
supplied to the aircraft systems. Most AC systems used on aircraft use a three-phase system, that is the
alternator generates three sine waves; each phase positioned 120 degrees out of phase with the others.
These phases are most often connected in a star configuration with one end of each of the phases connected
to a neutral point as shown in Fig. 3.2. In this layout the phase voltage of a standard aircraft system is 115
VAC, whereas the line voltage measured between lines is 200 VAC. The standard for aircraft frequency-
controlled systems is 400 Hz.
The descriptions given above outline the two primary methods of power generation used on aircraft for
many years. The main advantage of AC power is that it operates at a higher voltage; 115 VAC rather than
28 VDC for the DC system. The use of a higher voltage is not an advantage in itself; in fact higher voltages
require better standards of insulation. It is in the transmission of power that the advantage of higher voltage
is most apparent.

Fig.3.2 Star connected 3-phase AC generator

For a given amount of power transmission, a higher voltage relates to an equivalent lower current. The
lower the current the lower are losses such as voltage drops (proportional to current) and power losses
(proportional to current squared). Also as current conductors are generally heavy is can be seen that the
reduction in current also saves weight; a very important consideration for aircraft systems.

Modern Electrical Power Generation Types:

So far basic DC and AC power generating systems have been described. The DC system is limited by
currents greater than 400 A and the constant frequency AC method using an Integrated Drive Generator
(IDG) has been mentioned. In fact there are many more power generation types in use today. A number of
recent papers have identified the issues and projected the growth in aircraft electric power requirements in
a civil aircraft setting, even without the advent of more-electric systems. However not only are aircraft
electrical system power levels increasing but the diversity of primary power generation types is increasing.

Fig.3.3 Electrical Power Generation Types

The different types of electrical power generation currently being considered are shown in Fig.3.3. The
Constant Frequency (CF) 115 VAC, three-phase, 400 Hz options are typified by the Integrated Drive
Generator (IDG), variable speed constant frequency (VSCF) cycloconverter and DC link options. Variable
frequency (VF) 115 VAC, three phase power generation – sometimes termed ‘frequency-wild’ – is also a
more recent contender, and although a relatively inexpensive form of power generation, it has the
disadvantage that some motor loads may require motor controllers. Military aircraft in the US are inclining
toward 270 VDC systems. Permanent Magnet Generators (PMGs) are used to generate 28 VDC emergency
electrical power for high-integrity systems. Fig.3.3. is also interesting in that it shows the disposition
between generation system components located on the engine and those within the airframe.

Without being drawn into the partisan arguments regarding the pros and cons of the major types of power
generation in use or being introduced today it is worth examining the main contenders:
 Constant frequency using an IDG
 Variable frequency
 Variable Speed Constant Frequency (VSCF) options
Constant frequency/IDG:

Fig.3.4 Constant frequency/IDG generation

The main features of CF/IDG power are shown in Fig.3.4. In common with all the other power generation
types this has to cater for a 2:1 ratio in engine speed between maximum power and ground idle. The
Constant Speed Drive (CSD) in effect acts as an automatic gearbox, maintaining the generator shaft speed
at a constant rpm which results in a constant frequency output of 400 Hz, usually within approximately 10
Hz or less. The drawback of the hydromechanical CSD is that it needs to be correctly maintained in terms
of oil charge level and oil cleanliness. Also to maintain high reliability frequent overhauls may be
necessary. That said, the IDG is used to power the majority of civil transport aircraft today as shown in
Table1.

CSD

Variable frequency:

Fig.3.5 Variable frequency power generation

Variable frequency (VF) power generation as shown in Fig.3.5. It is the simplest and most reliable form of
power generation. In this technique no attempt is made to nullify the effects of the 2:1 engine speed ratio
and the power output, though regulated to 115 VAC, suffers a frequency variation typically from 380 to
720 Hz. This wide band VF power has an effect on frequency-sensitive aircraft loads, the most obvious
being the effect on AC electric motors that are used in many aircraft systems. There can therefore be a
penalty to be paid in the performance of other aircraft systems such as fuel, ECS and hydraulics. In many
cases variations in motor/pump performance may be accommodated but in the worst cases a motor
controller may be needed to restore an easier control situation.
VF is being widely adopted in the business jet community as their power requirements take them above the
28 VDC/12 kW limits of twin 28 VDC systems.

VSCF:

Figure 12 shows the concept of the VSCF converter. In this technique the variable frequency power
produced by the generator is electronically converted by solid-state power-switching devices to constant
frequency 400 Hz, 115 VAC power. Two options exist:

Fig. 3.6 VSCF power generation

DC link: In the DC link the raw power is converted to an intermediate DC power stage – the DC link –
before being electronically converted to three-phase AC power. DC link technology has been used on the
B737NG, MD-90 and B777 but has yet to rival the reliability of CF or VF power generation.
Cycloconverter: The cycloconverter uses a different principle. Six phases are generated at relatively high
frequencies in excess of 1,600 Hz and the solid-state devices switch between these multiple phases in a
predetermined and carefully controlled manner. The effect is to electronically commutate the input and
provide three phases of constant frequency 400 Hz power. Though this appears to be a complex technique
it is in fact quite elegant and cycloconverter systems have been successfully used on military aircraft.

Table 3.1 Recent civil and military aircraft power system developments
 13.5.4 Emergency Power Generation

In certain emergency conditions the typical aircraft power generation system already described may not
meet all the airworthiness authority requirements and additional sources of power generation may need to
be used to power the aircraft systems. The aircraft battery offers a short-term power storage capability,
typically up to 30 minutes. However for longer periods of operation the battery is insufficient. The
operation of twin-engined passenger aircraft on ETOPS flights now means that the aircraft has to be able to
operate on one engine while up to 180 minutes from an alternative or diversion airfield. This has led to
modification of some of the primary aircraft systems, including the electrical system, to ensure that
sufficient integrity remains to accomplish the 180 minute diversion while still operating with acceptable
safety margins. The three standard methods of providing back-up power on civil transport aircraft are:
(1) Ram Air Turbine (RAT)
(2) Back-up Converters
(3) Permanent Magnet Generators (PMGs)

Ram Air Turbine

Fig.4.1 Ram Air Turbine

The Ram Air Turbine or RAT is deployed when most of the conventional power generation system has
failed or is unavailable for some reason. The RAT is an airdriven turbine, normally stowed in the aircraft
ventral or nose section that is extended either automatically or manually when the emergency commences.
The passage of air over the turbine is used to power a small emergency generator of limited capacity,
usually enough to power the crew’s essential flight instruments and a few other critical services – see Fig.
4.1. Typical RAT generator sizing may vary from 5 to 15 kVA depending upon the aircraft. The RAT also
powers a small hydraulic power generator for similar hydraulic system emergency power provision. Once
deployed then the RAT remains extended for the duration of the flight and cannot be restowed without
maintenance action on the ground. The RAT is intended to furnish the crew with sufficient power to fly the
aircraft while attempting to restore the primary generators or carry out a diversion to the nearest airfield. It
is not intended to provide significant amounts of power for a lengthy period of operation.

Back-up converters

The requirements for ETOPS have led to the need for an additional method of back-up power supply, short
of deploying the RAT that should occur in only the direst emergency. The use of back-up converters
satisfies this requirement and is used on the Boeing 777. Back-up generators are driven by the same engine
accessory gearbox but are quite independent of the main IDGs. Refer to Fig. 4.2. The back-up generators
are VF and therefore experience significant frequency
variation as engine speed varies. The VF supply is fed into a back-up converter which,

Fig 4.2 Simplified back-up VSCF converter system

using the DC link technique, first converts the AC power to DC by means of rectification. The converter
then synthesizes three-phase 115 VAC 400 Hz power by means of sophisticated solid-state power-
switching techniques. The outcome is an alternative means of AC power generation which may power
some of the aircraft AC busbars; typically the 115 VAC transfer buses in the case of the Boeing 777. In this
way substantial portions of the aircraft electrical system may remain powered even though some of the
more sizeable loads such as the galleys and other non-essential loads may need to be shed by the Electrical
Load Management System (ELMS).
 Permanent Magnet Generators (PMGs)

The use of PMGs to provide emergency power has become prominent over the last decade or so. As can be
seen from the description of the back-up converter above, the back-up generator hosts PMGs which may
supply several hundred watts of independent generated power to the flight control DC system where the
necessary conversion to 28 VDC is undertaken. It was already explained earlier in the chapter that AC
generators include a PMG to bootstrap the excitation system. PMGs – also called Permanent Magnet
Alternators (PMAs) – are used to provide dual independent on-engine supplies to each lane of the FADEC.
As an indication of future trends it can therefore be seen that on an aircraft such as the Boeing 777 there are
a total of 13 PMGs/PMAs across the aircraft critical control systems – flight control, engine control and
electrical systems. See Fig. 4.3.

Fig.4.3. Boeing 777 PMG/PMA complement

13.5.5 Voltage regulation

a) DC Voltage Regulator
DC generation is by means of shunt-wound self-exciting machines as briefly outlined above. The principle
of voltage regulation is outlined in Fig. 2.2. This shows a variable resistor in series with the field winding
such that variation of the resistor alters the resistance of the field winding; hence the field current and
output voltage may be varied. In actual fact the regulation is required to be an automatic function that takes
account of load and engine speed. The voltage regulation needs to be in accordance with the standard used
to specify aircraft power generation systems, namely MIL-STD- 704D. This standard specifies the voltage
at the point of regulation and the nature of the acceptable voltage drops throughout the aircraft distribution,
protection and wiring system. DC systems are limited to around 400 A or 12 kW per channel maximum for
two reasons:
(1) The size of conductors and switchgear to carry the necessary current becomes prohibitive.
(2) The brush wear on brushed DC generators becomes excessive with resulting maintenance costs if these
levels are exceeded.
Carbon-pile regulator:
Another type of electromechanical regulator is the carbon-pile device. This type of regulator is used in
generator systems with outputs in excess of 50 A and provides smoother regulation compared with the
vibrating contact regulator. Carbon-pile regulators consists of a variable resistance in series with the
generator’s shunt wound field coil. The variable resistance is achieved with a stack (or pile) of carbon discs
(washers). These are retained by a ceramic rube that keeps the discs aligned. Figure 5.1 shows the main
features of the regulator in cross-section.

Fig..5.1 Carbon pile Regulator Cross Section

The surface of each disc is relatively rough; applying pressure to the discs creates more surface contact,
thereby reducing the resistance of the pile. When pressure is reduced, the reverse process happens, and the
resistance through the pile increases. Pressure is applied to the pile by a spring plate. This compression is
opposed by the action of an electromagnet connected to the generator output; the strength of the
electromagnet’s flux varies in proportion with generator
output voltage. Higher generator output increases the current in the electromagnet; this attracts the steel
centre of the spring, which reduces compression on the pile, thereby increasing its resistance. Less field
current reduces the generator output voltage; the current in the voltage coil reduces electromagnetic effect
and the spring compresses the pile, reducing its resistance.
The varying force applied by the electromagnet and spring thereby controls the pile’s resistance to
control field current and maintains a constant generator output voltage. The regulator is contained within a
cylinder (typically three inches in diameter and six inches in length) with cooling fins.
Functions of each component are as follows:
• Compression Screw : the means of setting up compression on the pile and compensating for
erosion of the pile during its life.
• Spring plate and Armature : this compresses the pile to its minimum resistance position.
• Voltage coil: contains a large number of turns of copper wire and, with the core screw, forms an
electromagnet when connected across the generator output.
• Magnet core: concentrates the coil flux; it is also used for voltage adjustment during servicing.

• Bi-metallic washers: providing temperature compensation.

Figure .5.2 shows the carbon-pile regulator connected into the generator’s regulating circuit. The ballast
resistor has a low-temperature coefficient and minimizes the effects of temperature on the voltage coil. The
trimmer resistors (in series with the ballast resistor) allow the generator output voltage to be trimmed on
the aircraft. The boost resistor is normally shorted out; if the switch is opened it allows a slight increase in
generator output to meet short-term increases in loading. This is achieved by temporarily reducing the
current through the voltage coil. The boost resistor can either be located in the regulator and/or at a remote
location for easy access during maintenance.

Fig.5.2 Carbon Pile Regulator Schematics

Electronic Voltage Regulator

There are many types and configurations of electronic voltage regulators. A representative type is
illustrated in Fig. 5.3. The alternator master switch used in AC systems energizes the field relay and applies
current to the base of TR 2 and the resistor network of R 1, R 2 , RV1 . This network, together with the
Zener diode (Z) is used to establish the nominal operating voltage.
Current flows through the alternator’s field coil via transistors TR 2 and TR 3, allowing the generator’s
output to increase. When the output reaches its specified value (14 or 28 V DC depending on the
installation) Zener diode Z conducts which turns on transistor TR1, shorting out transistor TR 2 and TR 3.
The generator voltage falls and Zener diode Z stops conducting, thereby turning of transistor TR 1. This
turns transistors TR 2 and TR 3 back on, allowing the generator output to increase again. This operation is
repeated many times per second as with

Fig.5.3 Electronic voltage regulator

the vibrating contact regulator; the difference being that electronic circuits have no moving parts and do not
suffer from arcing across contacts. Diode D1 provides protection against the back e.m.f. induced in the
field each time TR 3 is switched. The trimming resistor R V1 can be used to adjust the nominal voltage
output of the regulator.
 a) AC Voltage Regulator (GCU)
The automatic voltage regulation uses a controlled d.c. current through the generator's excitor field.
There are various methods used on different aircraft, we will only discuss the transistorized method.

Fig. 5.4
Voltage Trimming
With the earlier designed systems the voltage regulation is adjustable in situ; this normally applies to a
carbon pile type voltage regulator which does tend to drift during service. In the later type of transistor
controlled voltage regulator, in situ adjustment is not allowed. Voltage adjustment is a workshop function
only.
Point of Regulation
With the larger type of aircraft there is a long distance between the generator and the distribution point
which can lead to a small volts drop under heavy loads. As we require a controlled voltage at the busbar,
the point of regulation is chosen as near to the distribution busbar as possible but on the generator side of
the GCB.
Current Limiting
Some systems control the generators maximum overload current. This is achieved, within the voltage
regulation section of the GCU, by monitoring the load current and reducing the generator's output voltage
when the load current limit is reached.

Transistorised Voltage Regulator

Voltage Sensing
The voltage regulator senses three phase voltage at the point of regulation. The average of all three phases
is compared to a reference value and the resultant signal is fed to a summing network. The summing circuit
senses the need for increased or decreased excitation.

Fig.5.5

Field Current Regulation

Output transistors in the final stage of the voltage regulator provide a pulse width modulated signal to the
excitor field by switching the PMG current on and off. Voltage amplitude is maintained constant while the
on/off pulse is varied according to excitation requirements,
see Fig. 5.6.

Fig.5.6

13.5.6 Power distribution

DC System:

Parallel Operation of DC Generators:

In multi-Engined aircraft each engine will be driving its own generator and in this situation it is desirable
that ‘no-break’ or uninterrupted power is provided in cases of engine or generator failure. A number of
sensitive aircraft instruments and navigation devices which comprise some of the electrical loads may be
disturbed and may need to be restarted or re-initialized following a power interruption. In order to satisfy
this requirement, generators may be paralleled to carry an equal proportion of the electrical load between
them. Individual generators are controlled by means of voltage regulators that automatically compensate
for variations. In the case of parallel generator operation there is a need to interlink the voltage regulators
such that any unequal loading of the generators can be adjusted by means of corresponding alterations in
field current.

Fig.6.1 DC generator parallel operation

This paralleling feature is more often known as an equalizing circuit and therefore provides ‘no-
break’ power in the event of a major system failure. A simplified diagram showing the main elements of
DC parallel operation is at Fig.6.1.

Protection functions
The primary conditions for which protection needs to be considered in a DC system are as follows.
Reverse current. In a DC system it is evident that the current should flow from the generator to the
busbars and distribution systems. In a fault situation it is possible for current to flow in the reverse
direction and the primary system components need to be protected from this eventuality. This is usually
achieved by means of reverse current circuit-breakers or relays. These devices effectively sense reverse
current and switch the generator out of circuit thus preventing any ensuing damage.
Overvoltage Protection. Faults in the field excitation circuit can cause the generator to overexcite and
thereby regulate the supply voltage to an erroneous overvoltage condition. This could then result in the
electrical loads being subject to conditions that could cause permanent damage. Overvoltage protection
senses these failure conditions and opens the line contactor taking the generator off-line.
Undervoltage Protection. In a single generator system undervoltage is a similar fault condition as the
reverse current situation already described. However, in a multi-generator configuration with paralleling by
means of an equalizing circuit, the situation is different. Here an undervoltage protection capability is
essential as the equalizing circuit is always trying to raise the output of a lagging generator; in this situation
the undervoltage protection is an integral part of the parallel load sharing function.

AC System:

There are three main types of AC distribution system architecture used on aircraft.
• Split bus system
• Parallel Bus system
• Frequency wild System

Split Bus system

This is a completely isolated twin generation system, sometimes called a non-parallel system used on
twin-engine aircraft, see Fig.6.2 . Primary power is based on two main AC integrated drive generators
(typically 40 kVA on each engine). An APU generator (40 kVA) is used as back-up in the event of a main
integrated drive generator (IDG) failure. Note that the APU is normally a constant speed device in its own
right; therefore an IDG is not required. The advantage of a split-bus system is that the generators do not
need to be operating at exactly the same frequency and can be running out of phase with each other.
Secondary power is derived from step-down transformers to provide 26 V AC; transformer rectifier units
(TRU) provide 28 V DC for the DC busbars and battery charging. Referring to Fig.6.2, the right and left
generators feed their own busbars to which specific loads are connected.
 Fig.6.2 Split bus system

Each generator bus is connected to a transfer bus via transfer relays. In the event of a generator failure, the
remaining generator (engine or APU) supplies essential loads. Control of the system is via a number of
flight compartment switches, control breakers and relays arranged to connect and disconnect the generators
and busbars.
 Figure 6.3 Typical electrical power control panel features

Typical control panel features for a split bus system are shown in Fig.6.3 ; the features of this panel are:
Ammeters for the main generators to indicate load Current Ground power available (blue) when external
power supply is connected Ground power on/off switch to select ground power onto the aircraft Transfer
bus off (amber) when the transfer relay is de-energized (either normal or transfer) Bus off (amber) both
respective generator circuit breakers (GCB) and bus tie breakers (BTB) open Generator bus off (blue) if the
respective GCB is open APU generator bus off (blue) APU running at 95% RPM, no power from
generator.

Parallel Bus System

Introduction: A.C. generators operated in parallel means that two or more a.c. generators are connected to
the same busbar and share the load. To operate a.c. generators in parallel, consideration must be given to
the phase relationship and the control of voltage and torque/load. Fig. 6.4 shows an a.c. distribution system
with three main generators, an APU generator and provision for supplying power from an external source.
The actual layout does vary between different aircraft manufacturers.
 Fig 6.4. Parallel Busbar System

AC generators are operated in parallel to provide ‘no-break’ power just like DC system. However this
technique only applies to constant frequency AC generation as it is impossible to parallel frequency wild or
Variable Frequency (VF) AC generators. In fact many of the aircraft loads such as anti/de-icing heating
elements driven by VF generators are relatively frequency insensitive and the need for ‘no-break’ power is
not nearly so important. To parallel AC machines, the control task is more complex as both real and
reactive (imaginary) load components have to be synchronized for effective load sharing.

Operation A.C: The normal operating configuration is with all GCBs and BTBs closed.
Failure of a main generator would result appropriate GCB opening, the busbar remaining powered via the
bus tie line and BTBs. The APU generator is available for ground use and in flight as a back up. It is not
normal for the APU generator to be connected in parallel with the main generators as the APU normally
has no CSD/IDG fitted and therefore no torque/load control is available. The external power supply is not
compatible with the main generators or the APU generator as the aircraft system has no control over the
voltage or torque/load.

Before understanding how parallel operation of AC generators is obtained first we will see the effect of
load on AC Generator and then see how this load is balanced for parallel operation.

Effect of load on AC Generator:

No Load:
With the no load condition, there is no distortion of the magnetic field as shown in Fig.1

Fig.1 No Load
Resistive Load (Unity Power Factor):
Any increase in the resistive load, also referred to as REAL LOAD, causes the rotating field to twist
against the direction of rotation as shown in Fig. 2. As a result there will be a tendency for the speed and
frequency to reduce, the induced current opposes the motion producing it (Lenz's Law), also the terminal
voltage falls slightly due to the IR loss in the stator windings.
An increase in the prime mover torque will regain the original speed of rotation and therefore the original
frequency while an increase in the field current maintains the output voltage.

Fig.2 Real Load

Inductive Load (Zero Power Factor, Lagging): An increase in the inductive load, also referred to as
REACTIVE LOAD, results in a weaker rotating field, see Fig.3.

Fig. 3 Inductive Load

The resultant effect is a considerable loss in the total field strength and a falling terminal voltage.
Increasing the field current restores the terminal voltage, but the increased field current causes an increase
in the rotor temperature.
Capacitive Load (Zero Power Factor): Increasing the capacitive load or reactive load results in a stronger
rotating field. The rotor field and the stator fields are additive giving a stronger rotating field and therefore
a higher output voltage, see Fig.4. Reducing the rotating field current controls the voltage

Fig. 4 Capacitive Load

NOTE: Aircraft a.c. generation systems normally have a lagging power factor, and inductive loads.
Further Parallel Operation: Normal operation is with the main generators connected to their individual
busbars by their own GCBs which in turn are connected to the tie busbar via the BTBs. In this
configuration the generators are connected in parallel and are sharing the loads equally.

Fig.6.5 Parallel operation

Consider the system shown in Fig. 6.5. the APU can power all the busbars via the BTBs and the SSB (split
system breaker) with the assistance of some load shedding. One external power supply can also supply all
four buses, but if a second external power supply is switched on the SSB is opened to prevent parallel
operation. The APU and external power are also prevented from being connected together in parallel.

The next diagram, illustrates the need for certain conditions to be satisfied for paralleling to take place.
 Fig.6.6 Requirements for Paralleling
These requirements relate to:-
Frequency: The frequencies on each side of the BTB must be within specified limits. Frequency difference
must be less than 6 Hz.
Voltage: The voltages on each side of the BTB must be within specified limits. Voltage difference must be
less than 10V.
Phase Angle: The phase angles on each side of the BTB must be within specified limits. Phase angle
difference must be less than 90 degrees.
Phase Rotation:The phase rotations on each side of the BTB must be identical.

Should two or more generators be connected in parallel with the frequency, voltage or phase angle outside
the specified limits, shock loads will be imposed on the CSDs as shown in Fig. 6.7.
 Fig.6.7 Production of A Voltage Error

Lamps Bright Method

For this method we are looking at the phase relationship between the generator A phase and the tie busbar
B phase. A second lamp is also shown connected between the generator B phase and the tie busbar A
phase. The ideal conditions for connecting the two supplies in parallel are with the lamps bright.
 Fig..6.8 LAMP BRIGHT

LOCKING IN PARALLEL: When a.c. generators are connected in parallel, then they are said to be
'locked' together, let’s see how. When two generators are connected in parallel they are rarely in perfect
synchronization at the instant the GCB is closed. An error voltage is produced which causes a circulating
current to flow between the generators. The generator that is lagging in phase tends to be driven as a motor
while the generator that is leading in phase has a retarding torque, both of these effects are caused by the
circulating current. The motor and retarding effects very quickly pull both generators into synchronization
with each other. This situation also applies to multiple generators operating in parallel.

Normal Parallel Connection: Prior to starting the engines we can expect either the external power or the
APU generator to be supplying the busbars via the BTBs. Now, for the next stage in the operation some
aircraft are automatic while others are manual. With the automatic system the generator switches are
selected to the ON position prior to starting the engines. As the engine speed approaches ground idle the
generator's voltage and frequency stabilize and it is ready to come on line. The external power contactor or
the APU contactor is opened and the GCB closes automatically.
The manual system is similar but normally a flight engineer will select the GCB closed after the engine has
started, the external power contactor or the APU contactor opens and the GCB closes.
The second generator is brought on line via its GCB when its GCU is satisfied that it is safe to connect in
parallel. The other generators are brought on line in a similar manner.
Crash Paralleling: To connect generators in parallel when they are out of phase can cause damage to the
CSD. The flight engineer or pilot can only in extreme emergency conditions connect the generators in
parallel when they are not synchronized. This is achieved by first opening the BTB, closing the GCB and
then reclosing the BTB, we say that the system has been 'crashed paralleled'. Remember that our 'auto-
parallel' circuit only controls the GCB and not the BTB.

CSD Shock Loads:

In order that two generators may operate in parallel their voltages must be in phase with each other with
reference to the load. This is shown in Fig.5.6.9 for a single phase from each generator.

Fig.6.9
But the two voltages are 180 degrees out of phase with respect to each other. Open the switch in Fig.6.9
and you can see that the generators' voltages must oppose each other. If an error voltage is produced, as
shown in Fig.6.7, and a circulating current is produced between the generators, it is the sudden application
of this circulating current that can damage or even shear the drive of the CSD.

Load Sharing:

When a load is placed on an a.c. busbar, the nature of the load will determine the power factor of the
system. Any load current, whether leading or lagging, can be thought of as having two components:-
• One in phase with the voltage.
• One in quadrature with it.
The component in phase with the voltage is termed the real load component and the quadrature component
is termed the reactive load component.

If one generator is supplying a given load it has to supply both of these components in their entirety and no
question of load sharing arises, Fig.5.6.10.
 Fig. 6.10
When two (or more) generators are supplying the same load they must share the available real and reactive
loads equally. To do this the actual currents supplied by each machine must be identical and their power
factors must also be identical, Fig. 6.10 (b).

Consider the case in Fig. 6.11(a) where No. 1 generator is supplying more than its fair share of the real load
and yet equal sharing of reactive loading is maintained. Under these conditions, the actual current supplied
by No.1 is greater than that supplied by No.2 and No.1’s power factor has moved towards unity whilst No.
2's power factor has decreased.

Fig.6.11
In Fig..6.11(b) No.1 is supplying more than its fair share of reactive load and yet equal sharing of real load
is maintained. Again, the actual current supplied by No. 1 is greater than that supplied by No.2, but now
No.1’s power factor has decreased whilst No. 2's has moved towards unity.
The condition can arise, Fig. 6.12(a), in which No. I supplies more than its fair share of both real and
reactive loading and the power factors of the two machines can remain identical. Under this condition,
however, the actual current supplied by No.1 will be vastly greater than that supplied by No.2.

Fig.6.12

Fig. 6.12(b) shows that actual currents may be equal yet power factors could be different. It will be evident,
therefore, that it is necessary to provide two load sharing devices:-
• One to share real load.
• The other to share reactive load.
Real Load Division
Division of real load among paralleled generators becomes necessary, because it is not possible to attain
exactly identical speed governor settings on all four generator constant speed drives.
Therefore, in a paralleled system, the generator which has the highest speed governor setting will carry
more than its share of real load. The unbalance in real load among paralleled generators is
detected by means of current transformers and a real load division loop, whereby signals proportional to
the unbalance are supplied to control devices which correct the torque on the generator rotors.

The frequency of an isolated generator is determined by the initial setting of the basic speed governor on its
associated constant speed drive. Since the a.c. generators are synchronous machines, two or more
generators operating in parallel will be locked together with respect to frequency, whereby the frequency of
the paralleled system is that of the generator which supplies the highest frequency. If the speed governor
setting on one constant speed drive is higher than others in a parallel operating system, its associated
generator will motor the generators with which it is paralleled. In this case the generator with the higher
speed governor setting rotates at the same speed as its constant speed drive output, but since each generator
is mechanically coupled to its constant speed drive through an overrunning clutch, the generators which are
being motored rotate at a speed which is higher than their associated constant speed drive output speeds.
Therefore there is less transfer of energy from the constant speed drives to the generators which are being
motored. Since the energy supplied to the motored generators originates from a generator with a higher
speed governor setting, this generator carries more than its share of real load and the motored generators
carry less than their share of real load. To equally divide real load among parallel generators, equal
amounts of energy must be supplied in the form of torque on the generator rotors. Fig.5.6.13 on the next
page is a typical real load control circuit.

Real Load Division

Fig 6.13 Real Load Control Circuit

Each current transformer is connected across auxiliary contacts on the associated generator's bus tie breaker
and generator breaker. Should the bus tie breaker or the generator breaker be open, the auxiliary contact
will short out the current transformer so that any voltage induced will cause a current to circulate within the
current transformer. Should the bus tie and the generator breakers be closed, indicating that the entire a.c.
power system is operating paralleled, the
auxiliary contacts are opened to allow all current transformers to be connected in a series loop where the
load controller error detectors are parallel loads to the current transformers. Since all current transformers
are connected in series, current will flow in the series loop as a result of voltages induced in the individual
current transformers.
 Fig.6.14

Consider Fig. 6.13, in which we will assume that generator No. 1 is supplying too much real load and that
the instantaneous current flowing from its associated current transformer is eight units in the direction
shown, and that the remaining generators are 'under' loaded to the extent that their associated current
transformers each produce only four units of current.

It may be shown that the current flowing in the series loop is equal to the average current produced by all
four current transformers. Using the current values assigned to the circuit it is found that the current
circulating in the series loop is equal to five units, or the average current produced by all four current
transformers. Fig. 6.13.
Since five units of current circulates in the series loop each current transformer produces an amount which
differs the average loop current, that difference will flow in parallel loads connected in the circuit. The five
units of current in the loop enter the series-parallel
circuit at overload generator (No.1). The current transformer connected on the feeder line of No. 1
generator produces eight units of current, but only five units enters the series-parallel circuit for generator
No.2. The difference, three units of current, flows through the error detector in the load
controller. A potential will be developed across the error detector. The value of the pd depends upon the
value of the current flowing in the detector. The polarity of the pd depends upon the direction of the current
flowing in the detector. The error detector senses the value and polarity of the error voltage and adjusts the
setting of the basic governor via the electromagnet and the centrifugal flyweights. The action of the
centrifugal flyweights in the constant speed drive
basic speed governor is such that increased centrifugal forces on the flyweights result in proportional
decreases in constant speed drive output speed. Similarly, decreased centrifugal forces on the flyweights
result in increased output speed from the constant speed drive.
In the condition shown in Fig. 6.13, No. 1 load controller will adjust the No. 1 speed governor to reduce the
speed of No. 1 CSD. The No.2, 3 & 4 load controllers will increase the speed of their CSDs. No. 1
generator will shed real load and Nos. 2, 3 and 4 generators will take on more real load.

Reactive Load Division

Division of reactive load becomes necessary because the voltage adjustment settings on the voltage
regulators are never exactly identical. Therefore, the amount of excitor current supplied from each
generator will never be exactly identical and in a paralleled system, the generator which receives the
greatest amount of excitor current will carry more than its share of reactive load. The unbalance of reactive
load is detected by current transformers placed on phase C of each generator, (Fig. 6.15), whereby signals
proportional to the generator's reactive load are delivered to the respective voltage regulators. The result is
a reduction of excitation to the generator which carries more than its share of the reactive load, and an
increase of excitation to the generators carrying less than their share of the reactive load.

An increase of excitor field current to an isolated generator results in a proportional increase of voltage on
the generator load bus, however, should two or more generators operate in parallel, an
increase of excitor field current to one generator results in only a small increase of voltage on the paralleled
buses. The increased bus voltage, caused by one over excited generator, will be delivered to all loads in the
paralleled system, but since the remaining generators receive their normal amounts of excitation current,
they will deliver voltages which are lower than the voltage on the paralleled buses. Since there is a
difference in potential between generators, the
generator which is over excited will not only supply the normal loads, but will also supply power to the
generators operating normally.

Fig. 6.15
Thus, in a paralleled system, the generators which receive their normal amounts of excitation current
supply less power when one generator becomes over excited, and are carried as additional loads by the over
excited generator. Since the current circulating between
the over excited generator and the normally excited generators lags the voltage, the over excited generator
carries more than its share of reactive load, and the normally excited generators carry less than their share.
Should the bus tie and generator breakers be closed, indicating that
the entire a.c power system is operating paralleled, the auxiliary contacts are opened to allow all current
transformers to be connected in a series loop where the mutual reactor primaries act as parallel loads to the
current transformers. Since all current transformers are connected in series, current will flow in the series
loop as a result of voltages induced in the individual current transformers. Consider Fig.6.15.

The difference, three units of current, flows through the mutual reactor (MR), shown in Fig.6.16, in the
voltage regulator in such a manner that the voltage induced in the secondary winding of the mutual reactor
is in phase with the reactive current carried by the generator. Since the secondary winding of the mutual
reactor is in series with the voltage regulator error detector, the added voltage will appear to the error
detector as an over voltage. Accordingly, the voltage regulator causes a reduced amount of excitor current
to be delivered to the over excited generator proportional to the average reactive load in the entire a.c.
power system.

Fig. 6.16

The current flowing in the series loop represents the average reactive load in the a.c. power system;
generators No.2, 3 and 4 carry less than their share of reactive load. The current transformers for generators
No.2, 3 and 4 only produce five units of current each,
which is one unit less than that which flows in the series loop. The difference flows through the mutual
reactors in the respective voltage regulators, thereby causing an increased amount of excitor current to be
delivered to the under excited generators proportional to the average reactive load in the a.c. power system
as shown in Fig.6.17 on the next page.
 Fig.6.17
The ability of the load division loops to distinguish between real and reactive load is a property of the
sensing devices. Reactive load division is accomplished by delivering to the voltage regulator, signals
which are proportional to the generator's reactive load only. The mutual reactor in the voltage regulator
serves this purpose.

Split/parallel bus system

This is a flexible load distribution system for large passenger aircraft; it provides the advantages of the
parallel system and maintains isolation when needed. Primary power supply features include: one IDG per
engine, two APU generators and two external power connections. A
split system breaker links left and right sides of distribution system. Any generator can supply any load
busbar; any combination of generators can operate in parallel.
 Frequency Wild (Variable Speed Variable Frequency) System

The system that we are going to look at is an older system but it incorporates the basic principles that we
require to learn about. Fig. 6 on the next page shows the complete system but it is only the principle that
we require to remember, not the whole circuit.

A.C. Frequency Wild Generator

The generator in Fig. 6.18 is old in its design; it dates back prior to the use of rotating diodes mounted
within the rotor. This type of generator used a commutator to obtain a d.c. current from an a.c. exciter
generator which then supplied the rotating d.c. field via slip rings.

Fig.6.18 Frequency Wild Generator

The obvious disadvantage of this type of generator is the use of a commutator and slip ring which causes
the additional problems of brush and commutator/slip-ring wear. Later generators are of the brushless
design.

Voltage Regulation

The voltage regulator that is used in our system is a carbon pile voltage regulator. The voltage regulator
controls the field F1 of the d.c. exciter generator therefore reducing the workload on the voltage regulator
over large changes of speed and load. On start up, the residual magnetism in the d.c. exciter will enable the
exciter to provide an initial output to the rotating field. The output voltage will build up and be sensed by
the sensing transformer in the regulator unit.

The Output of the 'field supply' secondary of this transformer is rectified and fed via the carbon pile to field
F1. The output of the 'a.c. control' secondary is rectified and fed to the volts coil of
the carbon pile regulator. The carbon pile will gradually decompress to increase the resistance of Field F1
and control the line to line voltage at a nominal 208 V.
When the TRU contactor is de-energized the regulator is said to operate in the 'a.c. sensing' mode. In a
frequency wild system all circuits, other than the resistive heating loads, are supplied with d.c. It is
therefore necessary to provide high power main transformer rectifier units each with an output of 500 A at
28 V. When the TRU contactor is energized it is essential to maintain the busbar at 28 V. To achieve this,
the regulator voltage coil is disconnected from the 'a.c. control' secondary and connected to the busbar. The
regulator will now ensure that any change in busbar voltage is sensed and corrected.

Fig. 6.19

Current Compounding
Current compounding provides a second field F2 with excitation current proportional to the generator load
current. The compounding circuit enables small carbon pile regulators to be
used with high power output generators. The ratio of the compounding current to the load current is such
that the compounding current is always less than the necessary excitation current. The difference is
provided by the voltage regulator.

13.5.7 Inverters, Transformers, Rectifiers

Inverters:

Inverters are used to convert direct current into alternating current. The input is typically from the battery;
the output can be a low voltage (26 V AC) for use in instruments, or high voltage (115 V AC single or
three phase) for driving loads such as pumps. Older rotary inverter technology uses a DC motor to drive
an AC generator, see Fig. 7.1. A typical rotary inverter has a four-pole compound DC motor driving a star-
wound AC generator. The outputs can be single- or three phase; 26 V AC, or 115 V AC. The desired
output frequency of 400 Hz is determined by the DC input voltage. Various regulation methods are
employed, e.g. a trimming resistor (R v ) connected in series with the DC motor field sets the correct speed
when connected to the 14 or 28 V DC supply.

Fig.7.1 Rotary inverter schematic

Key point: The desired output frequency of a rotary inverter is determined by the DC input voltage.

Modern aircraft equipment is based on the static inverter; it is solid state, i.e. it has no moving parts (see
Fig.7.2). The DC power supply is connected to an oscillator; this produces a low-voltage 400 Hz output.
This output is stepped up to the desired AC output voltage via a transformer. The static inverter can either
be used as the sole source of AC power or to supply specific equipment in the event that the main generator
has failed. Alternatively they are used to provide power for passenger use, e.g. lap-top computers. The DC
input voltage is applied to an oscillator that produces a sinusoidal output voltage. This output is connected
to a transformer that provides the required output voltage. Frequency and voltage controls are usually
integrated
within the static inverter; it therefore has no external means of adjustment.
 Fig.7.2 Static Inverter

A typical inverter used on a large commercial aircraft can produce 1 kVA. Static inverters are located in an
electrical equipment bay; a remote on/off switch in the flight compartment is used to isolate the inverter if
required. Figure 7.3 shows an inverter installation in a general aviation aircraft. This particular inverter has
the following features:

(a)
(b)

Fig.7.3

Inverters convert 28 VDC power into 115 VAC single-phase electrical power. This is usually required in a
civil application to supply Captains or First Officers instruments following an AC failure. Alternatively,
under certain specific flight conditions, such as autoland, the inverter may be required to provide an
alternative source of power to the flight instruments in the event of a power failure occurring during the
critical autoland phase. Some years ago the inverter would have been a rotary machine with a DC motor
harnessed in tandem with an AC generator. More recently the power conversion is likely to be
accomplished by means of a static inverter where the use of high-power, rapid-switching, Silicon-
Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs) will synthesize the AC waveform from the DC input. Inverters are therefore a
minor, though essential part of many aircraft electrical systems.

Transformer Rectifier Units (TRUs)

Transformer rectifier units (TRU) convert 115 VAC 400 Hz 3 phase power into 28 V DC; these are often
used to charge batteries from AC generators. A schematic diagram for a TRU is shown in Fig.7.4.

Fig. 7.4 Transformer Rectifier Unit

The three-phase 115/200 V 400 Hz input is connected to star-wound primary windings of a

transformer. The dual secondary windings are wound in star and delta configuration. Outputs from each of
the secondary windings are rectified and connected to the main output terminals. A series (shunt) resistor
is used to derive the current output of the TRU. Overheat warnings are provided by locating thermal
switches at key points within the TRU.

Battery Chargers
Battery chargers share many of the attributes of TRUs and are in fact dedicated units whose function is
purely that of charging the aircraft battery. In some systems the charger may also act as a stand-by TRU
providing a boosted source of DC power to the battery in certain system modes of operation. Usually, the
task of the battery charger is to provide a controlled charge to the battery without overheating and for this
reason battery temperature is usually closely monitored.

Transformers:
Transformers are devices that convert (or transfer) electrical energy from one circuit to another through
inductively coupled electrical conductors. The transformer used as a power supply source can be
considered as having an input (the primary conductors, or windings) and output (the secondary conductors,
or windings). A changing current in the primary windings creates a changing magnetic field; this magnetic
field induces a changing voltage in the secondary
windings. By connecting a load in series with the secondary windings, current flows in the transformer.
The output voltage of the transformer (secondary windings) is determined by the input voltage on the
primary and ratio of turns on the primary and secondary windings. In practical applications, we convert
high voltages into low voltages or vice versa; this conversion is termed step down or step up.
Circuits needing only small step-up/down ratios employ auto-transformers. These are formed from single
winding, tapped in a specific way to form primary and secondary windings. Referring to Fig. 6.10(a), when
an alternating voltage is applied to the primary (P 1 –P 2 ) the magnetic field produces links with all turns
on the windings and an EMF is induced in each turn. The output voltage is developed across the secondary
turns (S 1 –S 2) which can be connected for either step-up or step-down ratios. In practice, auto-
transformers are smaller in size and weight than conventional transformers. Their disadvantage is that,

since the primary and secondary windings are physically connected, a breakdown in insulation places the
full primary e.m.f. onto the secondary winding. The arrangement for a three-phase auto-transformer is
shown in Fig. 6.10(b). This is a star – connected step-up configuration. Primary input voltage is the 200 V
AC from the aircraft alternator; multiple outputs are derived from the secondary tappings: 270, 320, 410
and 480 V AC. Applications for this type of arrangement include windscreen heating.
 13.5.8 Control and Protection

Various components are used for both control and protection of the power distribution system:
• Current Transformers
• Differential Current Protection
• Phase Protection
• Breakers/Contactors
• Electrical Load Control Units

Current transformers
These are used to sense current for control, protection and indication applications. The primary winding is
the main heavy-duty AC feeder cable being monitored; the secondary winding is contained within a
housing, see Fig. 8.1.

Fig.8.1Current Transformer

The secondary windings are in the form of inductive pick-up coils. When current IP flows in the feeder
cable, the corresponding magnetic field induces current IS into the secondary windings;
this is the output signal that is used by a control, protection or indication device.

Differential current protection

This circuit detects short-circuits in AC generator feeder lines or busbars; it is a method of protecting the
generator from overheating and burning out.

Assuming a three-phase AC generator is installed, each phase has its own protection circuit. For illustration
purposes, the circuit for a single phase is described. Two control transformers (CT) are located at either end
of the distribution system, see Fig. 8.2 . CT1 is located in the negative (earthed) connection of the
generator’s output. CT 2 is located at the output from the busbar performing a monitoring function in a
generator control unit (GCU). If a fault were to develop between the generator and busbar, a current IF
flows to ground. The net current received at the busbar is therefore the total generator output current IT
minus the fault current (IF). The fault current flows back through the earth return system through CT 1 and
back into the generator; the
remaining current ( IT _ IF ) flows through CT 2 and into the loads. Current transformer CT 1 therefore
detects ( IT _ IF ) _ IF which is the total generator current. Current transformer CT 2 detects ( IT _ IF );

Fig.8.2 Differential current Protection

the difference between control transformer outputs is therefore IF . At a pre-determined differential current,
the generator control relay (GCR) is automatically tripped by the GCU and this opens the generator field.

Phase protection (Merz Price circuit)

This circuit protects against faults between phases, or from individual phase to ground faults. Connections
are shown for protection of a single phase in Fig. 8.3; a three-phase system would require the same circuit
per phase. Two current transformers (CT) are located at each end of the feeder distribution line:
• CT 1 monitors the current output from the generator
• CT 2 monitors the current into the distribution system.

Fig.8.3 Merz Price circuit

Secondary windings of each current transformer are connected via two relay coils; these windings are
formed in the opposite direction. When current flows through the feeder, there is equal current in both
coils; the induced EMF is balanced, so no current flows. If a fault develops in the feeder line, current CT 1
flows (but not CT 2), thereby creating an unbalanced condition.
Current flow in either of the coils opens the contacts and disconnects the feeder line at both ends.

Breakers/contactors
Breakers (sometimes referred to as contactors) are used in power generation systems for connecting feeder
lines to busbars and for interconnecting various busbars. Unlike conventional circuit-breakers, these
devices can be tripped on or off remotely.

Fig.8.4 Generator Breaker

Referring to Fig. 8.4, they have several heavy-duty main contacts to switch power and a number of
auxiliary contacts for the control of other circuits, e.g. warning lights, relays etc. The breaker is closed by
an external control switch via contacts A; the coil remains energized via contacts B to ground. With the coil
energized, the main and auxiliary contacts are closed and the spring is compressed. Contacts A latch the
breaker closed, assisted by the permanent magnet. When a trip signal is applied (either by a fault condition
or manual selection) current flows to ground in the opposite direction. The spring assists the reversed
electromagnetic field and this breaks the permanent magnet latch. A Zener diode suppresses arcing of coil
current across the contacts. An electrical power breaker installation is shown in Fig. 8.5

Fig 8.5 Electrical power breaker

installation
Fig 8.6 Generator three-phase output and neutral wires

Fig 8.7 Typical power distribution

Electronic Load Control Units (ELCUs)/Smart Contactors
Higher power aircraft loads are increasingly switched from the primary aircraft busbars by using Electronic Load Control Units
(ELCUs) or ‘smart contactors’ for load protection. Like contactors these are used where normal rated currents are greater than 20
A per phase, i.e. for loads of around 7 kVA or greater. The ELCU has in-built current sensing coils that enable the current of all
three phases to be measured. Associated electronics allow the device trip characteristics to be more closely matched to those of
the load. Typical protection characteristics embodied within the electronics are I2t, modified I2t and differential current
protection.

13.5.9 External/Ground Power.

The aircraft battery provides an autonomous means of starting the engine. Certain types of operation, e.g.
cold weather and repeated starts, could lead to excessive demands, resulting in a battery that is not fully
charged. An external power supply system schematic (as illustrated in Fig. 9.1 ) provides power to the
aircraft, even when the battery is flat, or not installed.
Fig.9.1 External power supply schematic Fig.9.2External ground power from a battery pack

External power can be from a ground power unit or simply from a battery pack as shown in Fig. 9.2. On
larger aircraft installations, a connector with three sockets supplies external power. These sockets connect
with three pins on the aircraft fuselage as shown in Fig. 9.3. Different-size pins are used on the connectors
to prevent a reverse polarity voltage being applied.
Some aircraft installations have a ground power relay . Power can only be supplied into the aircraft via
the main pins when the third (shorter) pin makes contact. The third pin is used to energize the ground
power relay; this additional relay prevents arcing on the power connector as illustrated in Fig. 8.9 . External
AC power is applied in a similar way, except that the three phases have to be connected via individual
circuits.
 Fig. 9.3 External ground power 3-pin connector

Fig. 9.4 External ground power 3-pin connector schematic