TECHNOLOGY A 2011

TASK 1 (LOC 1 – AC 1)

Compare the difference between the methods of site survey techniques to evaluate the site
conditions and existing buildings for the redevelopments project.

As with surveying in general, land surveying can be broken down into several susections as
Geametic surveying, Topographical surveying, Photogrammetry, Hydra graphic surveying and
Engineering surveying. However, it must be stressed that them is a consideration overlap between these
sections, particularly as regards the basic methods and instruments used. That part of land surveying
which relevant to dvil engineering and construction is engineering surveying.

Geodetic surveys cover such large areas that the curved shape of the Earth has to be taken into
account. These surveys involve advanced mathematical theory and require precise measurements to be
made to provide a framework of accurately located paints. These points can be used to map entire
continents, they can be used to measure the size and shape of the Earth or they can be used to carry out
scientific studies such as the determination of Earth magnetic field and detection of continental drift.
Position fixing by satellite and sophisticated computers and software are a feature of modem geodetic
surveys.

Topographical surveys establish the position end shape of natural and man made features cover a
given area, usually for the propose of producing a map of an area or for establishing a geographic
information system. Such surveys are usually classified according to the scale of the final amp or terrain
model formed. Small scale surveys cover large areas such an entire continent, country, and many range in
scale from 1 : 1000000 to 1: 50000 looked the familiar Ordnance Survey land ranger maps of Great
Britain. Medium scale maps range in scale from about 1: 10000 to 1: 1000 and many cover the area of a
small town. Large scale maps show detailed and present information that is not often available from a
map purchased in a shop and are therefore usually commissioned for a specific purpose. These maps
range ins scale from 1: 500 up to 1:50 or larger and are often provided to meet the needs of architects,
civil engineers, or government departments.
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

TASK 2 (LOC 1- AC 2)-M2/D2

Based on the scenario, describe at least 3 types of site investigation methods that are
applicable to the project.

A site investigation is the process of collecting information and evaluating the conditions
of the site for the purpose of designing and constructing the foundation for a structure, such as a
building, plant or bridge. Good planning for and management of a site investigation is the key to
obtaining sufficient and correct site information for designing a structure in a timely manner and
with minimum cost for the effort needed.

The site investigation procedure needs to identify the potential for using types of site
investigations methods and identify possible areas that may require remedial works in order to
make a site suitable for use. Based on the scenario, the site were home of 7 units of abandoned
shop houses in Teluk Pahang. The site investigation should be done in phases in order that
resources are appropriately targeted.

 Phase 1 investigation should establish whether there have been any former contaminative
uses on the site or adjacent properties which could impact upon the development. The
Phase 1 should include a preliminary conceptual site model.

 Phase 2 investigations should determine the nature, extent and severity of contamination
using risk based criteria. It should provide details of remedial options, health and safety
issues, potential impacts on the environment and a detailed work plan. It should assess
the risks to human health, controlled waters and the wider environment.

 Phase 3 Remediation Method Statement should provide details of proposed remedial

options, health and safety issues and a detailed remediation strategy.

Generally the following site investigation techniques are employed to the projects:

 Trial Pitting
 Window Sampling and Dynamic Probe Testing
 Cable Percussive Boreholes
 Hand Augering or Rotary Augering
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

Trial Pitting

Trial pitting can be carried out by a variety of methods from hand dug pits to machine
excavated trenches. Trial pits provide the best method of obtaining very detailed information on
strength, stratification, pre-existing shear surfaces, and discontinuities in soil. Trial pitting is
generally carried out to a maximum depth of 4.5m with standard excavation plant and, depending
on soil conditions, is generally suitable for most low rise developments.

Trial pits may be excavated by either hand digging or machine excavation. In general,
machine excavation is used for shallow pits, whereas hand excavation is used for deep pits which
must be supported. In the limited space of a trial pit, which is often 1.5m x 3m in plan area at
ground level, it is usually impossible to place supports as machine excavation proceeds. Shallow
trial pits provide a cheap method of examining near-surface, but the cost increases dramatically
with depth, because of the need to support.

Figure: Example of trial pitting have been done

Resource: http://www.nicholls-colton.co.uk/110.asp

a) Shallow Trial Pitting

Shallow trial pitting are usually dug by hand using a pick and shovel, and commonly
extend to a depth of about 3m. It is essential that the pit sides are guarded against sudden
collapse in order to protect personnel working in the pit. For this purpose, timber shoring is
usually provided when excavation is deeper than 1.2m. The spacing of the shoring should be
sufficiently wide to allow inspection of the pit sides. Shallow trial pits may also be dug by
machine that is excavator is the most commonly used.

Material that has been excavated from the pits should be stockpiled in such a manner that
is does not fall back in to the pits or cause instability of the pit excavation. Wooden hoardings
anchored by steel bars driven into the ground are often used on steep slopes to retain spoil from
falling back into the pit. The spoil should be placed and covered so as not be washed downhill
during rainstorms or allowed to enter surface drainage systems.
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

b) Deep Trial Pitting

Deep trial pitting is normally constructed by hand excavation using various methods for
supporting the sides. Temporary or permanent liners are necessary for the protection of personnel
working in these excavations, but it also necessary to consider the need to expose the ground for
inspection and logging. The work must done such in judgment and experience often required to
establish suitable procedures for such excavations.

Working in deep shafts will be dangerous unless the appropriate safety precautions are
strictly followed. Attention should be given to the possible occurrence of injurious or
combustible gases or of oxygen deficiencies. Correct methods of inspections should be followed
and appropriate precautions should be taken.

       
Window Sampling

Window sampling is a site investigation tool that utilizes portable equipment to drill
small diameter boreholes in order to take soil samples and install monitoring wells. Window
sampling is carried out by hand held pneumatic samplers. The equipment is suitable for shallow
soils investigations and represents a rapid and cost effective drilling method that can be used for
geotechnical and environmental sampling.

Window sampling can generally be extended to depths of up to 6m although it is possible

to continue the borehole using dynamic probing methods. The sampler consists of a specially
constructed and strengthened metal sample tube, with side windows, of diameters ranging from
80mm to 40mm.The sample tubes come in lengths of 1.00m and 2.00m and are driven into the
ground by a pneumatic kango hammer using a small portable compressor unit, or by petrol or
electrical hammer.

Figure: Strengthened Metal Sample Tube

Figure: Pneumatic Kango Hammer
Resource: http://drill-pro.com/Method_satement.html
Resource:
http://www.dynamicsampling.co.uk/services.php
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

The use of electrical equipment means that sampling can be carried out safely inside
buildings and the equipment can be operated in headroom of as little as 2.2 m. The equipment is
self-contained, requires a small working area and causes minimal disturbance to surfacing.

By using this method a continuous sample of soil can be obtained for inspection and
small disturbed samples can be recovered for subsequent laboratory testing. The continuous core
means that the method is particularly suited to assessing the depth of desiccation in clay soils,
particularly in association with pocket penetrometer testing.

The advantages of using window sampling method:

 Ideal for restricted access sites

 Suitable for contamination sampling
 No residual spoil
 Useful initial intrusive investigative tool
 Can be used to install monitoring wells
 The equipment is portable.
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

Hand Augering or Rotary Augering

Hand auger equipment is suitable for soil research based on the scenario. Almost any
type of soil sets its own demands where it concerns the model of the auger to be applied. With
hand auger equipment a depth of 8-10 meter can realistically be achieved. The maximum boring
depth strongly depends on various factors such as:

 Depth of the groundwater

 The soil profile
 The characteristics of the material the auger has to pass through

The hand auger consists of extendable steel rods, rotated by a handle. A number of
different steel augers can be attached at the bottom end of the drill rods. A hand auger comprises
of a ‘T-Bar’ handle on a length of either 1, 2 or 3m extendable steel rods with an auger head
attached to the bottom.

Figure: Example of Hand Augering Set for Site Investigation and “T-Bar” handle

Resource: http://www.acme-et.com/suppliers_Eijkelkamp.php
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

Site specific conditions should be addressed before using hand augering method for site
investigations. The flow chart below determined if hand augering is a feasible investigative
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

The auger head is driven into the ground as the handle is turned in a clockwise rotation.
Soil is forced into and retained in the head to be brought to the surface and identified and
described. The auger is then carefully placed back in the hole commonly known as a borehole
and the process is repeated until the desired depth is reached. Once the desired depth has been
reached on the borehole then it is backfilled and the surface is reinstated to match the existing as
closely as possible. Than a display of cross sectional profile of the borehole, including
foundation details can be taken.

Figure: Example of Hand Augering Work and taking detail from the soil

Resource: http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/vro/vrosite.nsf/pages/soil_acid_sulfate_soils

Hand augering are appropriate for many but not all soil ground water investigations.
Potential advantages, disadvantages and limitations are listed in table below and must be
considered prior to beginning on investigations.

Advantages Disadvantages Limitations

Not limited by access Allow only 2inch monitor well Water table greater than 20 ft
completions below ground level
Minimal site disturbance Could be labor intensive Sediment clast greater than 50
millimeter
Repetitive sample profile Potential loss of surface casing Consolidated sediments or
bedrock
Minimize volume of drill Boreholes conditions prevent Highly cohesive sediments
cuttings ability to drive surface casing
Sampling sediments and
completing monitor wells in
unstable boreholes
Allows annular materials to be
completed inside surface casing
Cable Percussive Borehole
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

Cable percussive borehole the most appropriate drilling technique to suit the geological
conditions and objectives of a particular projects. The equipment is simple and relatively easy to
maintain and is suitable for drilling in all types of soils and weak rocks. In the hands of a
competent and experienced driller the equipment provides a rapid and cost-effective method of
investigation to depths of up to 50 m.

The cable percussive consists of:

1. A collapsible ‘A’ frame, with a pulley at its top;

2. A diesel engine connected via a hand-operated friction clutch

3. A winch drum which provides pulling power to the rig rope and can be held still with a

friction brake which is foot-operated.

Figure 24: Cable percussion drilling

Resources from web: http://www.prioritygeotechnical.ie

 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

The following can be carried out with cable percussion drilling: -

 Boreholes up to 50m depth

 Installation of monitoring wells up to 150mm diameter
 In - situ testing including : -
o Standard Penetration Testing (SPT)
o Down hole vane testing
o Permeability testing
 Disturbed, undisturbed, bulk and water samples can be taken
 Access to restricted areas by using a cut down drilling rig
 Drilling diameters of 150mm, 200mm or 250mm

Cable percussive only use one engine is employed, and no water or mud is needed, yet it will
perform all the tasks required to drill, place casing and develop the well.

Examples picture of workers using Cable Percussion Borehole during site Investigations

Resource: http://www.geositesurveys.co.uk/cable-percussive.html
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

TASK 3 (LOC 1- AC 3)
Analyze the soil classification and their chemical composition that are possible to be found
at the developments site.

Soil research is a very important aspect in the planning and execution of site
investigations as well as civil engineering and operations. In order to make the soil research as
comprehensive as possible the following studies must be made with regards to:

 Determining the classifications, the composition, the thickness and the position of the
various strata.
 The soil properties for examples measuring the permeability, the filtration capacity, the
bearing capacity and their chemical compositions.

Soil in the engineering sense, is defined as “any unconsolidated material that is the product of
weathering and mechanical disintegration of rocks, composed of discrete particles with gases and liquids
interspersed between them. Soils are diverse as the plants and animals growing and living above them.
Tropical rain forest soil is not like a prairie soil. Physical, chemical, and biological actions work together
to create every soil on the planet. But there are many ingredients that can go into the basic recipe.

The formation of soil happens over a very long period of time. It can take 1000 years or more.
Soil is formed from the weathering of rocks and minerals. The surface rocks break down into smaller
pieces through a process of weathering and is then mixed with moss and organic matter. Over time this
creates a thin layer of soil. Plants help the development of the soil. How? The plants attract animals, and
when the animals die, their bodies decay. Decaying matter makes the soil thick and rich. This continues
until the soil is fully formed. The soil then supports many different plants.

Weathering

Weathering is the process of the breaking down rocks. There are two different types of
weathering that is physical weathering and chemical weathering. In physical weathering it breaks down
the rocks, but what it's made of stays the same. In chemical weathering it still breaks down the rocks, but
it may change what it's made of. For instance, a hard material may change to a soft material after
chemical weathering.

Picture: Soil Formations

Resources from http://www.colorado.edu/geography/class_homepages/geog_3251_sum08/

 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

Soils are a mixture of different things rocks, minerals, and dead, decaying plants and animals.
Soil can be very different from one location to another, but generally consists of organic and inorganic
materials, water and air. The inorganic materials are the rocks that have been broken down into smaller
pieces. The size of the pieces varies. It may appear as pebbles, gravel, or as small as particles of sand or
clay. The organic material is decaying living matter. This could be plants or animals that have died and
decay until they become part of the soil. The amount of water in the soil is closely linked with the climate
and other characteristics of the region. The amount of water in the soil is one thing that can affect the
amount of air. Very wet soil like you would find in a wetland probably has very little air. The
composition of the soil affects the plants and therefore the animals that can live there.

Chart: Soil Compositions

Resource from http://soils.missouri.edu/tutorial/page1.asp

Soil Texture

Soil texture has an important role in nutrient management because it influences nutrient retention.
For instance, finer textured soils tend to have greater ability to store soil nutrients. The mineral particles
of a soil are present in a wide range of size. The fine earth fraction includes all soil particles that are less
than 2 mm. Soil particles within this fraction are further divided into the 3 separate size classes, which
includes sand, silt, and clay. The size of sand particles range between 2.0 and 0.05 mm; silt, 0.05 mm and
0.002 mm; and clay, less than 0.002 mm. Notice that clay particles may be over one thousand times
smaller than sand particles. This difference in size is largely due to the type of parent material and the
degree of weathering. Sand particles are generally primary minerals that have not undergone much
weathering. On the other hand, clay particles are secondary minerals that are the products of the
weathering of primary minerals. As weathering continues, the soil particles break down and become
smaller and smaller.
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

Soil texture is the relative proportions of sand, silt, or clay in a soil. The soil textural class is a
grouping of soils based upon these relative proportions. Soils with the finest texture are called clay soils,
while soils with the coarsest texture are called sands. However, a soil that has a relatively even mixture of
sand, silt, and clay and exhibits the properties from each separate is called a loam. There are different
types of loams, based upon which soil separate is most abundantly present. If the percentages of clay, silt,
and sand in a soil are known, you may use the textural triangle to determine the texture class of your soil.

Figure :Textural Triangle - The textural triangle describes the relative proportions of
sand, silt and clay in various types of soils.
Source: http://soils.usda.gov/technical/manual/print_version/complete.html

Clay particles, as well as other particles of similar size, are important components of a soil. There
is a fundamental difference between soils that contain large amounts of sand particles and soils that
contain large amounts of very small particles, such as clay. That difference is surface area. The total
surface area of a given mass of clay is more than a thousand times the total surface area of sand
particles with the same mass.
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011
BOULDERS > 200 mm
Very coarse
soils COBBLES 60 - 200 mm

coarse 20 - 60 mm

G medium 6 - 20 mm
GRAVEL
Fine 2 - 6 mm
Coarse
soils coarse 0.6 - 2.0 mm

S medium 0.2 - 0.6 mm

SAND
Fine 0.06 - 0.2 mm

coarse 0.02 - 0.06 mm

M medium 0.006 - 0.02 mm

Fine SILT
soils Fine 0.002 - 0.006 mm

C  CLAY < 0.002 mm

Table: soil classified

Resources from http: // environment. uwe.ac.uk/geocal/SoilMesh/ classification/default.htm

Climate Classification

Soil formation greatly depends on the climate, and soils from different climate zones show
distinctive characteristics. Temperature and moisture affect weathering and leaching. Wind moves sand
and other particles, especially in arid regions where there is little plant cover. The type and amount of
precipitation influence soil formation by affecting the movement of ions and particles through the soil,
aiding in the development of different soil profiles. Seasonal and daily temperature fluctuations affect the
effectiveness of water in weathering parent rock material and affect soil dynamics. The cycle of freezing
and thawing is an effective mechanism to break up rocks and other consolidated materials. Temperature
and precipitation rates affect biological activity, rates of chemical reactions and types of vegetation cover.
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

Soil Structure

Soil structure is the arrangement of soil particles into groupings. These groupings are called peds
or aggregates, which often form distinctive shapes typically found within certain soil horizons. For
example, granular soil particles are characteristic of the surface horizon. Soil aggregation is an important
indicator of the workability of the soil. Soils that are well aggregated are said to have “good soil tilth.”
The various types of soil structures are provided in table below.
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

TASK 4 ( LOC 2- AC 1)
Determine the different soil classifications and their effects onto the design of substructure
of the buildings.

A proper design of a substructure of the buildings requires thorough knowledge of the

subsurface conditions at the structure site. The investigation should consist of subsurface
investigation, laboratory testing, geotechnical analysis of all data and design recommendations.
The absence of a thorough geotechnical investigation or adequate data generally leads to:

 A foundation system with a large factor of safety, which is generally more

expensive foundation or unsafe
 Construction problems, disputes and claims.

Soil structure is produced by the arrangement of soil particles and the air spaces between
them.  Soil structure is dependent on the arrangement of the classifications within the soil. 
Aggregates are stable clusters of soil particles bound together by organic matter. Aggregates
become unstable when organic matter is low, or sodium levels on the clay particles become too
high. A stable soil structure is important for build substructure. Soil structure decline refers to
undesirable changes in this structure as a result of various land use practices. The degree of soil
structure decline depends on both soil type and land use history.

When selecting the type of substructure, the designer must consider the existing soils found at
the site.

Types of Soil Descriptions Picture

Bedrock  The solid rock
below the
overburden soil,
decomposed rock
fragments or other
loose superficial
deposits. Bedrock
exposed at the
surface is known
as rock outcrop.
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

Boulders  Rounded
fragments of rock
that will be
retained on a 3
inch [75 mm]
sieve. Isolated
boulders should
not be confused
with bedrock.

Decomposed Rocks  The upper

portions of
bedrock may be
found in varying
stages of
decomposition.
Decomposed rock
represents the
uppermost product
of weathering and
decomposition of
bedrock in situ. In
its most
decomposed state,
it can be compact
soil that retains
some of the
appearance and
texture of the
original rock
structure.
Decomposed rock
is not equivalent
to bedrock for
bearing capacity.
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

Mud  Deposits of a
saturated or
unsaturated
mixture of soils
and organic matter
not suitable for
foundation
material
regardless of
moisture content.

Organic Matter  The more or less

decomposed
material of soil
derived from
organic sources,
usually from plant
remains. The term
covers such
material in all
stages of decay.

Organic Soil  Soils that contain

significant
amounts of muck.
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

A footing is the interfacing element between the superstructure and the underlying soil or
rock. The loads transmitted from the superstructure to the underlying soil must not cause soil
shear failure or damaging settlement.

Foundation Type Applicable Soils Conditions

Spread footing or wall footing
 Any conditions where bearing capacity
is adequate for applied load. May use
on single stratum, firm layer over soft
layer, or soft layer over firm layer.
Check immediate, differential and
consolidation settlements.

Pile foundation (friction, end bearing or
combination)
Caisson (drilled shaft) - generally end bearing
or combination of end bearing and skin
resistance
 Poor surface and near-surface soils.
Soils of high bearing capacity 25 to 150
ft [7.5 to 45 m] below ground surface.
Friction piles distribute load along pile
shaft if the soil strength is adequate.
End bearing piles transfer load by point
bearing on dense soil or rock of high
bearing capacity. Check settlement of
pile groups in clay.
 Poor surface and near-surface soils.
Soil of high bearing capacity (point
bearing) is 25 to 50 ft [7.5 to 15 m]
below ground surface.

Table : Foundation Types and Applicable Soils Conditions

 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

The designer must specify excavation into the soil to key the footing into the rock and to
establish a suitable level bearing surface. The excavation in the rock can be the full width of the
footing or can be benched. Any footing that exceeds 3 feet in depth must have vertical
reinforcement to prevent cracking.

Pile foundations may be needed in some areas to prevent undesirable seasonal

movements of the substructure. Piles under such conditions are designed to transfer foundation
loads, including uplift or down drag, to a level unaffected by seasonal moisture movements.
Negative skin friction occurs where the soil surrounding the pile exhibits a downward movement
with respect to the pile shaft. There are various causes of the downward movement of the soil.
All the causes increase the load on the pile. This is also known as down drag and is analyzed as
additional axial load.

In either case the piles must be extended to develop the necessary capacity below the
level of expected soil types or excavation. This will prevent costly damage and eliminate the
need for future underpinning. Piles should not be used where the depth to bedrock is less than 10
feet. In these cases, it is difficult to develop adequate lateral stability.

The effects of soil liquefaction on the built environment can be extremely damaging.
Buildings whose foundations bear directly on sand which liquefies will experience a sudden loss
of support, which will result in drastic and irregular settlement of the building causing structural
damage, including cracking of foundations and damage to the building structure itself, or may
leave the structure unserviceable afterwards, even without structural damage. Where a thin crust
of non-liquefied soil exists between building foundation and liquefied soil, a 'punching shear'
type foundation failure may occur. The irregular settlement of ground may also break
underground utility lines. The upward pressure applied by the movement of liquefied soil
through the crust layer can crack weak foundation slabs and enter buildings through service
ducts, and may allow water to damage the building contents and electrical services.

Figure : Example of soil liquefaction on buildings

Resource : http://eqseis.geosc.psu.edu/~cammon/HTML/Classes/IntroQuakes/Notes/earthquake_effects.html
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

TASK 5 ( LOC 2 – AC 2 ) M3/D3

Describe the effects of the followings factors onto the design and construction of a
substructure:

a) Water
b) Chemical
c) Contaminated Soils

The purpose of a substructure is to transfer the load of a structure to the ground without
causing the ground to respond with uneven and excessive movement. Most building are
supported on one of four types of foundations. Examples are pads, strips, rafts and piles. These
may be modified and combined to form a suitable foundation or substructure for the ground
conditions that exist.

Water

The movements of water levels and the ground-water are characteristics that should be
studied at every site before design or construct substructure. When water levels are lowered
consolidation may occurs. A shaft of an end-bearing pile can be loaded to failure by the
downward drag against it of consolidating sediment. Uneven consolidation beneath a buildings
will result in differential settlement and structural failure.

Tables : The hydrological cycle

Resource : http://geography.about.com/od/physicalgeography/a/hydrologiccycle.htm
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

Ground water is the fluid most commonly encountered in engineering construction. It is

derived from many sources but most now comes from rainfall and melting snow and is termed
meteoric ground water. The passage of water through the surface of the ground called infiltration
and its downward movement to the saturated zone at depth is described as percolation. Water in
the zone of saturated ground moves towards river, lakes, and the seas a process known as ground
water flow, where it is evaporated and returned to the land as clouds of water vapor which may
precipitate as rain or snow. The circulation of water is termed the hydrological cycle.

Effect on water to construction:

 Water logging
 The excavation becoming weak
 Collapse of edge excavation
 Temporary support will collapse
 Settlement to the nearest building

CONCRETE CRACKS AND DETERIORATES

In the coastal flats and many desert areas, the ground water table is very near to the
surface and salts may exist either in solution in the groundwater, or in the form of salt crusts on
the surface. The salts which consist mainly of sulphates, chlorides or carbonates of calcium,
magnesium and sodium, attack the concrete externally both below and up to a meter above
ground level. The calcium aluminum hydrate in hardened concrete reacts with sulphate salts to
produce calcium sulpho-aluminate crystals within the framework of the hydrated paste. As these
crystals have a volume 227% greater than the original calcium aluminum hydrate crystals, the
concrete cracks and deteriorates.

Photo: An experiments that been done to showed reactions of sulphate salts with
concrete that can effect cracks and deteriorates.

Resource: http://www.shieldcrete.com/UniqueApplications5.html
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

CONSOLIDATION

Consolidation is a process by which soils decrease in volume. Consolidation is any

process which involves decrease in water content of a saturated soil without replacement of
water by air. In general it is the process in which reduction in volume takes place by expulsion of
water under long term static loads. It occurs when stress is applied to a soil that causes the soil
particles to pack together more tightly, therefore reducing its bulk volume. When this occurs in a
soil that is saturated with water, water will be squeezed out of the soil.

Photo: Example photos of building settlement cause by ground water movements.

Resource: http://www.nd.edu/~concrete/1999_duzce_earthquake_reconnaissance/liq_set_sub.html

The process of consolidation is often explained with an idealized system composed of a

spring, a container with a hole in its cover, and water. In this system, the spring represents the
compressibility or the structure itself of the soil, and the water which fills the container
represents the pore water in the soil.

1. The container is completely filled with water, and the hole is closed. (Fully saturated soil)

2. A load is applied onto the cover, while the hole is still unopened. At this stage, only the water
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

resists the applied load. (Development of excess pore water pressure)

3. As soon as the hole is opened, water starts to drain out through the hole and the spring

shortens. (Drainage of excess pore water pressure)

4. After some time, the drainage of water no longer occurs. Now, the spring alone resists the

applied load. (Full dissipation of excess pore water pressure. End of consolidation)

SOIL SHRINKAGE

Subsidence frequently causes major problems in construction of substructure, where

dissolution of limestone by fluid flow in the subsurface causes the creation of voids. If the roof
of these voids becomes too weak, it can collapse and the overlying rock and earth will fall into
the space, causing subsidence at the surface. This type of subsidence can result in sinkholes
which can be many hundreds of meters deep. This also known as soil shrinkage.

Photo: Example photo and diagram showed of foundation failure cause by dissolution of
limestone by fluid flow in the subsurface.

Resource:
http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/minres/districts/homepage/california/Undergrou
nd/Mine%20Subsidence/mine_subsidence.htm

Chemical
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

Chemicals substances are often defined as any materials with definite materials
composition in most introducing general chemistry textbooks. It also can we defined as the soil
may contain phosphorus waste & radioactive substances. It will spontaneously ignite when
exposed to atmosphere. Toxic waste is hard to remove because costly. All the materials above
are not really dangerous / hazard to human but may affect to plants & building materials.

Ground waters have a concentration of sulphate that is aggressive to concrete. The

sulphate comes from soluble sulphate minerals in the ground, and for this reason the sulphate
minerals in the ground, and for this reason the sulphate content of both soil and water should be
measured. It is useful to measure their pH at the same time. Sulphates are common in deposits of
clays, evaporate and peat. Oxidation of pyrite can produce free sulphuric acid and this
occurrence is indicated by a low pH for the soil and a high content of sulphate. Metal piles can
corrode in saline ground and the electrical conductivity of the soil will indicate the severity of
this effects.

Tables :

Corrosion of Metal piles in substructure cause by a low pH for the soil and a high content of
sulphate.

Resource : http://www.corrosionist.com/picture_of_corrosion.htm

Alkali-silica reaction can cause serious expansion and cracking in concrete, resulting in
major structural problems and sometimes necessitating demolition. Alkali-silica reaction is the
most common form of alkali-aggregate reaction in concrete. The other, much less common, form
is alkali-carbonate reactions, alkali-silica reaction and alkali-carbonate reaction are therefore
both subsets of alkali-aggregate reaction. Alkali-silica reaction is caused by a reaction between
the hydroxyl ions in the alkaline cement pore solution in the concrete and reactive forms of silica
in the aggregate examples chert, quartzite,
opal, and strained quartz crystals.
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

Tables : Concrete thin-section, viewed with a petrographic microscope, showing a chert aggregate particle (at
the right of the image) from which alkali-silica gel has extruded into adjacent cracks.

Resource : http://www.understanding-cement.com/alkali-silica.html

Contaminated Soils

March harmful waste degrades to harmless substances that eventually enter the
atmosphere as a gas or the hydrosphere as a solute in ground water. Safe waste disposal ensure
that dangerous products cannot travel far from their repository until they have degraded to a safe
conditions. To predict the rate of migration of waste products that have been buried in the
ground, it is necessary to study the geology of each disposal site or contaminated sites.

Special attention must be directed to the movements of ground water. Some contaminated
soil or waste contains materials that do not degrade and do not decay. Examples are cadmium
and mercury. The disposal of these wastes on the land may be achieved by burying them beyond
reach of the agents of weathering and erosion. Underground disposal sites are thus an attractive
location for these materials.

Building sites that may contain contaminants can be identified from planning records or
local knowledge of previous uses. Sites that are likely to contain contaminants include:

 Asbestos works
 Chemical or gas works
 Coal carbonisation plants and ancillary byproducts
 Industries making or using wood preservatives
 Landfill sites
 Waste disposals sites
 Metal works
 Munitions factories
 Nuclear installations

 Oil stores
 Paper printing works
 Railway land
 Scrap yards
 Sewage works
 Tanneries
Signs of possible
contaminants
No sign of vegetation, or
poor or unnatural growth
No sign of vegetation, or
poor or unnatural growth
Surface colour and
contour or materials may
be unusual indicating
waste
Fumes and odours may
indicate organic
chemicals at very low
concentrations
Drums and containers
(whether full or empty)
Figure: Possible signs of contaminants soil and
Effects of Contaminated to environment:
TECHNOLOGY A 2011
Possible contaminant Relevant action
Metals None
Metal compounds
Organic compounds Removal
Gases
Metals None
Metal compounds
Oily and tarry wastes Removal, filling or sealing
Asbestos (loose) Filling or sealing
Other mineral fibers None
Organic compounds Removal or sealing
including phenols
Combustible material Removal or sealing
including coal and coke dust
Refuse and waste Total removal or seek
specialist advice
Flammable explosive and Removal
asphyxiating gases including
methane and carbon dioxide
Corrosive liquids Removal, filling or sealing
Faecal animal and vegetable Removal or sealing
matter (biologically active)
Various Removal with all
contaminated ground
actions.
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

 Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can cause acid rain which lowers the pH value of
soil.
 Nitrogen oxides are removed from the air by rain and fertilise land which can change the
species composition of ecosystems.
 Soil can become infertile and unsuitable for plants. This will affect other organisms in the
food web.
 Smog and haze can reduce the amount of sunlight received by plants to carry out
photosynthesis and leads to the production of troposphere ozone which damages plants.
 Invasive species can out compete native species and reduce biodiversity. Invasive plants
can contribute debris and bio molecules (allelopathy) that can alter soil and chemical
compositions of an environment, often reducing native species competitiveness.
 Bio magnification describes situations where toxins (such as heavy metals) may pass
through tropic levels, becoming exponentially more concentrated in the process.
 Carbon dioxide emissions cause ocean acidification, the ongoing decrease in the pH of
the Earth's oceans as CO2 becomes dissolved.
 The emission of greenhouse gases leads to global warming which affects ecosystems in
many ways.

Tables : examples of contaminated soil with toxic waste that can effect substructure of
ah building.

Resource : http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/06/100609201310.htm

Contaminated to construction:
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

 If used for residential purposes, need fully investigated & assessed in order to restore the
land to a health & safety level ensured for residents
 Many site contain toxic materials ( dumped illegally)
 Sites contain phosphorous waste & radioactive substances will spontaneously ignite when
exposed to atmosphere.
 Some sites cannot built over because cost of removing toxic waste expensive.
 For pest industries site, which contain chemicals, acids or heavy metals ; not all materials
above are dangerous / hazardous to human but will effect plants or building materials.

TASK 6 (LOC2 – AC 3) - M1/D1

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Compare and appraise the various types of substructure and their associated temporary
works to be used for the buildings in the redevelopments projects.

Newsday in construction world, managing the weight of these vertically constructed

works of architecture is one of their major technical concerns. The construction of a steel or
concrete building's substructure enables them to handle their considerable weight. "Substructure"
refers strictly to the foundation and will not address the rest of the skeleton that undergirds the
building. The foundation is the part of the structure that contacts the earth. It must be capable of
holding the structure, and prevent excessive settlement. Foundations today are generally made of
concrete, or CMU (cement masonry units or cement blocks). Almost all foundations are
reinforced with steel bar called rebar. Chart below showed types of substructure and foundations.

Chart: Showed types of substructure.

Shallow Foundation
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

Shallow foundations represent the simplest form of load transfer from a structure to the
ground beneath. They are typically constructed with generally small excavations into the ground,
do not require specialized construction equipment or tools, and are relatively inexpensive. In
most cases, shallow foundations are the most cost-effective choice for support of a structure.

SLAB FOUNDATION

The slab foundation is the easiest foundation to build, because it takes very little site
preparation, less labor and less concrete form work. The slab is a ground supported foundation.
A slab may be reinforced with wire mesh to prevent settlement and shrinkage. Slabs are
generally 4 to 6 thick and vary in their construction. There are methods offering additional
support for load-bearing walls, chimneys and fireplaces, that can offer vary in style from
traditional to contemporary foundations. Slab foundations come in four basic variations.

1. Floating or pinned:

This variety is most commonly used for garage floors. The floor, itself, is poured onto a bed of
gravel and floats between two walls and the footings. It is free standing, in that it is not supported
by some form of support at its edges. Some floating floors are pinned at the edges to tie the walls
and floor together.

2. Monolithic:

The slab floor, and foundation are poured as one piece with mesh and a steel bar to add
reinforcement and strength. With the monolithic floor, the edges are also thicker to offer support
to the load bearing walls.

3. Supported, footed, or concrete-block supported:

These are variations of the same basic concept. They are comprised of a slab resting at its edges,
where vertical support is needed for the framing, or on a direct footing such as the basement
variety. They can also be constructed on footing and a few courses/layers of concrete blocks and
footing where the soil grading is not leveled, but pitched. Another variety has a shoulder cut at
the top of the foundation for the edge of the slab to rest on.
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

Figure: various types of slab foundation use in substructure

Resource: http://www.bettergazebos.com/foundation.htm

It is not uncommon for water supply and waste lines, heating ducts, or hot water heat
plumbing to be located below the slab. When building a slab, it is required that all these systems
be installed, before the concrete is poured.

Figure: Picture of slab foundation been done

Resource:
http://www.homesfromthegroundup.com/creative_concrete_stamped_concrete_drives_walkways_Ge
orgia/Concrete_Basements_Slabs_Mono_Slabs_Raised_Slabs_in_Georgia_Communities.shtml
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

PAD FOUNDATION

Pad foundation is isolated foundations which may be of reinforced or unreinforced

concrete. The minimum thickness of the foundation should not be less than 150mm.These
foundations are normally used for structures which are framed with steel or concrete columns.
This type of foundation will also be used to provide a foundation for isolated piers, but it is
important to ensure that the scar cement still remains the same as any other type of foundation.

A brick may need to be placed on a pad foundation. This will support the piers that carry
the weight of the construction. The size of the pad foundation will be in the plans for the project.
The formwork will be built in the same way as slab formwork. Pad foundations may also be
below ground level. In this case the earth will act as the formwork.

The spread of the pad foundation is determined by the loads on it and the bearing
capacity of the subsoil and the thickness of is either at least equal to the projection of the pad
each side of the pier. The spacing of the piers or columns is determined by the most economical
construction. Pad foundation to heavily loaded structural steel columns are sometimes provided
with a steel grillage

The advantage of this system of foundation is that pockets of tipped stone or brick and
concrete rubble that would obstruct bored piling may be removed as the pits are excavated and
that the nature of the subsoil may be examined as the pits are dug to select a level of sound
subsoil. This advantage may well be justification for this labor intensive and costly form of
construction.
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

Stages 1 Finish Excavation Stages 2 Pad Rebar

Stages 3 Foundation Pad Form Stages 4 Foundation Pad Pour

Stages 5 Foundation Pad Pored Stages 6 Foundation Pier Ribar

Stages 7 Foundation Pier Forms Stages 8 Foundation Ready For Backfil

Figure: Example construction of pad foundation from

earlier stages until ready for backfill
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

STRIP FOUNDATIONS

Strip foundations consist of a continuous strip, usually of steel reinforced concrete,

formed centrally under load bearing walls. This continuous strip serves as a level base on which
the wall is built and is of such a width as is necessary to spread the load on the foundations to an
area of subsoil capable of supporting the load without undue compaction. The bearing capacity
of the soil should be greater than the loads imposed by the buildings foundation.

In practice the concrete strip will generally be wider than the thickness of the wall for the
convenience of covering the whole width of the trench and to provide a wide enough level base
for bricklaying below ground. A continuous strip foundation of concrete is the most economic
form of foundation for small buildings on compact soils.

The width of a concrete strip foundation depends on the bearing capacity of the subsoil
and the load on the foundations: the greater the bearing capacity of the subsoil, the less the width
of the foundation

Figure: Examples of strips foundations

Resource: http://www.sierraconcretefoundations.com/information.php

Types of strip foundation:

 Stepping Strip Foundation

 Wide Strip Foundation
 Narrow Strip Foundation
 Deep Strip Foundation
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

RAFT FOUNDATION

A raft foundation consists of a raft of reinforced concrete under the whole of a building.
Raft foundations may be used for buildings on compressible ground such as very soft clay,
alluvial deposits and compressible fill material where strip, pad or pile foundations would not
provide a stable foundation without excessive excavation.

The reinforced concrete raft is designed to transmit the load of the building and distribute
the load over the whole area under the raft, reducing the load per unit area placed on the ground.
The two types of raft foundation commonly used are:

 Flat raft
 Wide toe raft.

The flat slab raft is of uniform thickness under the whole of the building and reinforced to
spread the loads from the walls uniformly over the under surface to the ground. This type of raft
may be used under small buildings such as bungalows and two storey houses where the
comparatively small loads on foundations can be spread safely and economically under the rafts.
The concrete raft is reinforced top and bottom against both upward and downward bending.

Figure : Raft foundations

Resources from http://wsuzana.wordpress.com/2010/03/14/jom-travel-to-europe/

 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

The construction sequence is as follows.

1. Vegetable topsoil is removed.

2. A blinding layer of concrete is spread and leveled to provide a level base so that the steel
reinforcement cage can be constructed.
3. Where the raft is not cast directly against the ground, formwork may be required to
contain any concrete up-stands.
4. Once the reinforcement is correctly spaced, and tied together in position, the concrete can
be poured, vibrated and leveled.
5. A waterproof membrane can be positioned either underneath the structural concrete or on
top beneath the insulation. Some architects choose to position the damp proof membrane
(dpm) on top of the insulation and beneath the finish screed. Traditionally the damp proof
membrane (dpm) was placed on top of the blinding; it is now more common for the dpm
to sit on top of the insulation (providing the insulation is impermeable). When the dpm is
positioned above the insulation it not only prevents groundwater penetration but also
reduces the possibility of interstitial condensation forming.
6. Rigid insulation boards are placed on top of the structural concrete.
7. Finally a 40mm sand/cement screed finish is spread and leveled on top of the raft.

Figure: Examples construction of raft foundation on sites

Resource: http://www.angliaformwork.co.uk/reinforcement.html
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

Deep Foundation

As foundation or structure becomes more structured by codes the question of axial

strength definition becomes more important. Capacity is usually the basic consideration in the
design of deep foundation. The basic function that is usually assigned to a deep foundation is to
transfer a load to deeper, stronger soil layers or in a few cases to limit and control settlements in
soft soils.

PILE

Where the subsoil is of firm, shrinkable clay, which is subject to volume change due to
deep rooted vegetation for some depth below the surface and where the subsoil is of soft, or
uncertain bearing capacity for a few meters below the surface, it may be economic and
satisfactory to use a pile foundation as a substructure.

Piles are concrete columns, which are either precast and driven into the ground or cast in
holes that are augured into the ground down to a level of a firm, stable stratum of subsoil. Pile
divide by six; driven pile- concrete, driven tubular steel piles, driven cast in- place piles, jack
piles, bored piles, and bored displacement piles.

Figure: Basic principle of foundation and Isometric view

Resource: http://maitindia.blogspot.com/2010/09/typical-pile-foundation.html

Transfer of load depends on capacity of pile. There is a need that pile should be strong
enough to transfer the whole load coming on it to underlying hard strata. For this purpose, pile
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

design is usually given much consideration. Depending on the load, type of material is usually
selected for the piles. Piles are usually made from following materials:

 Timber
 Concrete
 Steel
 Composite pile

It is understood that pile is the basis for design of deep foundation. The very first step in
the design of pile foundation is selection of right type of pile. Selection of type, length, &
capacity of pile depends on following parameters:

 Soil condition
 Magnitude of load

In actual construction, first pile load test is performed on the soil to verify soil strength
that whether it can take the load of pile or not. Factors which affect the selection of pile are as
under:

 Length of pile in relation to load and soil condition

 Behavior of structure

 Availability of material in locality of construction

 Type of loading

 Ease of maintenance

 Availability of funds

 Factors causing damage

 Cost of pile

Two more things which have importance in pile foundation design are:

1. Pile spacing
2. Negative skin friction

Too much close spacing between the piles causes overlapping of pressure bulb. Piles
should be spaced so that the bearing capacity of group is not less than bearing capacities of
individual piles in group.
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

The fill above the original soil in which pile group is established usually settle down
under its own weight. This will exert drag on pile in addition to friction between pile and soil.
This adds to the load on the pile instead of resisting it. It is said to be as negative skin friction.
Being the extra load it must be taken into account in design of pile foundation.

Figure: a hierarchical representation of pile types can be used for different conditions and situation

Resource : http://sbe.napier.ac.uk/projects/piledesign/guide/chapter1.htm

SHALLOW FOUNDATION DEEP FOUNDATION

A common method is to pack down the area
under isolated foundations or trenches under
continuous foundations with tampers. Often
used for smaller buildings.
Types of materials always been uses:
 Concrete
 Steel
Generally constructed in:
 Excavations
 Trenches.
Advantages of using shallow foundation:
 Affordable construction cost
 Simple construction procedure
 Mostly used concrete material
 Economic
 Shallow form requires little
excavation.
Disadvantages of using shallow foundation:
 Limited to dealing with point loads
 Potential for edge erosion of not treated
properly
 Can become very large if used for high
point loads.
 Requires specific treatment for point
loads.
Their use is recommended for weak, subsiding,
swelling, and other soils having special properties and
a high ground-water level. Large buildings with heavy
loads. Sites with poor general ground conditions.
Often used in cohesion less soils
Types of materials always been uses:
 Concrete
 Steel
 Timber
Generally constructed in:
 drill-filling
 driven piles
 deep piers
 caissons
Advantages of using deep foundation:
 In clay soils, if correctly designed, they
are not affected by clay heave or shrinkage
 Groundwater can percolate between piles
easily
 Limited tree roots have little effect as piles
continue further below the surface than any
tree root system
 Techniques available to overcome
groundwater
 Whilst piling, so dewatering not required
 Reduced quantity of spoil and minimal ground
disturbance
Disadvantages of using deep foundation:
 Usually results in higher construction cost.
 Can require additional engineering design
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

effort than a slab-on-grade, and can result in

higher engineering fees.
 Extra time required to construct structurally
isolated floor can lengthen overall construction
schedule.
 Improper carton form installation can result in
void that is insufficient to provide for
anticipated soil expansion.
 Termites can be attracted to moist cardboard of
carton forms.
 Grade beams that are in contact with soil can
heave due to swelling of expansive soils.
 Depending on slab elevation, can allow water
to collect below slab.

CONCLUSION

Soil classification is important not only for scientist research in soil sciences themes for
many other natural, social, economic, cultural and technical sciences. The main contribution of
soil classification is to allow for the defining of clusters of different soil characteristics, relevant
in space and time to specify research needs in the respective field’s science. The access of
nonsoil scientists to soil classification is very limited because there is not enough information
available in written form to understand soil classification, which must be urgently improved. A
user-friendly key to soil classification must develop as soon as possible. Then, Water, chemicals
and also contaminated soils can give effect to human and also to construction. It also will affect
the substructures of building if we can’t control it. So, After completing my case study
assignment, my conclusion is that site and soil investigation is an important method that need to
be carried out before the foundation are been selected. If using wrong foundation in wrong soil
stability will make the building structure unsafe. In the other hand, during the construction stage,
I can now know the basic of built the foundation and it how does it work.
 TECHNOLOGY A 2011

REFERENCES

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution
2. http://books.google.com/books?
3. http://www.krishiworld.com/html/soils6.html
4. http://environment.uwe.ac.uk/geocal/SoilMech/classification/default.htm
5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_substance
6. http://images.google.com
7. http://www.answers.com/topic/stepped-foundation-1
8. diydoctor.org.uk
9. McMullan, R. Environmental Science in Building 5th Edition ( Palgrave, 2001)
10. Chudley, R. Building Construction Handbook 2nd Edition ( Butterworth- Heinemann, 1995)
11. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveying
12. http://roger-bullivant.co.uk/products/piling.html
13. http://www.repair-home.com/how_to/home_construction_foundations.htm
14. www.woking.gov.uk/.../guidance/raft foundations
15. http://www.carshed.com/foundations.html
TECHNOLOGY A 2011