Anatomy and physiology

The skeleton and the function of the bones

In this assignment I will be explaining and introducing

you to the major bones in the body. We will look at the
anterior view and the vertebral column.

The skull
The skull is also known as the head or the cranium.
‘This sits on your vertebral column.
The 5 bones that make up the skull base are the ethmoid,
sphenoid, occipital, paired frontal, and paired parietal
bones. The skull base can be subdivided into 3 regions:
the anterior, middle, and posterior cranial fossae’.
Author: Arjun S Joshi, MD; Chief Editor: Arlen D

Clavicle
The clavicle which joins onto your shoulder is also known as your collar bone. The
clavicle forms the anterior portion of the shoulder. ‘It is a long bone, curved somewhat
like the italic letter f, and placed nearly horizontally at the upper and anterior part of the
thorax, immediately above the first rib. Its lateral third is flattened from above downward,
while its medial two-thirds is of a rounded or prismatic form’.
American Journal of Anatomy, vol. v; Fawcett, Journal of Anatomy and Physiology.

Scapula
The scapula otherwise known as the shoulder blade. The scapula is placed at the back of
the skeleton therefore can be seen better from the posterior view of the body. ‘The
scapula forms the posterior part of the shoulder girdle. It is a flat, triangular bone, with
two surfaces, three borders, and three angles. People usually have two, one at either
shoulder. These create the distinctive flat area on the upper back which people associate
with the shoulder, In species other than humans, the position of the scapula is usually
slightly different to allow for articulation of the front legs’.

Copyright © 1995-2007 Photius Coutsoukis (All Rights Reserved).

Humerus
The humerus is an upper arm bone. It is surrounded by a range of muscles
Eg. Bicep, tricep. ‘The Humerus is the largest bone of the upper limb. It articulates with
the Scapula to form the shoulder joint, and with the Radius and Ulna to form the elbow
joint. It is at the elbkow joint where the well known ‘funny bone’ is located, but rather
than being a bone it’s actually the ulna nerve.’
http://www.free-online-health.com/HealthGeneralSection/BonesOfTheBody/humerus.htm

Ulna
The ulna is situated in your forearm. The ulna is the larger of the two bones the other is
called the radius. When the palm faces forward, the ulna is the inner bone (the one
nearest the body) running down the forearm parallel to the radius. The upper end joins
with the radius and extends into a rounded projection that fits around the lower end of the
humerus (the upper arm bone) to form the elbow joint.

Radius
The radius (forearm) is the bone next to your ulna and is the
the smaller one of the two. Both these bones connect
to your Humerus. It extends from the lateral side of the
elbow to the thumb side of the wrist and runs parallel
to the ulna, which exceeds it in length and size.
It is a long bone, prism-shaped and slightly curved
longitudinally.
The radius articulates with the capitulum of the humerus,
the radial notch
and the head of the ulna. The corresponding bone in the
lower leg is the tibia.

Carpals
Your carpals otherwise known as your wrist, they are connected to your radius and your
ulna. The carpals are several small angular bones that in humans make up the wrist
(carpus), and in horses, cows, and other quadrupeds the “knee” of the foreleg. They
correspond to the tarsal bones of the rear or lower limb. Their number varies. Primitive
vertebrates typically had 12. In modern amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the number is
reduced by fusion. In humans there are eight, arranged in two rows. The bones in the row
toward the forearm are the scaphoid, lunate, triangular, and pisiform.

(carpal bone. (2011). In Encyclopædia Britannica.)

Metacarpals
The metacarpals are bones within your hand and are connected to carpals (wrist). The
palms of your hands are made up of five bones. You can see them when you clench your
fists, because your knuckles are the ends of your metacarpals. Metacarpal are several
tubular bones between the wrist (carpal) bones and each of the forelimb digits in land
vertebrates, corresponding to the metatarsal bones of the foot. Originally numbering five,
metacarpals in many mammals have undergone much change and reduction during
evolution.
(metacarpal. (2011). In Encyclopædia Britannica)
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/factfiles/handsandfeet/hand.shtml)
Phalanges
Phalanges are known as your fingers. If you bend your fingers, you can see that they each
contain three bones, except for your thumbs, which only have two. The same is true for
your toes. Your big toes contain two bones, and your other toes each contain three. The
bones in your fingers and toes are called phalanges.

Femur
The femur is the bone in your thigh, it is the biggest bone in your body. The head forms a
ball-and-socket joint with the hip (at the acetabulum), being held in place by a ligament
(ligamentum teres femoris) within the socket and by strong surrounding ligaments. In
humans the neck of the femur connects the shaft and head at a 125° angle, which is
efficient for walking.

(femur. (2011). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/204137/femur )
Patella
The patella is a bone lower down your anatomy and is also known as the knee. The
patella, also known as the knee cap or kneepan, is a thick, circular-triangular bone which
articulates with the femur and covers and protects the anterior articular surface of the
knee joint. It is the largest sesamoid bone in the human body.

Tibia
The tibia is placed near the middle of your leg and is your shin bone. The Tibia
articulates with the Femur (upper leg) and the Tarsels (Ankle). This bone carries all the
body’s weight. It is the main bone of the lower leg and can be found on the more medial
side of the leg.

http://www.free-online-health.com/lower-leg-bones.htm
Fibula
Although this bone runs parallel to the Tibia, it doesn’t actually carry much weight.
Instead, it acts as a stabilizer. It articulates with the Tibia and the Tarsal’s. Its inferior end
is the bone that sticks out on the outside of the ankle. The Fibula can be found on the
lateral side (outside) of the lower leg.

http://www.free-online-health.com/lower-leg-bones.htm

Tarsals
In the human ankle there are seven tarsal bones. The talus (astragalus) articulates above
with the bones of the lower leg to form the ankle joint. The other six tarsals, tightly
bound together by ligaments below the talus, function as a strong weight-bearing
platform. The calcaneus, or heel bone, is the largest tarsal and forms the prominence at
the back of the foot. The remaining tarsals include the navicular, cuboid, and three
cuneiforms. The cuboid and cuneiforms adjoin the metatarsal bones in a firm, nearly
immovable joint.

In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from

(http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/583703/tarsal)

Metatarsals
The forefoot includes the five metatarsal bones, and the phalanges (the toes). The first
metatarsal bone is the shortest, thickest and plays an important role during propulsion
(forward movement). It also provides attachment for several tendons. The second, third, and
fourth metatarsal bones are the most stable of the metatarsals. They are well protected and
have only minor tendon attachments and are not subjected to strong pulling forces.

Near the head of the first metatarsal, on the plantar surface of the foot, are two sesamoid
bones (a small, oval-shaped bone which develops inside a tendon, where the tendon passes
over a bony prominence) They are held in place by tendons, and ligaments.

(http://sportsmedicine.about.com/cs/foot_facts/a/foot1.htm)
Pelvis

The pelvis, so called from its resemblance to a basin, is a bony ring, interposed between the
movable vertebræ of the vertebral column which it supports, and the lower limbs upon which it
rests; it is stronger and more massively constructed than the wall of the cranial or thoracic
cavities, and is composed of four bones: the two hip bones laterally and in front and the sacrum
and coccyx behind.

Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, vol. xliii

Rib cage

The rib cage, or thoracic basket, consists of the 12 thoracic (chest) vertebrae, the 24 ribs,
and the breastbone, or sternum. The ribs are curved, compressed bars of bone, with each
succeeding rib, from the first, or uppermost, becoming more open in curvature. The place
of greatest change in curvature of a rib, called its angle, is found several inches from the
head of the rib.

In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from

(http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/502028/rib-cage)

Sternum
The sternum is an elongated, flattened bone, forming the middle portion of the anterior wall of
the thorax. Its upper end supports the clavicles, and its margins articulate with the cartilages of
the first seven pairs of ribs. It consists of three parts, named from above downward, the
manubrium, the body or gladiolus, and the xiphoid process; in early life the body consists of
four segments or sternebrœ. In its natural position the inclination of the bone is oblique from
above, downward and forward.

(http://education.yahoo.com/reference/gray/subjects/subject/27)
Vertebral column
The major function of the vertebral column is protection of the spinal cord; it also
provides stiffening for the body and attachment for the pectoral and pelvic girdles and
many muscles. In humans an additional function is to transmit body weight in walking
and standing. The vertebral column is better viewed from the posterior view of the
skeleton which is the back view.
Each vertebra, in higher vertebrates, consists of a ventral body, or centrum, surmounted
by a Y-shaped neural arch. The arch extends a spinous process (projection) downward
and backward that may be felt as a series of bumps down the back, and two transverse
processes, one to either side, which provide attachment for muscles and ligaments.
The vertebral consists of 5 parts they are….
• Cervical vertebrae

• Thoracic vertebrae
• Lumbar vertebrae

• Sacrum
• Coccyx

http://www.bcb.uwc.ac.za/Sci_Ed/grade10/manphys/axial.htm
Axial skeleton
The human skeleton can be divided into two main parts; the first part is the axial skeleton
and second part is the appendicular skeleton (but we will be focusing on the axial skeleton).
The axial skeleton is there to protect your main organs it is generally situated at the anterior
view of the skeleton. The axial skeleton consists of the skull, ribcage, vertebral column and
your sternum. The organs that these bones protect are your heart, lungs, brain and spinal
cord. The axial skeleton only involves these bones; the axial skeleton is the bones that
protect your organs from damage.

(http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46139/axial-skeleton)

Appendicular skeleton
The primary function of the appendicular skeleton is that of movement.
The appendicular skeleton provides movement and general functions
eg. Support, red blood cell production and mineral storage. The appendicular skeleton
consists of the girdles and the skeleton of the limbs. The upper (anterior) limbs are
attached to the pectoral (shoulder) girdle and the lower (posterior) limbs are attached to
the pelvic (hip) girdle. The skeleton of the upper limbs or arm may be divided into five
main regions: an upper arm bone, the forearm (radius and ulna), the wrist, the palm of the
hand and the fingers. The skeleton of the lower limb may be divided into five main
regions: the upper leg (thigh), the lower leg, the ankle, the arch of the foot and the toes.
(http://www.bcb.uwc.ac.za/Sci_Ed/grade10/manphys/appendicular.htm)