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The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb. You can make a one-
word sentence with a verb, for example: "Stop!" You cannot make a one-word sentence
with any other type of word.
Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". This is partly true. Many verbs give
the idea of action, of "doing" something. For example, words like run, fight, do and work
all convey action.
A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence "John speaks English", John is the subject
and speaks is the verb.) In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs are words that
tell us what a subject does or is; they describe:
Verb Classification
1. Helping Verbs
• I can.
• People must.
• The Earth will.
Do you understand anything? Has this person communicated anything to you? Probably
not! That is because these verbs are helping verbs and have no meaning on their own.
They are necessary for the grammatical structure of the sentence, but they do not tell us
very much alone. We usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They "help" the main
verb. (The sentences in the above examples are therefore incomplete. They need at least a
main verb to complete them.) There are only about 15 helping verbs.
2. Main Verbs
Now imagine that the same stranger walks into your room and says:
• I teach.
• People eat.
In the following table, we see example sentences with helping verbs and main verbs.
Notice that all of these sentences have a main verb. Only some of them have a helping
verb.
We must go now.
Gerunds (-ing)
When we use a verb in -ing form more like a noun, it is usually a gerund:
• Fishing is fun.
When we use a verb in -ing form more like a verb or an adjective, it is usually a present
participle:
• Anthony is fishing.
• I have a boring teacher.
What are Nouns?
The simple definition is: a person, place or thing. Here are some examples:
The problem with this definition is that it does not explain why "love" is a noun but can
also be a verb.
1. Ending
2. Position
3. Function
1. Noun Ending
There are certain word endings that show that a word is a noun, for example:
However, this is not true for the word endings of all nouns. For example, the noun
"spoonful" ends in -ful, but the adjective "careful" also ends in -ful.
2. Position in Sentence
Nouns often come after a determiner (a determiner is a word like a, an, the, this, my,
such):
• a relief
• an afternoon
• the doctor
• this word
• my house
• such stupidity
Nouns often come after one or more adjectives:
• a great relief
• a peaceful afternoon
• the tall, Indian doctor
• this difficult word
• my brown and white house
• such crass stupidity
3. Function in a Sentence
But the subject or object of a sentence is not always a noun. It could be a pronoun or a
phrase. In the sentence "My doctor works hard", the noun is "doctor" but the subject is
"My doctor".
Countable Nouns
Countable nouns are easy to recognize. They are things that we can count. For example:
"pen". We can count pens. We can have one, two, three or more pens. Here are some
more countable nouns:
Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns are substances, concepts etc that we cannot divide into separate
elements. We cannot "count" them. For example, we cannot count "milk". We can count
"bottles of milk" or "litres of milk", but we cannot count "milk" itself. Here are some
more uncountable nouns:
Sometimes, the same noun can be countable and uncountable, often with a change of
meaning.
Countable Uncountable
There are two hairs in my coffee! hair I don't have much hair.
There are two lights in our bedroom. light Close the curtain. There's too much light!
It's difficult to work when there is too
Shhhhh! I thought I heard a noise. noise
much noise.
Have you got a paper to read? (= I want to draw a picture. Have you got
paper
newspaper) some paper?
Our house has seven rooms. room Is there room for me to sit here?
We had a great time at the party. time Have you got time for a coffee?
Macbeth is one of Shakespeare's work I have no money. I need work!
greatest works.
ENGLISH TENSE SYSTEM
I sing
Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there is no auxiliary:
+ I am French.
You, we, they are French.
I am not old.
Am I late?
It is John's job to drive a taxi. He does it every day. Past, present and future.
Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the simple present tense for situations that
are not general. We can use the simple present tense to talk about now. Look at these
examples of the verb "to be" in the simple present tense—some of them are general,
some of them are now:
Am I right?
Tara is not at home.
You are happy.
I am not fat.
Why are you so beautiful?
Ram is tall.
I am eating my lunch.
The action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening just before and just
after now, and it is not permanent or habitual.
We can also use the present continuous tense to talk about the future—if we add a future
word!! We must add (or understand from the context) a future word. "Future words"
include, for example, tomorrow, next year, in June, at Christmas etc. We only use the
present continuous tense to talk about the future when we have planned to do something
before we speak. We have already made a decision and a plan before speaking.
!!!
In these examples, we have a firm plan or programme before speaking. The decision
and plan were made before speaking.
This tense is called the present perfect tense. There is always a connection with the past
and with the present. There are basically three uses for the present perfect tense:
1. experience
2. change
3. continuing situation
1. Present perfect tense for experience
We often use the present perfect tense to talk about experience from the past. We are not
interested in when you did something. We only want to know if you did it:
!!!
We also use the present perfect tense to talk about a change or new information:
- +
+ -
+ -
- +
We often use the present perfect tense to talk about a continuing situation. This is a state
that started in the past and continues in the present (and will probably continue into the
future). This is a state (not an action). We usually use for or since with this structure.
Contractions
When we use the present perfect continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the
subject and the first auxiliary. We also sometimes do this in informal writing.
This tense is called the present perfect continuous tense. There is usually a connection
with the present or now. There are basically two uses for the present perfect continuous
tense:
We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in the past
and stopped recently. There is usually a result now.
!!!
We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in the past
and is continuing now. This is often used with for or since.
We often use for and since with the present perfect tense.
for since
20 minutes 6.15pm
6 months January
4 years 1994
2 centuries 1800
etc etc
We use the simple past tense to talk about an action or a situation—an event—in the past.
The event can be short or long.
Here are some more examples:
Note that when we tell a story, we usually use the simple past tense. We may use the past
continuous tense to "set the scene", but we almost always use the simple past tense for the
action. Look at this example of the beginning of a story:
"The wind was howling around the hotel and the rain was pouring down. It was cold. The
door opened and James Bond entered. He took off his coat, which was very wet, and
ordered a drink at the bar. He sat down in the corner of the lounge and quietly drank
his..."
The past continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the past. The
action started before that moment but has not finished at that moment. For example,
yesterday I watched a film on TV. The film started at 7pm and finished at 9pm.
When we use the past continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands what
time we are talking about. Look at these examples:
The past perfect tense expresses action in the past before another action in the past. This
is the past in the past. For example:
• The train left at 9am. We arrived at 9.15am. When we arrived, the train had left.
How do we use the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?
The past perfect continuous tense is like the past perfect tense, but it expresses longer
actions in the past before another action in the past. For example:
• Ram started waiting at 9am. I arrived at 11am. When I arrived, Ram had been
waiting for two hours.
No Plan
We use the simple future tense when there is no plan or decision to do something before
we speak. We make the decision spontaneously at the time of speaking. Look at these
examples:
In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision is made at the
time of speaking.
We often use the simple future tense with the verb to think before it:
Prediction
We often use the simple future tense to make a prediction about the future. Again, there is
no firm plan. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples:
Be
When the main verb is be, we can use the simple future tense even if we have a firm plan
or decision before speaking. Examples:
The future continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the future. The
action will start before that moment but it will not have finished at that moment. For
example, tomorrow I will start work at 2pm and stop work at 6pm
The future perfect tense expresses action in the future before another action in the future.
This is the past in the future. For example:
• The train will leave the station at 9am. You will arrive at the station at 9.15am.
When you arrive, the train will have left.
past present
invariable invariable
participle participle
We use the future perfect continuous tense to talk about a long action before some point
in the future. Look at these examples:
• I will have been working here for ten years next week.
• He will be tired when he arrives. He will have been travelling for 24 hours.
Adjectives
An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. (By "noun" we include pronouns
and noun phrases.) An adjective "qualifies" or "modifies" a noun (a big dog). Adjectives
can be used before a noun (I like Chinese food) or after certain verbs (It is hard). We can
often use two or more adjectives together (a beautiful young French lady).
Determiners
Determiners are words like the, an, my, some. They are grammatically similar. They all
come at the beginning of noun phrases, and usually we cannot use more than one
determiner in the same noun phrase.
Articles:
• a, an, the
Possessives:
Other determiners:
• each, every
• either, neither
• any, some, no
• much, many; more, most
• little, less, least
• few, fewer, fewest
• what, whatever; which, whichever
• both, half, all
• several
• enough
Determiners: A, An or The?
When do we say "the dog" and when do we say "a dog"? (On this page we talk only
about singular, countable nouns.)
The and a/an are called "articles". We divide them into "definite" and "indefinite" like
this:
Articles
Definite Indefinite
the a, an
When we are talking about one thing in particular, we use the. When we are talking about
one thing in general, we use a or an.
Think of the sky at night. In the sky we see 1 moon and millions of stars. So normally we
would say:
the a, an
• The capital of France is Paris.
• I was born in a town.
• I have found the book that I lost.
• John had an omelette for lunch.
• Have you cleaned the car?
• James Bond ordered a drink.
• There are six eggs in the fridge.
• We want to buy an umbrella.
• Please switch off the TV when you
• Have you got a pen?
finish.
Of course, often we can use the or a/an for the same word. It depends on the situation,
not the word. Look at these examples:
Adjective Order
Comparative Adjectives
When we talk about two things, we can "compare" them. We can see if they are the same
or different. Perhaps they are the same in some ways and different in other ways. We can
use comparative adjectives to describe the differences.
In the example below, "bigger" is the comparative form of the adjective "big":
A1 A2
Superlative Adjectives
In the example below, "biggest" is the superlative form of the adjective "big":
A B C
A is the
biggest.
English Pronouns
Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a pronoun instead of
a noun. Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours, themselves, some, each... If we didn't
have pronouns, we would have to repeat a lot of nouns. We would have to say things like:
• Do you like the president? I don't like the president. The president is too
pompous.
Personal Pronouns
This summary of personal pronouns includes possessive adjectives for convenience and
comparison.
pronouns
possessive
number person gender* subject object possessive reflexive adjectives
Examples:
pronoun subject She likes homework.
Pronoun Case
Pronouns (and nouns) in English display "case" according to their function in the
sentence. Their function can be:
The following table shows the different forms for pronouns depending on case.
possessive
subjective case objective case
case
personal pronouns singular 1st I me my, mine
2nd you you your, yours
3rd he him his
she her her, hers
it it its
plural 1st we us our, ours
2nd you you your, yours
3rd they them their, theirs
relative/interrogative
who whom whose
pronouns
whoever whomever
which/that/what which/that/what
indefinite pronouns everybody everybody everybody's
A problem of case: Mary and I or Mary and me?
1. Mary and I are delighted to be here today. (NOT Mary and me)
2. The letter was addressed to Mary and me. (NOT Mary and I)
In 1, Mary and I are subjects, which is why the pronoun takes the subjective case ("I").
In 2, Mary and I are objects, which is why the pronoun takes the objective case ("me").
An easy way to check the correct case is to try the sentence without Mary. Would you say
"I am delighted to be here" or "Me am delighted to be here"? Would you say "The letter
was addressed to me" or "The letter was addressed to I"?
English Prepositions
A preposition is a word governing, and usually coming in front of, a noun or pronoun
and expressing a relation to another word or element, as in:
There is one very simple rule about prepositions. And, unlike most rules, this rule has no
exceptions.
Rule
A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is never followed by a verb.
By "noun" we include:
Quick Quiz: In the following sentences, why is "to" followed by a verb? That should be
impossible, according to the above rule:
• aboard
• about
• above
• across
• after
• against
• along
• amid
• among
• anti
• around
• as
• at
• before
• behind
• below
• beneath
• beside
• besides
• between
• beyond
• but
• by
• concerning
• considering
• despite
• down
• during
• except
• excepting
• excluding
• following
• for
• from
• in
• inside
• into
• like
• minus
• near
• of
• off
• on
• onto
• opposite
• outside
• over
• past
• per
• plus
• regarding
• round
• save
• since
• than
• through
• to
• toward
• towards
• under
• underneath
• unlike
• until
• up
• upon
• versus
• via
• with
• within
• without
In general, we use:
• at for a POINT
• in for an ENCLOSED SPACE
• on for a SURFACE
at in on
Notice the use of the prepositions of place at, in and on in these standard expressions:
at in on
We use:
at in on
on Independence
at sunrise in the next century
Day
Notice the use of the preposition of time at in the following standard expressions:
Expression Example
Notice the use of the prepositions of time in and on in these common expressions:
in on
When we say last, next, every, this we do not also use at, in, on.
Conjunctions
and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so although, because, since, unless
Form
• Single Word
for example: and, but, because, although
Function
• Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are
grammatically equal. The two parts may be single words or clauses, for example:
- Jack and Jill went up the hill.
- The water was warm, but I didn't go swimming.
• Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they
join.
Coordinating Conjunctions
Look at these examples - the two elements that the coordinating conjunction joins are
shown in square brackets [ ]:
Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.
However, if the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma is not really
essential:
When "and" is used with the last word of a list, a comma is optional:
Subordinating Conjunctions
1. Active voice
2. Passive voice
The active voice is the "normal" voice. This is the voice that we use most of the time.
You are probably already familiar with the active voice. In the active voice, the object
receives the action of the verb:
active >
The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the
verb:
passive <
The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb:
Passive Voice
The passive voice is less usual than the active voice. The active voice is the "normal"
voice. But sometimes we need the passive voice. In this lesson we look at how to
construct the passive voice, when to use it and how to conjugate it.
I am paid in euro.
give importance to
active object President Kennedy was killed by Lee Harvey Oswald.
(President Kennedy)
active subject
My wallet has been stolen. ?
unknown
Note that we always use by to introduce the passive object (Fish are eaten by cats).
Conjugation for the Passive Voice
We can form the passive in any tense. In fact, conjugation of verbs in the passive tense is
rather easy, as the main verb is always in past participle form and the auxiliary verb is
always be. To form the required tense, we conjugate the auxiliary verb. So, for example:
infinitive to be washed
present It is washed.