Physics Comprehensive Exam Reviewer (PCER) Part 1: Classical Mechanics

Goldstein, Marion and Thornton, Jose

Basic Concepts of Mechanics

A motion of a particle or system of particles can be briefly described when one knows the
 
particle/s’ momentum p , and position x . While these two quantities have components (being
regarded as vectors), their values transform together with the coordinate system (e.g. rotation in
Euclidian space). The goal of studying mechanics is to establish a set of equations (equations of
motion) that can effectively depict the particle/s’ motion in different situation or problems of
interest. Once the equations of motion are established and solved, one can tell the state of a
particle at a later time. Before we bound to solve equations of motion, we take a look on some
basic ideas in mechanics and later make them as platform to jump off to higher and more
complicated concepts.

Motion of a single particle


We begin by describing motion of a single particle; we define a variable x as its position,
measured from the origin of a certain coordinate system. Then the rate of change of its position
with respect to time is written as:

 dx (1.a)
v
dt

where v is the particle’s velocity. 
 dx 
The linear momentum is defined as pm  mv (1.b)
dt

In the event that a particle is subjected to several forces (e.g. gravitational, electric, magnetic,

etc.) the motion will be affected by the sum of all these external forces we will call net force Fnet

Where Fnet is defined according to Newton’s 2nd Law:
 
 d  
 mv   m (v )  ma
dp d
Fnet 
dt dt dt (1.c)

Where a is the acceleration of the particle, implying that the equation of motion is a differential
equation of second order (with the assumption that the force is independent of higher order
derivatives).
 d2 
a  2 x 
dt (1.d)
Conservation Theorems
Conservation theorems in mechanics tell under what conditions various mechanical quantities
are constant with time. The first conservation theorem is linear momentum
 
dp
Fnet 
dt

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Physics Comprehensive Exam Reviewer (PCER) Part 1: Classical Mechanics
Goldstein, Marion and Thornton, Jose

(1.e)

dp
If the net force is zero, =0 implying that the momentum is constant and therefore conserved.
dt
Next we consider a particle spinning about some axis at O, the angular momentum of the
   
particle is L  r  p where r is the radial vector from the axis of rotation to the particle. Defining
 
torque (moment) about O,   r  F which can be analogous to Eq. (1.e). From Eq. (1.c)

 
 d  
 mv   m (v )  ma
dp d
Fnet 
dt dt dt
 
Fnet  mv 
d
dt
 
Cross r with Fnet to get
   d  
r  Fnet  r  mv    (1.f)
dt
Eq. (1.f) can be written as
 
 r
d
mv   d r  mv  (1.f.1)
dt dt
d 
r  mv   r  mv   mv  d r 
d
dt dt dt (1.f.2)
d 
r  mv   r  mv   mv  v
d (1.f.3)
dt dt
 
d    dB dA 
Using the vector identity
ds
A  B  A  ds  ds  B
The second term on the right hand side of Eq. (1.f.3) vanishes because the cross product of a
vector with itself is equal to zero. Then the torque can now be in the form

 d   d  
  r  mv   r  p  
dL
(1.g)
dt dt dt
From Eq. (1.g) one can say that the torque is equal to the time derivative of the angular
momentum and immediately follows a conservation theorem “If the net torque acting on the
particle is zero, the angular momentum is constant.”

d   d  
0  r  mv   r  p  
dL
dt dt dt

dL
 0, 
dt L  const

Next step in our survey of conservation theorems is analyzing energy conservation. This
conservation law is extremely important because a lot of problems in mechanics make use of

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Physics Comprehensive Exam Reviewer (PCER) Part 1: Classical Mechanics
Goldstein, Marion and Thornton, Jose

this theorem. We will start with the concept of a conservative force (e.g. gravitational, electric,
etc.) The work done of a conservative force doesn’t depend on the path taken to move a particle
from one point to another. Consider a particle moving from point a to point b along a
conservative force field. The work done is given by
b  
Wab   F  dr (1.h)
a

The integral on the right hand side of Eq. (1.h) can be expressed in terms of velocity
b   b  dv   b 
 dv   dr 
 b 
 dv  
 
m b d v  v   
m b d v2
 
m vb 2 (1.h.1)
a F  dr  a  dt 
 m   dr  m a  dt   dt 
    dt  m a  dt 
   v dt 
2 a dt
dt 
2 a dt
dt 
2 va
dv

b 

a
 m
2
 
Wa b   F  dr  v 2  b  a
vb

va
mv 2 mv 2
2 2
(1.h.2)

mvb2
the quantity is called final kinetic energy , T and it follows that the work done in bringing a
2
particle from point a to b is equal to the change in the particle’s kinetic energy. From Eq. (1.h.2)
mvb2 mva2
Wab    Tb  Ta  T and (1.h.3)
2 2
mv 2 (1.h.4)
T
2
is called the kinetic energy of the particle. If the particle experiences a force field such that it’s
work is the same for any path taken in moving from a to b, the force associated by the force field
is said to be conservative. Such a conservative force will allow us to conserve the total
mechanical energy of the particle as we shall see in the succeeding sections. The implication of
this path independence of the work is seen obvious if one calculates the work done on a closed
loop (work done on going from a to b and back to a). The work done in a closed loop by a
conservative force is then equal to zero.
 
W   F  dr  0 (1.h.5)

For the work to be independent of the path, a certain condition for the force must be met. This
condition says that the force must be equal to the gradient of some scalar function of position:
 
F  Vr 
(1.i)
where V is called the potential or loosely called potential energy. Another consideration for the
work done to be independent on the path and depends only on endpoints a and b is that it must

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Physics Comprehensive Exam Reviewer (PCER) Part 1: Classical Mechanics
Goldstein, Marion and Thornton, Jose

be expressible into a change of a certain quantity that depends only on the endpoints; and that
quantity is V . The differential path length then has the relation:
    V
dr rˆ  rˆ   
dV
dWab  F  dr  Vr   dr   dr  dV or equivalently, (1.i.1)
r dr
 V
Fr   (1.i.2)
r
For a conservative force (from Eq. (1.i.1)) the work done can be written as:
dWa b  dV
Vb
Wab    dV '  Va  Vb (1.i.3)
Va

Therefore it follows that,

Tb  Ta  V
Tb  Ta  Va  Vb
(Conservation of mechanical energy) (1.i.4)
Ta  Vb  Tb  Va

Eq. (1.i.4) says that the total initial mechanical energy of a particle when it moves from point a to
b is equal to the total final mechanical energy, hence, energy is conserved.

Motion of a system of particles

We will now extend our discussion of conservation laws to a system of particles. The goal of
this section is to show that even for a system of many particles the basic conservation laws are
still valid. We begin by considering the forces acting on the system. Since it is composed of
many particles, we can classify the forces acting on the system as net internal and net external
force. The net internal force is defined as the sum of all the forces exerted on the ith particle by
the i number of particles in the system (forces of particle interactions inside the system). The net
external force on the other hand, is the sum of all the forces force exerted on the system by
external sources like a planets (gravity), charged particles (electric) and so on. Therefore, using
Newton’s 2nd Law we can express the net force acting on the ith particle as:

 
dp
Fnet 
dt (1.j)
 int  ext dp i

j i
F ji  Fi 
dt

E. Arguelles
Physics Comprehensive Exam Reviewer (PCER) Part 1: Classical Mechanics
Goldstein, Marion and Thornton, Jose
 
Where F ji is the internal force exerted on the ith particle by the jth particle and Fi ext is the
int

external force. At this point we will impose an assumption that the internal forces follow
Newton’s 3rd law: that the forces exerted by two particles on each other are equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction. Eq (1.j) can be expressed as:
 int  ext dp i  dd   d 2  
 F ji   Fi  
d
 m v
i i     mi i  
r 2  i i 
mr (1.j.1)
j i i dt dt i dt  dt i  dt  
where the first and second sum on the left hand side are sum of internal and external forces on
the ith particle respectively. The first sum on the left hand side will vanish because of our
assumption that Newton’s 3rd law is obeyed for particles interacting in a system. We will
illustrate that below:
Suppose that we have a three – particle system. To get the internal net force, we must run the
summation from of i and j from 1 to 3 like what we have below:
3       
F
j ,i 1
ji  F12  F13  F21  F23  F31  F32

3      
 ji 12 21 13 31 23 32  0
F  F
j ,i 1
 F  F  F  F  F

We have imposed on the above equation Newton’s 3rd law (N3L), hence the sums of pairs of
   
forces are equal to zero ( F12  F21 = 0) or equivalently F ji  Fij  0 . Eq. (1.j.1) can now be written
as:
 ext d 2  
i i  dt 2   mi ri 
F (1.j.2)
 

Now we will define a vector R that is equivalent to the average radii of all the particles from a
specified point (origin). That vector (figure 1) also defines a point called the center of mass.
 
 m r m r i i i i
(1.j.3)
R 
i i

m M
i
i

By defining this vector Eq. (1.j.2) becomes


 ext d 2R
i Fi  M dt 2 (1.j.4)

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Figure 1. The center of mass
Physics Comprehensive Exam Reviewer (PCER) Part 1: Classical Mechanics
Goldstein, Marion and Thornton, Jose

Equation (1.j.4) can be interpreted as “the system of particles move as if the net external force is
acting on the entire mass of all the particles concentrated at the center of mass. The internal
forces (if they follow N3L) have entirely no effect on the motion of the system. The total linear
momentum of the system is

 d  dR
P   (mi vi )    mi ri   M (1.j.5)
i dt  i  dt
The above equation shows that if there is a system of particles moving due to some external
force, their total linear momentum is equivalent to the total mass of the particles multiplied by
the velocity of the center of mass. From Eq. (1.j.4), another conservation theorem is evident:
   
 ext d 2R d  dR  d  dR  dP
i Fi  M dt 2  M dt  dt   dt  M dt   dt
   
 ext
 Fi  0,
i

dP
0
dt

P  conserved

If the total external net force acting on the system of particles is zero, the time derivative of the
total linear momentum is zero; hence, the total linear momentum is conserved. The total angular
momentum of the system can be calculated by recalling first that the angular momentum for a
  
single particle is Lrp

Since we have i number of particles we must have

  
Li   ri  p i
i (1.k)

If we perform a cross product of the radial vectors with Eq. (1.j) we have

 int  ext dp i


j i
F ji  Fi 
dt

   int  ext   dp i d  
 ri  pi  
dL
ri    F ji  Fi   ri 
 j i  dt dt dt

dL    
 ri   F jiint  ri  Fi ext (1.k.1)
dt j i
  int    
ri   F ji  ri  F ji  r j  Fij (1.k.2)
j i
   
ri   F jiint  ri  r j  F ji  rij  F ji
   (1.k.3)
j i E. Arguelles
Physics Comprehensive Exam Reviewer (PCER) Part 1: Classical Mechanics
Goldstein, Marion and Thornton, Jose

The first term on the right hand side of Eq. (1.k.1) can be considered as a sum of two pairs as in

Eq. (1.k.2) which can eventually be written as Eq. (1.k.3) considering the difference ri  rj is


just a vector that points from the jth particle to the ith particle (see figure 2) and can be written

as rij .

Considering that the particles still follow N3L, the force on the
ith particle due to the jth particle is equal in magnitude with the
force on jth particle due to the ith particle but opposite in the

direction. These forces also act on the line joining together the
  int
two particles, and therefore cancel out. With these, ri  F
j i
ji

vanishes. We can now write Eq. (1.k.1) as


dLi  
Fig. 2 The line joining the two  ri   Fi ext
dt i
particles is equal to the 
dLi  ext
difference of the radial vectors 
dt
of the particles.

The above equations state that the net external torque of the system is equal to the time
derivative of the total angular momentum. If the net external torque acting on the system is zero,

another conservation law is immediately realized. That is, if the net external torque acting on a

system of particles is zero, the time derivative of the system’s total angular momentum is zero;
thus, the total angular momentum is conserved.

dLi
0
dt

L  const

It is important to note that this conservation law is valid only if the particles follow N3L and the
internal forces are central. There are forces* in nature that are equal even though they are not
central like moving charges (e.g. Biot-Savart law). The conservation theorems we have just
discussed are not valid for such situations.

*See Goldstein, pp. 7 & 8

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 Physics Comprehensive Exam Reviewer (PCER) Part 1: Classical Mechanics
Goldstein, Marion and Thornton, Jose

Now we will consider another situation involving the center of mass of the system of particles.
From Eq. (1.k) we can say that the system of particle’s total angular momentum is the same in
form as if the entire mass of the system is concentrated at the center of mass. We will let vector
 
R be a radial vector pointing from an origin O to the center of mass and ri be a radial vector
'
pointing from O to the ith particle (see figure 3). In fig.3, ri is the vector that points from the
  '
center of mass to the ith particle. We can now define ri in terms of R and ri and taking their

time derivatives to get the velocity.

  
ri '  ri  R
  
ri  ri '  R (1.l)
The velocity is
  
ri  ri '  R
 ' 
dri dri dR
 
Figure 3. The center of mass coordinate dt dt dt
 '  (1.l.1)
 vi  vi  v
 dR 
Here we take v  as the velocity of the center of mass relative to the origin O and vi' is the
dt
velocity of the ith particle with respect to the center of mass. For a system of particles, the total
angular momentum is
  
L   ri  pi
i


Substituting the value of ri in Eq. (1.l) into the above equation and manipulating it will give

   
            
L   ri  p i   ri '  R  p i   ri '  R  mi vi   ri '  mi vi   R  mi vi
i i i i i

   
      
L   ri '  mi vi'  v   R  mi vi'  v
i i
        
L   ri '  mi vi'   ri '  mi v   R  mi vi'   R  mi v
i i i i

 
 ' ' '   dri '  
L   ri  mi vi   mi ri  v   R  mi   R  mi v
i i i dt i

 d  
 
      
L   ri '  mi vi'   mi ri '  v   R  mi v   R    mi ri '  (1.l.2)
i i i i dt  i 

 m r  which was
'
The 2nd and last terms in Eq. (1.l.2) vanish because they both contain i i
i

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Physics Comprehensive Exam Reviewer (PCER) Part 1: Classical Mechanics
Goldstein, Marion and Thornton, Jose

defined before as the radius vector of the center of mass the in the coordinate system where the
center of mass is the origin, hence a null vector. We can then rewrite Eq. (1.l.2) as
    
L   ri '  mi vi'   R  mi v
i i

     
L   ri '  pi' R    mi v
i  i 
 '  '  
L   ri  pi R  Mv (1.l.3)
i

Equation (1.l.3) can be interpreted as this: the total angular momentum of the system of
particles moving about an axis O is equal to the angular momentum of the center of mass about
O plus the angular momentum of the ith particle due to its motion about the center of mass. At
this point we consider the energy of the system. We can compute for the work done by all forces
in moving the system from one configuration to another. Say, from initial configuration a to some
configuration b.

b   b    
Wa b   Fi  dri     F jiint  Fi ext  dri
 j i 
a a

b    
Wa b    F jiint  dri  Fi ext  dr  (1.l.4)
 j i 
a

Eq.(1.l.4) will be reduced to the work done by the all the external forces acting on the system.
Imposing the assumption that the particles follow N3L and the internal forces cancel.

 ext     
b b  dvi   b  dvi   dri  b  dvi  
Wa b   Fi  dri   mi    dri  a mi   dt  a mi    vi dt
a a
 dt   dt   dt   dt 

Wa b  i
 
m b d vi  vi  m b d vi2
dt  i 
  m
dt  i vi2  
vb m v2 m v2
 i bi  i ia
2 a dt 2 a dt 2 va 2 2
Wa b  Tb  Ta (1.l.5)

The kinetic energy of the system of particles can then be expressed using the transformation of
the system’s velocity in the coordinate of the center of mass.

  
 
  

Since vi  vi  v and vi2  vi'  v  vi'  v , the kinetic energy is then
'

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Physics Comprehensive Exam Reviewer (PCER) Part 1: Classical Mechanics
Goldstein, Marion and Thornton, Jose

T
1

2 i
   

mi vi'  v  vi'  v 
T
1

2 i
  
mi vi'2  2vi'  v  v 2 
T
1

2 i

  1

mi vi'2   mi vi'  v   mi v 2
2 i
i

1   1
T 
2 i
mi vi'2  v   mi vi'   mi v 2
i 2 i
'
1  dr 1
T 
2 i
mi vi'2  v   mi i   mi v 2
i dt 2 i
1  d    1
T 
2 i
mi vi'2  v    mi ri '    mi v 2
dt  i  2 i
1 1
T 
2 i
mi vi'2  Mv 2
2
(1.l.6)

The second term in Eq. (1.l.4) vanishes because of the same reason as before. It can then be
interpreted as: The kinetic energy of a system of particles is equal to the kinetic energy of the

center of mass moving about an axis O plus the kinetic energy of the ith particle moving about

the center of mass. Let’s go back to Eq. (1.l.4), and consider the second term of its right hand
b  
side  a
Fi ext  dri and assuming that the net external force can be expressed as a gradient of

some potential
    b  V 
 Fi ext  dri      iVi  dri     i dri rˆi  rˆi      dVi  Vi
b b b b
(1.l.7)
i
a
i
a
i
a
 ri  i
a
i a

Assuming that the internal forces are also conservative, we can get the pair of forces due to ith

and jth particle from a potential function which depends on the positions of the interacting

particles.
 

Vij  Vij ri  rj  (1.l.8)

We can then express the first term of the right hand side of Eq. (1.l.4) as

 int b     b   (1.l.9)
 dri   Fij  F ji   dri     iVij   jVij   dri     iVij   jVij   dri
   
 F
b b
ji
a a a a
j i
 (1.l.10)
b   b  
 F jiint  dri    iVij   dri   jVij   dr j     ijVij   dri   ijVij   dr j 
b     
a
j i
a a

(1.l.11)
 b  b  b  Vij 
F jiint  dri     ijVij   dri  dr j       ijVij   drij      drij rˆij  rˆij 
   1  1

b
a a 2 i, j a 2 i , j a  rij 
j i 

b (1.l.12)
 1 1
 F jiint  dri     dVij    Vij
b b

E. Arguelles
a
j i 2 i, j a 2 i, j a
Physics Comprehensive Exam Reviewer (PCER) Part 1: Classical Mechanics
Goldstein, Marion and Thornton, Jose

We now enlighten ourselves with Eqs. (1.l.9 – 12). We have first expressed the sums of pairs of

the internal forces as gradient of a potential (1.l.9). Then, we have defined that  i is a gradient
   
for all ri which allows us to write  iVij   ijVij   jVij (1.l.10). After this, we have defined a


  

differential vector drij to be equal to dri  drj and factored out  ijVij in (1.l.11). Completing the

rest of mathematical steps and we arrive at (1.l.12). At this point we write the total potential

energy of the system as

1
V  Vi  Vij
i 2 i, j
And the total energy is

1 1 1
E  T V  
2 i
mi vi'2  Mv 2  Vi  Vij
2 i 2 i, j
In this case if a system of particles is moving relative to some origin O, its total energy is just the
sum of the total kinetic energy and the total potential energy the same as in a single particle.
The potential energy due to the internal forces need not be equal to zero and even varies as the

system transforms from a to b.

E. Arguelles