Csat Decsion Making Problem Solving Vision Ias1

VISION IAS ™
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Under the Guidance of Ajay Kumar Singh ( B.Tech. IIT Roorkee , Director & Founder : Vision IAS )
CSAT – DECISION MAKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING: ANALYSIS & APPROACH

Y. R. Anand, M.A, M.Sc ( D.U), M.Phil., Ph.D. (J.N.U.)
This section is perhaps the most intricate, most confusing and very vague part of the entire C-SAT or Aptitude
Ability Test Scheme designed and introduced newly for the preliminary level of the Civil Services Examination by
the UPSC. The reasons being its abstract nature, absence of clear cut guidelines and un-availability of adequate
material, to name a few. It demands analytical, administrative and bureaucratic thinking which is quite an
unconventional and unpracticed trait of the college going/pass-out students who are going to be the aspirants of
this examination. Moreover, it is generally believed that such skills are naturally possessed only by few privileged
men and women of this earth.
But when seen patiently and thoughtfully, it is no so, the analytical thinking ability can very much be learnt; and
the administrative and bureaucratic aptitudes could well be harnessed as an important skill to our decision
making and problem solving endeavours.
This in fact is not a new problem but a situation that prevailed from the very ancient times i.e. since the ancient
Greek Civilizations. In those days, such traits were much on demand as wise people had to know what is called
an art of oration or the rhetoric so as to defend oneself in the court of law or for effective teaching, money-
making and good living. I am sure you would have must heard the stories of ‘Sophists’- the famous wise people,
after whom the word ‘sophistication’ came into English language for ‘good mannerism’ and ‘sensitivity’. Well,
that is why Aristotle, the great philosopher, thinker and logician of all time, took up the task of formulating a
systematic discipline in which the analytical and reasoned thinking skills were possible to be developed through
practice. That system came to be known as Logic or what we today call - Classical Logic or even Aristotelian
Logic.
Undisputedly C.S.E provides you one of the most coveted and versatile service options available in this country.
So, there is a kind of need of showing such skills in one way or the other in the working and functioning of a civil
servant or a diplomat. But in the old patterns of the examination, where there were no such tests, people
without working on the development of such skills for themselves found their ways into bureaucracy and they
had to face hard times in their working. But, it was the Government of India or more correctly, the people of
India to whom they gave harder times; as they made all their decisions on their behalf. Therefore, UPSC after
facing many rounds of criticisms form the government and the civil society finally decided to bring out apt
changes right from the preliminary level of the examination and indicated the similar change in the later levels
i.e. main-examination as well, so as to the elements of critical, analytical and logical decision making and
problem solving aptitudes can well be ensured in the personality of a future Civil Servant.
So the changes are for your own good and at large, good for the country of which you are going to be the steel
pillars. Now, after having some clarifications about why the change the big question is how to develop that
required quality of arriving at logical, balanced and democratic conclusions in our each and every decision that
we get to make. In other words, how do develop the habit of mature decision making without letting our pre-
conceived ideas or the prejudices to prevail in our ways of deciding things? Well the answer is- practice by
putting yourself into the diversified situations. In this way you will refine your decisions and finally mature it,
giving the bureaucratic touch.
Well, the question now is how to start? Practice what? In what direction? Well it is not easy, as you would also
agree, to answers such questions with absolute authority. But, after having the holistic and comprehensive
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understanding of the matter we have arrived at some of the guidelines following which we would be able to
meet up the criterion set by the UPSC.
Therefore, friends first of all let us locate the central concern from which this entire new scheme emanated. Well
to begin with, the problem has its root in the way we look at the world and the way we form our opinions and
make judgments. Due to our faulty upbringing, habits, formed world views and many more things, most of the
times we see what we want to see not what is given to us, similarly, we hear what we want to, we speak what
we want to, we write what we want to; not what we are supposed to, in accordance with what we are asked to
or as the given facts demand. Yes, we are all the time pre-occupied with enumerable pre-conceived ideas about
almost everything that we come across and have to make a decision on. We let those ideas prevail in our
decision making and already get to form an opinion before actually conceiving the question/issue at hand. In this
way we become pre-judicious without even knowing about it and hence most of the times come out with
radical, immature, unbalanced and undemocratic conclusions/decisions.
What we are required to do is to see, hear and listen to the things fixing ourselves at a neutral position and
rooting ourselves in some universally accepted ethical, legal and humane principles, then form an opinion
making full use of our rationality and finally give our judgments. Most of us actually fail to do this; some of us
failing at the very first stage, some, at the second or at the third stage, so on and so forth depending upon our
acquired behavioral habits.
For this, one has to first of all be able to differentiate the meanings of knowledge and opinion. As in most of our
decisions what we do is - exhibit some kind of knowledge claims that too in absolute terms, but what we have
actually been doing is simply expressing our opinions. So for most of the times, we confuse our opinions with
authoritative knowledge and assume what we think is the only truth of this world.
Knowledge is basically a very broad and absolute term that shows things to be eternally true i.e. true in all times
to come, that- which is objectively true i.e. true for all human beings. It can be falsified by none, at no point in
time. So most of our knowledge claims would in fact, not be fitting into this criteria of knowledge, as nothing can
be so authoritatively true, that too for all times to come and for all human beings, both, present and future
generations.
Therefore, we should avoid being authoritative in our judgments regarding a particular stand point. As such
claims at best be one of the sound opinions, not an absolute knowledge as we often tend to claim. Hence we got
to be decent enough to accept this fact and keep our self at a balanced position avoiding the extremes.
Further - knowledge could also refer to the scientific knowledge where the knowledge claims are supported by
logic and verifiable evidences. Such definitions of knowledge is acceptable therefore, support your knowledge
claims with proper evidence and adequate logic.
Then there are opinions which most of the times we possess and often get confused with ‘knowledge’. Opinions
are something that one makes based on his/her belief system and understandings of the world. So, while giving
the opinions one has to show maturity and objectivity having a democratic outlook of things. At the same time
scientific attitude has to be displayed i.e. a logical justification has to be provided each time an opinion is made.
This is where students generally lack and commit errors on a given topic, they never follow-through to justify
their opinions. The first thing that one must realize is that your audience (the experienced diplomats and
professors who check your answer scripts) is not in the least bit interested in your “opinion” or anyone's opinion
for that matter. This is a shock to some students who believe that what we've been doing is just trading opinions
on various topics.
The confusion lies in the fact that some students are only attending to the first part of a two-part process — they
are forgetting or not sufficiently following the second part of the process. The experienced readers/listeners
are just not interested in your opinions. They are rather interested in the argument that you can bring to support
to your opinions which explains why you hold that opinion. Giving an argument that supports and defends your
opinion is the second-part of the two-part process that we encounter in our decision making and problem
solving habits. Generally speaking, you should treat all opinion-statements as logical conclusions, and the art of
good decision making and problem solving skill is to dig back to the premises, the assumptions, and the
evidences that led a person to draw that conclusion. Just as in math classes wherein, providing only your
conclusions is unacceptable, you must “show your work” in your decision making and problem solving
endeavours.
Now, an argument comprises of three statements- which are also called as premises. They are Major premises,
minor premises and the conclusion. For example –
1. There is smoke on the hill : Major premiss

2. where there is smoke there is fire : Minor premiss
3. Therefore, there is fire on the hill. : The Conclusion
In the above example it is evident that there is a logical connectivity between these premises and finally in the
conclusion. Such wonderful systematic steps have been offered to us by Aristotle. Let us not get into the
intricate rules of Aristotelian logic at this juncture but we can get to the gist of it. But, at the same time let us not
forget the cardinal principle of the Aristotelian logic which is- we cannot state anything new as a conclusion,
which is not already contained in the premise/(es) given. Though in the premises, there can be many things
which we do not even talk about in the conclusion, but vice-versa is not possible i.e. we can not talk anything
new in our conclusions.
Therefore, the premises, as we can see in the above example, logically converse into the conclusion. So, it is
coherent to conclude the idea of fire on the hill when smoke is evident, showing the logical relation between the
fire and the smoke. This is called method of drawing logical inferences in reasoning or argumentation.
On the similar fashion, we have to proceed and go on drawing our conclusions with logical connectivity to the
next idea and further, hence maintaining the harmony and the lucidity of a good decision making and problem
solving skills. Then things look simple and smooth. It becomes a delightful experience for the reader/listener and
finally you are taken as an informed, aware, and mature human being, which is what UPSC wants from you.
So, decision making is the process of making the most appropriate choice from amongst the various courses of
actions and alternatives. It is very clear by the very definition that decision making is part of problem solving. A
decision is most appropriate if it is practical, feasible, and most acceptable with respect to social, moral, legal,
economic and political considerations, and aims for the most appropriate and mature solution of a problem.
Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the costs and benefits of the decision taken.
We make decisions and solve problems all through life. However, a person who is in a responsible position in an
organization or holds an administrative post is required to make decisions that could have an effect on many
people, and not just on oneself and one’s close relatives/friends. Such decision-making involves taking into
account several pros and cons of possible consequences and difficulties in implementation.
Administration no longer can take recourse to secrecy, as more and more information and the right to
information become available in the increasingly democratic ambience of governance. In the circumstances,
there is a need for transparency and openness on the part of administrative officials. Decisions that affect a large
number of people—the public at large, in fact—have been more than even before come to be governed by
ethical considerations as well as legal requirements. Civil servants, in this age of information technology,
legislations and empowered democracy where people enjoy and exercise lot of rights, have to be fair in their
dealings, credible, and capable of getting the trust of the public. They have also to develop an ability to deal with
emergencies and crises; this requires an ability to retain coolness in the face of disturbance, and the ability to
think clearly and reach quick effective decisions to solve the problem at hand. And these problems are not
mathematical ones with ‘correct’ and ‘incorrect’ solutions.
The UPSC syllabus has included decision-making in the syllabus for the objective type test, which is a first of
sorts. The questions are more likely to test your ability to respond to given situations than your knowledge of
theories; it is from your response to situations that it would become possible to gauge your attitude, your way of
thinking, and your responsiveness to the people you are expected to serve.
# Some Fundamental Steps of Problem Solving
1. Identify The Problem: Tell specifically what the problem is and how you experience it. Cite specific
examples.
o “Own” the problem as yours and solicit the help of others in solving it rather than implying that
it’s someone else’s problem that they ought to solve. Keep in mind that if it were someone else’s
problem, they would be bringing it up for discussion.
o In the identification phase of problem-solving, avoid references to solutions. This can trigger
disagreement too early in the process and prevent ever making meaningful progress.
o Once there seems to be a fairly clear understanding of what the problem is, this definition needs
to be written in very precise language. If a group is involved, it must be displayed on a flip chart
or chalkboard.
2. Clarify The Problem: This step is most important when working with a group of people. If the problem is
not adequately clarified so that everyone views it the same, the result will be that people will offer
solutions to different problems. To clarify the problem, ask someone in the group to paraphrase the
problem as they understand it. Then ask the other group members if they see it essentially the same
way. Any differences must be resolved before going further.
In clarifying the problem, ask the group the following questions: Who is involved with the problem? Who
is likely to be affected? Can we get them involved in solving the problem? Who legitimately or logically
must be included in the decision? Are there others who need to be consulted prior to a decision?
These questions assume that commitment of those involved (and affected by the problem) is desirable
in implementing any changes or solutions. The best way to get this commitment is to include those
involved and affected by the problem in determining solutions.
3. Analyze the Cause: Any deviation from what must be is produced by a cause or interaction of causes. In
order to change “what is” to “what is wanted” it is usually necessary to remove or neutralize the cause in
some way. This calls for precise isolation of the most central or basic cause(s) of the problem, and
requires close analysis of the problem to clearly separate the influencing from the non-influencing
factors.
This is probably an easier process to follow when dealing with problems involving physical things rather
than with interpersonal or social issues. Typically, interpersonal and social problems are more likely to
spring from a dynamic constellation of causes that will be more difficult to solve if the causes are only
tackled one at a time. Still, whether dealing with physical or social problems, it is important to seek
those causes that are most fundamental in producing the problem. Don’t waste energy on causes that
have only a tangential effect.
4. Solicit Alternative Solutions: To The Problem This step calls for identifying as many solutions to the
problem as possible before discussing the specific advantages and disadvantages of each. What happens
frequently in problem solving is that the first two or three suggested solutions are debated and
discussed for the full time allowed for the entire problem solving session. As a result, many worthwhile
ideas are never identified or considered. By identifying many solutions, a superior idea often surfaces
itself and reduces or even eliminates the need for discussing details of more debatable issues. These
solutions may be logical attacks at the cause or they may be creative solutions that need not be rational.
Therefore, it is important at this step to limit the time spent discussing any one solution and to
concentrate rather on announcing as many as possible.

Selecting One Or More Alternatives: For Action Before actually selecting alternatives for action, it is advisable
to identify criteria that the desired solution needs to meet. This can eliminate unnecessary discussion and help
focus the group toward the solution (or solutions) that will most likely work.
At this point it becomes necessary to look for and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of options that
appear viable. The task is for the group members to come to a mutual agreement on which solutions to actually
put into action. It is desirable for positive comments to be encouraged (and negative comments to be ignored or
even discouraged) about any of the solutions. One solution needs to be the best, but none must be labeled as a
“bad idea”.
Plan for Implementation: This requires looking at the details that must be performed by someone for a solution
to be effectively activated. Once the required steps are identified, it means assigning these to someone for
action; it also means setting a time for completion.
Not to be forgotten when developing the implementation plan: Who needs to be informed of this action?
Clarify The Contract: This is to insure that everyone clearly understands what the agreement is that people will
do to implement a solution. It is a summation and restatement of what people have agreed to do and when it is
expected they will have it done. It rules out possible misinterpretation of expectations.
The Action Plan: The best of plans are only intellectual exercises unless they are transformed into action. This
calls for people assigned responsibility for any part of the plan to carry out their assignments according to the
agreed upon contract. It is the phase of problem solving that calls for people to do what they have said they
would do.
Provide For Evaluation And Accountability: After the plan has been implemented and sufficient time has
elapsed for it to have an effect, the group should reconvene and discuss evaluation and accountability. Have the
agreed upon actions been carried out? Have people done what they said they would do?
If they have not accomplished their assignments, it is possible that they ran into trouble that needs to be
considered. Or it may be that they simply need to be reminded or held accountable for not having lived up to
their end of the contract.
Once the actions have been completed, it is then necessary to assess their effectiveness. Did the solution work?
If not, can a revision make it work? What actions are necessary to implement changes?
Other Considerations: Keeping adequate records of all steps completed (especially brainstorming) can allow
energy expended to be “recycled". Falling back on thinking that was previously done makes it unnecessary to
“plough the same ground twice.”
When entering into problem-solving to remember that it is unlikely that the best solution will be found on the
first attempt. Good problem-solving can be viewed as working like a guidance system: The awareness of the
problem is an indication of being “off course", requiring a correction in direction. The exact form the correction
is to take is what problem-solving is aimed at deciding. But once the correction (the implemented solution) is
made, it is possible that, after evaluation, it will prove to be erroneous—perhaps even throwing you even more
off course than in the beginning.
If this happens, the task then becomes to immediately compute what new course will be effective. Several
course corrections may be necessary before getting back on track to where you want to go. Still, once the
desired course is attained, careful monitoring is required to avoid drifting off course again unknowingly. Viewing
problem-solving in this realistic manner can save a lot of frustration that comes from expecting it to always
produce the right answers.

Some Do’s and Don’ts:
The following “don’ts” address specific ethical challenges in a crisis or emergency situation.
- Don’t exceed your authority or make promises.

- Don’t use your position to seek personal gain. Examples of seeking personal gain would include:
Soliciting gifts.
- Making official decisions that benefit you financially.
- Using inside information gained through your position to benefit you and/or your family
- Using agency time or property (e.g., a phone or car) for personal reasons.
- Using your official position or accepting compensation to endorse a product.
Avoid even the appearance of ethical violations. Take the extra step of making sure that your actions (even if
they are above-board) could not be seen as unethical. Think about how your actions would read on the front
page of the newspaper.
Ethical Do’s
Keep these “do’s” in mind:

- Place the law and ethical principles above private gain.
- Act impartially. Do not show favoritism to one group (e.g., victims or contractors) over another. Two aids in
acting impartially include making sure that all affected parties have full disclosure, and seeking prior
authorization before taking action.
- Protect and conserve public property. This standard applies both to your actions and to the actions that you
should take if you observe fraud, waste, or abuse.
- Put forth an honest effort in everything even remotely connected to your official position.
So far we have given a brief outline of the theories of decision-making which might help you in developing your
approach to situational questions too.
Question Types:
Few competitive examinations, if any, have this subject for the objective type test. Some management
institutions do include questions on decision-making, but for the civil services, you may be tested for a different
kind of decision-making ability. In the corporate set-up, many decisions have just the economic or manufacturing
dimensions to be considered. A civil servant is likely to fact at least some problems that would be very different
from those faced by a person in a corporate organization, though some basic elements of decision-making would
remain the same.
The civil servant works with a larger public and a more diverse one; he or she has to work within certain
parameters which are somewhat different from those that govern corporate managers. While credibility and
trust have to be built up in all sectors by those who have to take and implement decisions, the civil servant has
to build these up on a larger canvas—with people whom he or she might not know personally and whose
welfare is very much his or her concern.
It is very important for anyone aspiring to the civil services in a country like India to develop a broad tolerance
for diversity, an unbiased attitude as far as community, gender, and caste are concerned, a readiness to accept
variety of customs and practices and suspend judgment unless something violates the rule of law or the legal
framework in which government functions.

However, even when such violations take place, the civil servant cannot be insensitive; the situation has to be
assessed and the fundamental reasons for restlessness or resentment among people probed even as the law is
allowed to act, and the findings conveyed to those who have the power and mandate to improve things.
There are situations in which an official has no discretion to change or circumvent procedures, which may have
to be followed but the official can, indeed should, take some initiative to help people out if they are genuinely
facing problems. While the civil servant is expected to act within certain well-defined parameters, if he or she
finds that people in authority are subverting the law or doing something inimical to people’s welfare, he or she
should take appropriate steps to counter such acts by bringing them to the notice of regulatory institutions or
other authorities who are equipped to take action. Acting without fear or favour is part of a civil servant’s duty.
The questions in this section will be designed to test your ability to reach decisions that mark you out as
possessing the potential required for the civil services.
• There may be questions that require you to make decisions based on a situation that may be presented
to you, in which you have to choose a course of action; in other words, decide what you must do to
tackle the given situation. If the courses of action involve unfairness or injustice even though they may
be efficacious in solving the problem, you should reject that course of action as a responsible and
sensitive person with values. Humanitarian considerations, as well as social and national goals should
guide you in choosing the option. Thus, the issue may be how to control the population growth in India.
The courses of action may be (i) see to it that a one-child norm is promulgated and strictly implement it,
and (ii) offer incentives for adopting family planning methods. If you have sensitivity to people’s feelings
and the socio-economic and cultural ethos of the country, besides an ingrained sense of democracy, you
would adopt the latter course of action, though the first one may get quicker results.
• Then there are ‘situation reaction’ questions. In these questions, you are given a situation followed by
alternative answer options which offer you a choice of actions that can be adopted. In many such
questions, it is rather easy to spot the ‘politically correct’ response. And, after all, that is what you are
required to do. If you know what is the right thing to do, you may end up doing it in real life. However,
many of these questions have two responses that can be easily rejected, but another two which make
choice difficult. Neither of these option is, sometimes, wholly ‘wrong’. It is in these cases that your true
aptitude and attitude tend to get exposed. You may as well accept that these questions cannot be
answered by ‘rote’ or by mere ‘practice’: you must actually develop the traits that will make you choose
the correct option in the given situation. Once again, your integrity, honesty, quickness to think rightly in
emergencies, your humanitarian concerns, your sense of social responsibilities, your sense of fair play
and justice come into the picture. In many cases it may not do to be dishonest to yourself, either. If
asked what you will do when confronted by ten armed ‘goondas’ demanding your valuables, would it
reflect your bravery or foolhardiness if you choose the option that you will refuse and offer them a fight
to death? Even if you are well-versed in martial arts, you would have to be an old-time Hindi film hero to
succeed in the circumstances. But again, if you feel that you would be capable of matching those thugs,
go ahead and choose the option.
• Somewhat related to the situation reaction questions, are the situational judgement questions. The
former have a greater emphasis on immediate response—rather instinctive and quick; the latter test the
judgement required for solving problems in work-related situations. These questions present you with
hypothetical and challenging situations that one might encounter at work, and that involve working with
others as part of a team, interacting with others, and dealing with workplace dilemmas. In response to
each situation you are presented with a set of possible actions that one might take in dealing with the
problem described. Often enough these questions test the ‘relative’ effectiveness of your responses
rather than whether it is simply ‘right’ or ‘wrong’. These tests are considered to be valid predictors of job
performance and are less susceptible to adverse bias such as cultural differences than other traditional
methods of assessment. They do not test academic knowledge.

Some of the qualities probed by these types of questions might include:
• Ability to evaluate information and make judgment decisions

• Adaptability and ability to work with unfamiliar and changing situations
• Prioritisation, planning and organisation
• Professional integrity and moral judgement
• Ability to relate effectively with others
EVALUATING YOUR DECISIONS:

There will be penalty (negative marking) for wrong answers marked by a candidate in the objective type
question papers except some of the questions where the negative marking will be in-built in the form of
different marks being awarded to most appropriate and not so appropriate answers.
This can be termed as Partial Evaluation. It simply means allocating partial marks to other least appropriate
options. The four given options (a, b, c, d) carry different marks (including negative marks for inappropriate
option).
Because, the Decision making involves real time situations, different individual would approach a real time
situation differently and it would involve variable degree of “bureaucratic and administrative approaches”
depending on individual's attitude, character make up, Morality & Integrity, Leadership quality and managerial
skills etc.
Moreover, as it is a kind of Psychometric test which involves lot of subjective-ness, only partial evaluation is
possible.
For example: If option-a is most appropriate, option c and b are less appropriate and Option d is Inappropriate
then the evaluation would somewhat like-
Options Nature of appropriateness Marks awarded
(a) 1 Most appropriate 1 (Full mark)
(b) 2 Second most appropriate 0.666 (Partial mark)
(c) 3 Third most appropriate 0.333 (Partial mark)
(d) 4 In appropriate/ Least appropriate - 0.333 (Penalty mark)
Note: Partial marks and Penalty marks given above are illustrative; UPSC has not announced the exact marks for
Partial Evaluation, yet what we have proposed is a logical one, hence you can expect the same in the UPSC.
Examples from UPSC Model questions:
Example 1: You have come across a case wherein an old sick lady is unable to submit her life certificate and
claim pension to meet her treatment expenses. Knowing your superior's procedural approach in handling issues,
you will-
(a) Go strictly as per the procedures (Third most appropriate)
(b) Take initiative to help the lady arranging for alternative documents (Most appropriate)
(c) Assist the lady with some money on your own but do not compromise on procedures. (Second most
appropriate)
(d) Avoid some procedural steps since you understand the necessity of the lady. (Inappropriate)

Example 2: You along with your friend were chatting in a restaurant over a cup of coffee. Suddenly you heard an
intense sound of blast very close by. You will -
(a) Jump on your feet and hold your friend tightly (Third most appropriate)
(b) Take your look away from the source of noise and start praying for the best (Second most appropriate)
(c) Start locating the source of noise (Most appropriate)
(d) Start shouting for help (Least appropriate)
A frequent question in many of these tests is what you will do if you see a colleague stealing office material—
stationery, etc. Would you immediately report him to the boss? Would you gang up on him by telling everyone
in the department and putting a social ban on him? Would you confront him and ask for an explanation? Would
you just keep quiet and mind your own business? Only two options appear acceptable: either tell the boss or
confront him, and of those two, the more sensible one would be to confront him and ask for an explanation. This
might well be enough to deter him from committing theft again. Why this option first? Because, he is your
colleague—give him a chance to mend his ways, even as you do not allow the illegal activity of pilferage of office
property go unchecked. The second option makes you out to be aggressive and the last makes you out to be
ineffective and unethical besides showing disloyalty to your organisation. Or you may be asked to rank the
responses in order of effectiveness:
(a) Gather more evidence and catch him ‘red handed’ again
(b) Confront your colleague and ask him about what you have noticed.
(c) Don’t do anything; if guilty he will be caught.
(d) Privately ask some of your colleagues if they have noticed anything.
The best order would be: (b), (a), (d) and (c)
In the following questions, we have given a variety of questions ranging over all these types, including the ones
based on theory. Most of the answers are accompanied by explanatory notes which give you an idea why a
certain answer response is better than the other.
1. You are the administrative head of an area and your primary responsibility includes maintaining law and order
and ensuring development of the area. A big car manufacturing company is setting up its car-manufacturing unit
in the area and there is a group of people that opposes the setting up to the plant. This group feels that they
didn’t get a fair deal when their land was transferred to the car manufacturing company. They are demanding
that either more compensation be paid or their land be returned to them. A regional political party has also
supported their demand and they are protesting against the company. The situation is on the brink of explosion
and can turn ugly any moment. In a situation like this you will…….
(a) convince the group that the compensation given to them is in accordance with the government guidelines
and any demand for more compensation is unjustified.
(b) assess the potential loss caused to the people whose land got transferred to the company for setting up of
the plant and work out the compensation package involving both the parties in the calculations.
(c) bar the political party from participating in the protests so as to preempt any ugly situation.
(d) ask the car manufacturing company to provide employment to those whose land has been taken away.
2.You are the District Magistrate of an economically backward area and your primary responsibility is to
maintain law and order and to ensure regional development. You find that your predecessor, in order to
promote development, has installed a complex economic strategy and control structure for monitoring various
development projects. This structure has earned him a lot of praise from his superiors. However, you have
realized that the model is very complex and most of your subordinates, who implement things on the ground, do
not understand the model at all. In a situation like this, you will……
(a) come up with your own strategy of project monitoring which is independent of the previous strategy.
(b) try to implement the strategy of your predecessor strictly as the model has received a lot of praise.
(c) try to clarify the monitoring model to your subordinates so that they can understand the various nuances.
(d) devise some ways to resolve the complexity of the project-monitoring model without diluting the core spirit
of it.
3.Suppose you are working as the examination controller of a university and it is your responsibility to conduct
examinations fairly. On one occasion, you catch a student who was copying from the answer sheet of another
student. When both the students were questioned one student told that he didn’t stop the other student from
copying his answer sheet as he was intimated by him. In a situation like this, what will you do?
(a) You will give both the students fresh answer sheets and ask them to complete the examination in the time
left.
(b) You will take action against the one student who was copying and will leave the other.
(c) You will book the student who copying and will give a fresh answer sheet to the other.
(d) You will book the student who was copying and will investigate the charges of intimidation as claimed by the
other.
4.You are working as the head of a Navratna organization. There was a mishap in a unit of your organization and
an employee lost his life due to lack of safety and security arrangements. Now the issue has been highlighted by
the labour union of the unit and it has called for a strike. It is very important for you to maintain the production.
In a situation like this what will you do to defuse the situation?
(a) You will assure the labour union of proper safety and security measures and will maintain the output by
increasing the production of some other units.
(b) You will negotiate with the labour union for immediate resumption of work in return for adequate safety
measures and ensure compensation for the decreased employee while try to increase the production of the unit.
(c) You will set up an enquiry commission to find what can be done to improve the safety and security
arrangements in your organization.
(d) Order an investigation in the case to find whether the mishap was caused by carelessness of the employees.
5.Anand is a bright student in your class. However, in the recent examination he had done badly and has not
been behaving well in the class and with his friends. You have learnt that there are some family problems and his
parents are divorcing. The school council has invited the parents of Anand and you are supposed to inform them
about this issue. In a situation like this what will be your course of action?
(a) You will get the answer sheets re-evaluated and check if the marking is correct.
(b) You will inform Anand’s parents about the fairness and impartiality of the marking scheme followed by your
school.
(c) You will apprise Anand’s parents about the impact their divorce has had on Anand and how this could be one
of the reasons for his behavioural changes.
(d) You will counsel the parents of Anand about the bad effects of divorce on children.
Answers:
1.(b)
Option ‘a’ is not a good choice. The people who lost land already feel that they did not get a fair deal and it
would be very impractical to try to convince them that they got a fair deal. Option ‘c’ does not solve any
problem; the ones who lost land would still feel indignant. We cannot make sure than offering jobs will be the
justified compensation for land; so option ‘d’ is also not a good option. Option ‘b’ is the best option. You assess
the losses of people who lost land, see if their demand is justified and compensate them accordingly.
2.(d)
The new structure has earned a lot of praise. It means that the structure must be good. Refuting the structure
just because your subordinates don’t understand it, is not a good idea. So option ‘a’ is negated. Also,
implementing the structure strictly is not a good idea too. Your subordinates will have a hard time working with
it and thus the model may not work as it is supposed to. Trying to clarify the model would be a time consuming
process and moreover, you cannot be sure that each of your subordinates has understood the model
completely, so option ‘c’ is also not a good choice. Option ‘d’ devising a way such that complexity is reduced and
all your subordinates understand the model easily and the core spirit is not diluted; is the best answer since the
model works exactly like it is supposed to.

3.(c)
Obviously the offence of the copier is more grave than the one who was helping the former to copy. We can’t
punish them equally for different acts of offence, hence option ‘a’ is not a good option. Also, the latter cannot be
simply excused. One should abide by the law, not by some individual. He should’ve informed the concerned
authorities before the exam began that he was being intimidated. He is clearly at some fault here and he must
get at least some punishment, so option ‘b’ is also not a good option. Option ‘c’ is the best option. Both of the
students are punished according to their offence. Option ‘d’ has the same problem as ‘b’; the other student
doesn’t get punished.
4.(a)
Option ‘b’ is a close option but the workers will not start working until the negotiations are over and one cannot
be certain about the duration and outcome of the negotiations Option ‘c’ is not a good option. Though you are
taking care of safety and security, the problem of strike and thus maintaining production is not resolved. It is
clearly stated that the mishap happened due to safety and security reasons. Ordering an investigation to see if
the mishap was caused by worker’s carelessness is pointless, so option ‘d’ is not a good option as well. Option ‘a’
is the best option. The issue raised by the worker is of safety and security. Assuring it will convince the workers
to end the strike and to start the work again, thus solving the issue of production too.
5.(c)
The issue at hand is to inform the parent about the change behaviour of Anand. Hence re-evaluating the sheets
will not solve the problem. Other than poor performance, Anand’s bad behaviour is also an issue. There is no
reason for the teachers to be partial against him. And even if there is some discrepancy in marking, it could be
because of negligence and not partiality. So option ‘a’ and ‘b’ are not good options. Option ‘d’ is not probable
because it is not your duty to counsel his parents about the divorce. Your duty is to inform the parents about
Anand’s poor performance and bad behavior and to tell them that their divorce could be a reason for it.
Some situational questions: Differential Marking / Partial Marking

1. In a situation where people are demolishing a temple/mosque - what would you do as a DM/SP?
a) Use all force available to prevent them from doing this.
b) You guess it may be a political matter, so inform chief minister and act as per his/her order.
c) Negotiate with the leader of the mob demolishing the temple/mosque.
d) You are a secular person, so you do not interfere unless you receive a formal complaint of loss of life, injury
or personal property.
Ans : (a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 2 (d) 4
As a DM/SP, you should carry zero tolerance towards any violation law and order. It includes preventing anything
which may create a law and order situation. Therefore (a) is the best option. As a responsible leader you need to
take proactive and preventive action, so (d) is ruled out.
2. Now you are DM of Sriganganagar, there was incidence of fake arm licenses being issued to people and few
big officials are now under scanner, so what will you do?
Let the legal proceeding go on course without bothering about the status of the people involved.
a) Inform the officials about the enquiry, and ask them to quickly apply for proper licenses to save
embarrassment to the state.
b) Make a case against the person who sold the fake licenses instead of that against the big officials as they
might not be aware of the fake character of the licenses. Registering cases against the officials to depend on
the result of this enquiry.
c) Go on a long leave to distance yourself from the matter.
Ans : (a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 2 (d) 4

You are the guardian of the public trust to ensure that no one is above law. (a) is the most appropriate decision
to make under the situation. (d) is ruled out as the escaping from the situation can never be justified. (b) and (c)
are the other less preferred but practical options.
3. In a place where groundwater is polluted and water is drawn from a nearby river and stored in an overhead
tank from where it is supplied to all the houses through pipes. Now terrorist attacks are taking place on these
pipes- what would you do?
a) Increase police supervision of these pipes.
b) Use security cameras to monitor the pipes.
c) Involve local people in your efforts to monitor the pipes.
d) Try to develop a system to purify polluted groundwater.
Ans : (a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 1 (d) 4

It is understood by the situation that purifying groundwater is not feasible. Involving local people can be an
effective strategy to monitor a large area. Security camera may assist but cannot be preferred over manual
supervision because the purpose is to avoid the attacks on the pipes.
ETHICAL DIMENSIONS TO PROBLEM SOLVING SKILLS
A Framework for Thinking Ethically

We all have an image of our better selves-of how we are when we act ethically or are "at our best." We probably
also have an image of what an ethical community, an ethical business, an ethical government, or an ethical
society should be. Ethics really has to do with all these levels-acting ethically as individuals, creating ethical
organizations and governments, and making our society as a whole ethical in the way it treats everyone.
What is Ethics?
Simply stated, ethics refers to standards of behavior that tell us how human beings ought to act in the many
situations in which they find themselves-as friends, parents, children, citizens, businesspeople, teachers,
professionals, and so on.
It is helpful to identify what ethics is NOT:
• Ethics is not the same as feelings. Feelings provide important information for our ethical choices. Some
people have highly developed habits that make them feel bad when they do something wrong, but many
people feel good even though they are doing something wrong. And often our feelings will tell us it is
uncomfortable to do the right thing if it is hard.
• Ethics is not religion. Many people are not religious, but ethics applies to everyone. Most religions do
advocate high ethical standards but sometimes do not address all the types of problems we face.
• Ethics is not following the law. A good system of law does incorporate many ethical standards, but law
can deviate from what is ethical. Law can become ethically corrupt, as some totalitarian regimes have
made it. Law can be a function of power alone and designed to serve the interests of narrow groups. Law
may have a difficult time designing or enforcing standards in some important areas, and may be slow to
address new problems.
• Ethics is not following culturally accepted norms. Some cultures are quite ethical, but others become
corrupt -or blind to certain ethical concerns (as the United States was to slavery before the Civil War).
"When in Rome, do as the Romans do" is not a satisfactory ethical standard.
• Ethics is not science. Social and natural science can provide important data to help us make better
ethical choices. But science alone does not tell us what we ought to do. Science may provide an
explanation for what humans are like. But ethics provides reasons for how humans ought to act. And just
because something is scientifically or technologically possible, it may not be ethical to do it.

Why Identifying Ethical Standards is Hard
There are two fundamental problems in identifying the ethical standards we are to follow:
1. On what do we base our ethical standards?
2. How do those standards get applied to specific situations we face?
If our ethics are not based on feelings, religion, law, accepted social practice, or science, what are they based
on? Many philosophers and ethicists have helped us answer this critical question. They have suggested at least
five different sources of ethical standards we should use.
Five Sources of Ethical Standards
I. The Utilitarian Approach

Some ethicists emphasize that the ethical action is the one that provides the most good or does the least harm, or, to
put it another way, produces the greatest balance of good over harm. The ethical governance, then, is the one that
produces the greatest good and does the least harm for all who are affected-people, employees, the community, and
the environment. Ethical warfare balances the good achieved in ending terrorism with the harm done to all parties
through death, injuries, and destruction. The utilitarian approach deals with consequences; it tries both to increase
the good done and to reduce the harm done.
HOW TO USE THE UTILITY TEST

A. INTRODUCE THE TEST
Ask: “Are we maximizing good and minimizing harm for all those affected?”
For the utility test (or “Utilitarian Principle”), the consequences or outcomes determine what is right or wrong. For
this principle the ends justify the means: an action is right if it creates the best overall outcome. Good outcomes can
be measured by:
• happiness and unhappiness (pleasure and pain)

• the preferences of individuals
• money, as an indicator of preferences
B. WHY IS UTILITY A VALID WAY TO DECIDE RIGHT AND WRONG?

The utility test is a valid way to decide which actions are right or wrong because:
Everyone counts the same.
Everyone wants to be happy or avoid being unhappy.
Therefore, good is what makes the most happiness or least unhappiness regardless of who is affected.
In short, we can’t just look at consequences for ourselves or our group to decide what is ethical, because everyone
affected by the action has equal standing as a person.
C. APPLY THE TEST

STEP 1: Identify the alternative actions that are possible and the persons and groups (the stakeholders) who will be
affected by these actions.
STEP 2: For each of the most promising alternatives, determine the benefits and costs to each person or group
affected. These calculations:
• require predicting probable outcomes based on facts and experience;
• should include both short-term and long-term consequences; and
• should consider the relative value or “marginal utility” of an outcome to different individuals and groups.
STEP 3: Select the action in the current situation that produces the greatest benefits over costs for all affected. If
costs outweigh benefits, select the action with the least costs relative to benefits. This step shows the alternative that
has the greatest net good for this one situation.
STEP 4: Ask what would happen if the action were a policy for all similar situations. Since what is done in one
situation often becomes an example or even a policy for future actions, this step shows which alternative maximizes
good for this and future situations.
D. DRAW A CONCLUSION
If the same action is selected in Steps 3 & 4, then this is the ethical action. If different actions are selected, then
decide whether the individual action or the policy will produce the greatest good and the least harm, for all affected,
over the long term.
E. STRENGTHS OF THE UTILITY TEST:

• Outcomes matter—I cannot be satisfied with simply following my personal ethical standards if bad consequences
result.
• Factual data and assessing the probability of potential outcomes are important to deciding what is right/wrong.
• The welfare of animals and other entities should be included in ethical decisions since they are affected by
outcomes.
• The emphasis on rational calculation and on including all stakeholders reminds us that our immediate intuitions
about right and wrong cannot always be trusted.
• Requires striving for the best outcome and not simply a good outcome.
F. WEAKNESSES OF THE UTILITY TEST:
• Requires accurate probability assessments of likely outcomes that may be difficult or impossible to make in
complex situations.
• In organizations where outcomes are measured by making the quarterly numbers, it may be difficult to focus on
long term goods and harms—in the long run everyone hopes to outrun their mistakes by promotion, transfer, or
retirement.
• Is subject to several common errors when being applied:
-Limited Stakeholder error--considering outcomes only for myself or my group.
- Short Term error--considering only direct or immediate consequences instead of including indirect and long term
consequences.
- Single Alternative error--deciding an action is good because its benefits outweigh its costs without considering
alternatives that may have a better benefit/cost ratio.
II. The Rights Approach
Other philosophers and ethicists suggest that the ethical action is the one that best protects and respects the moral
rights of those affected. This approach starts from the belief that humans have a dignity based on their human nature
per se or on their ability to choose freely what they do with their lives. On the basis of such dignity, they have a right
to be treated as ends and not merely as means to other ends. The list of moral rights -including the rights to make
one's own choices about what kind of life to lead, to be told the truth, not to be injured, to a degree of privacy, and so
on-is widely debated; some now argue that non-humans have rights, too. Also, it is often said that rights imply duties-
in particular, the duty to respect others' rights.
HOW TO USE THE RIGHTS TEST

Ask: “Are we respecting human rights.”
B. WHY IS THIS A VALID WAY TO DECIDE RIGHT AND WRONG?

People are familiar with the idea of rights and are quick to use the word to explain
• a claim they have against others,

• why they are entitled to something from society or others
• why they should be protected from actions that benefit society or others at our expense.
Rights are not an empirical fact of human life and are understood differently in different societies and periods of
history. Rights are a way of thinking that recognizes human beings as valuable in and of themselves (intrinsic value),
regardless of their physical and mental attributes or position in society and regardless of what they are worth to
others (extrinsic value). Animals also have rights, though most people would claim it is a more limited set.
Rights indicate the freedoms or the material conditions required for this value. Without the ability to express his/her
political or religious beliefs, for example, or to vote, (liberty rights), or without food, clothing, health care, education,
or employment (welfare rights), an individual human cannot live in a way that expresses that intrinsic value.
None of these rights have any validity, however, if we do not recognize the intrinsic value in human beings. Why
recognize that value in others? Because we recognize it in ourselves, and recognize that others are equal to us. If I
recognize that I have rights, others must also have rights unless I can explain why they are not entitled to what I am
entitled to.
C. APPLY THE TEST

STEP 1: Identify the right being upheld or violated.
• Liberty rights, such as the right to property, to free speech, to religion, and so on, are protections against the
encroachment of society or other individuals.
• Welfare rights, such as the right to food, clothing, education, health care, and so on, are indications of what we
need in order to live a life worth of human beings. Individuals and society may have obligations to help me obtain
these if they are available and I have done my part to obtain them.
• An extensive listing of what many take to be essential human rights is contained in the United Nation’s Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html).
STEP 2: Explain why it deserves the status of a right, because it is:

(a) essential a person’s dignity and self worth; and/or
(b) essential to a person’s freedom or well-being.
(c) We can explain why a right is essential by asking what would happen if the individual were denied this right and
whether we would want that right respected if we were in that person’s position.
STEP 3: Ask whether that right conflicts with other rights or with the rights of others. When rights conflict, decide
which has precedence by explaining why each right is important and showing the consequences for dignity and self
worth (or freedom and well being) if the right is not protected. Ethical people can disagree about which right is more
important since no ranking principle is universally accepted.
D. DRAW A CONCLUSION
Explain briefly how the Rights principle does or does not apply in this case. Remember, save the rights hammer for
the really big issues.
E. STRENGTHS OF THE RIGHTS TEST

Human rights have become a very powerful tool across the world for showing respect for people. Others pay
attention when you advance a claim that someone’s rights are being violated.
F. WEAKNESSES OF THE RIGHTS TEST
• Rights are considered by some to be absolute. Rights sometimes conflict with other rights and with the overall
good of all those affected. Solving these conflicts means that rights might have to be subordinated.
• Many people do not understand there is not a universally recognized list of rights so a person must defend his/her
claim that something is a human right.
• Because of its power, the rights test is sometimes applied to situations that are not serious enough to qualify as a
threat to a person’s rights. This test is not helpful in ordinary circumstances.

III. The Fairness or Justice Approach
Aristotle and other Greek philosophers have contributed the idea that all equals should be treated equally. Today we
use this idea to say that ethical actions treat all human beings equally-or if unequally, then fairly based on some
standard that is defensible. We pay people more based on their harder work or the greater amount that they
contribute to an organization, and say that is fair. But there is a debate over CEO salaries that are hundreds of times
larger than the pay of others; many ask whether the huge disparity is based on a defensible standard or whether it is
the result of an imbalance of power and hence is unfair.
HOW TO USE THE JUSTICE TEST
A. INTRODUCE THE PRINCIPLE:

Ask: “Is this a fair distribution of benefits and burdens.”
B. WHY IS THE JUSTICE TEST A VALID WAY TO DECIDE RIGHT AND WRONG?
If everyone is equal – that is, has equal value as a human person– then everyone has an equal claim to a share. The
default distribution is to give everyone an equal share since all are worth the same.
But there are circumstances in which everyone does not have an equal claim because they worked harder or less
hard, contributed more or less, have greater or less need, etc.
So a fair distribution is in each situation depends on their equality or inequality:

Treat equals equally and unequals unequally.
The reasons for inequality:

• Effort – some may have worked harder
• Accomplishment – some may have achieved more or performed better
• Contribution – some may have contributed more to the group or society
• Need – some may have a greater need to be served first or receive a larger share
• Seniority – some may have arrived in line first, be older or younger, or have more years of service
• Contract – a prior agreement about how the distribution should be made.
• Relationship or In-Group Status -- some may have a claim because they are members of my family or a group to
which I owe loyalty.
C. APPLY THE PRINCIPLE

STEP 1: What is the distribution? Who is getting the benefits and burdens in the situation: Do those who get
benefits also share burdens? Do those with benefits share some of the burdens? These are factual questions. Once
you know the distribution you can decide if it is fair or not.
STEP 2: Is the distribution fair? Which criterion for distribution would be most fair in this situation and why would
it be most fair in this situation? You have to defend the distribution and the criterion or reason for the distribution.
STEP 3: If disagreement persists over which outcome is fair or over which criterion for inequality is best in the
situation, then select a fair process to decide what is fair: an election, dispassionate judge, chance decided by a coin
or paper-rock-scissors.
STEP 4: Draw a conclusion

Will this action produce a fair distribution, and why?
4. STRENGTHS OF THE JUSTICE TEST

Research shows fairness to be one of the most fundamental ethical instincts in humans. It is present in many
animals, including primates and dogs. Subjects will give up rewards that would make them better off than they are, if
others are getting greater rewards that are not justified.
5. WEAKNESSES OF THE JUSTICE TEST

There is no single criterion for a fair distribution so the test is always open to disagreement among ethical persons.

IV. The Common Good Approach
The Greek philosophers have also contributed the notion that life in community is a good in itself and our actions
should contribute to that life. This approach suggests that the interlocking relationships of society are the basis of
ethical reasoning and that respect and compassion for all others-especially the vulnerable-are requirements of such
reasoning. This approach also calls attention to the common conditions that are important to the welfare of everyone.
This may be a system of laws, effective police and fire departments, health care, a public educational system, or even
public recreational areas.
HOW TO USE THE COMMON GOOD TEST

A. INTRODUCE THE TEST:
Ask: “Are we doing our part to look out for the common good in this situation?”
B. WHY IS THE COMMON GOOD TEST A VALID WAY TO DECIDE RIGHT AND WRONG?
Being able to live together in a community requires that we pay attention not just to our individual goods but also to
the common conditions that are important to the welfare of us all. This common good includes the social systems,
institutions, natural and technological environments, and ways of understanding that we all depend on to pursue our
individual goods. For a community to be sustainable, these must work in a manner that benefits all people. Since we
all have access to the common good and benefit from it, we all have obligations to establish and maintain it.
C. APPLY THE TEST:

STEP 1: Specify what parts of the common good are involved.
Which social systems, institutions, environments and ideologies that we depend on for a functioning and healthy
society could be advanced or damaged by our actions in this situation? What actions will strengthen them? What
actions will weaken them?
Whereas the utility test focuses on the total benefits and harms produced, the common good test focuses on
whether the action or situation contributes to or harms a particular aspect of the common good.
The common good includes among other things the family, social, educational, and health care systems required
for human growth, development, and happiness; the police, courts, military and political system required for
public safety, a functioning government, and peace; the businesses, financial, and legal systems necessary for the
production of goods and services and economic development; and the ecosystem and technology which make all
these activities possible. The common good also includes the sets of ideas we use to understand the different
aspects of the common good.
STEP 2: Explain why we have obligation to promote or protect the common good.
What obligation does my company or I have to maintain these aspects of the common good because we benefit
from them?
If my company benefits from having stable families and educated workers, for example, do we have an obligation
to promote these aspects of the common good or at least not to harm them?
STEP 3: Does the proposed action conflict with this obligation?
Do our employment policies and actions in the community weaken family stability or education or put these
aspects of the common good at risk?
This question might help an investment banker recognize that even though he is due a multimillion dollar bonus,
the common good of restoring trust in the financial system may require that he give it up; that the common good
of maximizing the good effects of distributing federal stimulus money in a severe recession means that lobbying
for a particular interest group needs to be restrained more than in ordinary times; or that the common good of
maintaining the courts as an efficient problem resolution mechanism requires that even though a company’s
deep pockets enable them to stall a lawsuit indefinitely by filing an endless motions, they should not do so.
D. DRAW A CONCLUSION:
If the action conflicts with my or my organization’s obligation to contribute to the common good, it is the wrong
action.
E. STRENGTHS OF THE TEST:

• It provides an important reality check for individuals and organizations. No matter how much a person or group
has contributed to their own success, the test reminds them that society and the natural and technological
environments also contribute to that success and that existing institutions and ideologies enable them to carry on
their activities.
• It is a good check on the free rider problem where the efforts of others may allow me not to contribute.
F. WEAKNESSES OF THE TEST:

• There is a great deal of disagreement over what constitutes the common good and over what relative value the
parts have should they conflict.
• The test runs contrary to a long-standing tradition of individualism and the pursuit of self-interest in some western
societies, so it may stir up immediate resistance that could distract from the ethical issue to be resolved.
V. The Virtue Approach
A very ancient approach to ethics is that ethical actions ought to be consistent with certain ideal virtues that provide
for the full development of our humanity. These virtues are dispositions and habits that enable us to act according to
the highest potential of our character and on behalf of values like truth and beauty. Honesty, courage, compassion,
generosity, tolerance, love, fidelity, integrity, fairness, self-control, and prudence are all examples of virtues. Virtue
ethics asks of any action, "What kind of person will I become if I do this?" or "Is this action consistent with my acting
at my best?"
HOW TO USE THE CHARACTER OR VIRTUE TEST
Ask: “Does this action represent the kind of person I am or want to be?”
Ask: “Does it represent my organization’s reputation or vision of the kind of enterprise it wants to be?”
B. WHY IS THE CHARACTER OR VIRTUE TEST A VALID WAY TO DECIDE RIGHT AND WRONG?
The kind of person I am, or the kind of organization this is, are as important to living a good life as what specific
actions we do. My character and the organization’s culture are represented and influenced both by how we act and
by what we aspire to be. To focus only, as the other ethics test do, on how to judge individual actions to be right or
wrong would be to miss an important aspect of ethics. Part of our aspiration is to have virtues or habits of acting in
certain ways that fit our character. If we know who we are and aspire to be, we can decide how to act by considering
whether an action is something that would be done by the kind of person or organization we want to be.
C. APPLY THE TEST

STEP 1: Ask if the action will help to make you the kind of person you want to be.
• Consider whether the action fits your self-image or the story you would like to tell about your life. The most
excellent or virtuous people are usually thought of as those who consistently act with honesty, courage, compassion,
generosity, fidelity, integrity, fairness, self-control, prudence and so on.
• One way to see if the action fits with who you would like to be, is to ask whether the action is something that the
person you most respect in your company would do.
• Business people often call this question the Mirror Test, “If you do this action, will you be able to look at yourself
in the mirror every morning?”
STEP 2: Ask whether the action will fit the company’s reputation or vision of what it would like to be.
An individual’s actions represent and affect not only him/her but also the firm or organization he/she works in. The
image of what the company wants to be will be found in the mission and vision statements, the core values, and the
ethics code, as well as in the stories that are told about the heroes and the villains in the firm’s history.
STEP 3: Ask whether the action maintains the right balance between excellence and success for the firm?
• Excellence refers to how well the activities of the organization are being done. Each activity, such as producing a
product or service, marketing it to customers, financing the organization, accounting and maintaining controls, and so
on can be done in the best possible way. Striving for too much perfection in any one of these areas, however, can
have an affect on the ability of the firm to do the other activities and generate profits necessary to keep it in
operation over the long term. If the product or service is too perfect for the customer to afford it, then the firm will
fail.
• Overemphasizing success, measured as profitability, can affect the excellence of the firm’s activities, and thereby
cause the firm to fail.
• Actions that maintain the right balance between excellence and success are therefore the right ones.
STEP 4: Draw a conclusion

Actions that fit your idea of what kind of person you want to be, and with the firm’s idea of what it wants to be are
good actions.
D. STRENGTHS OF THE VIRTUE OR CHARACTER TEST

• Focuses us not just on individual actions but on the larger questions of what kind of individuals and companies it is
good to be and on the role that the community we are part of plays in setting those ideals.
• Emphasizes that being an ethical person or an ethical company is not just a matter of following ethical rules but
involves developing habits of acting in the way that we, our company, and the society think that good people and
companies should act.
E. WEAKNESSES OF THE VIRTUE OR CHARACTER TEST

• Psychological research suggests that most of us do not act in a consistent way across different situations,
motivated by our character traits such as honesty or generosity. We are motivated more by factors in the situation,
even those with no ethical significance, as when we act generously because of the good smells of a bakery or less
generously because of a higher ambient noise level. Yet we continue to attribute our own and others’ actions to good
or bad character traits rather than to factors in the situation. This research doesn’t indicate that we don’t have
dispositions to act a certain way but that steady virtue may be very hard to develop because situational factors do
affect us so much. Having an ideal account of a particular virtue like courage, however, or a hero in our company to
emulate might help us strive to develop the habit of acting in a virtuous way.
Apart from these five models there can be two more namely:
VI. THE EXCEPTIONS MODEL AND

VII. THE FREE CHOICE MODEL
Their Applicable Tests are explained in the following:
VI. THE EXCEPTIONS MODEL

HOW TO USE THE EXCEPTIONS TEST
1. INTRODUCE THE TEST
Ask: “What if everyone did it?”
An “exception” is claiming it is ethical for us to do an action but not ethical for others to do it in the same situation.
This is not the same as claiming that it must be ethical for us because “everyone else is doing it.” It is asking what
things would be like if everyone else really were doing the action in question.
2. WHY IS THIS A VALID WAY TO DECIDE RIGHT AND WRONG?

We are all equal as ethical actors, so whatever is ethical for me must be ethical for others in the same circumstances.
This is true for individuals and companies. So why should we be able to get away with something if others can’t?
3. APPLY THE TEST
STEP 1: Specify what action we are considering.

Describe the action in a way that captures the ethically relevant features.
Adjust the generality or specificity of the action to highlight what is questionable:

• Is the action part of a general category such as “not telling the truth” or “breaking a promise”?
• Or does the action have specific characteristics that are relevant, such as “not telling the truth to save a life” or
“breaking a promise because something more important is at risk” which are more specific descriptions.
• Avoid value-loaded descriptors that already contain the ethical judgment (“We are lying to the customer”) because
this closes off further discussion.
STEP 2: Ask, “What if everyone did it?” If the action were adopted by others in similar situations, would it:
a. Become impossible for anyone to do the action because everyone tried to do it? If everyone lied, no one would
believe anyone else, so it would be impossible for anyone to lie successfully (if lying is “deceiving others by not telling
the truth”). If everyone broke promises than it would be impossible for anyone to do so because no promise would be
accepted. If everyone filed false tax returns then the government would stop voluntary tax filings and collect taxes
directly so it would be impossible for anyone to file a false return. Since everyone is equal, it is not ethical for us to
do something that not everyone can do. We would be making an exception for ourselves.
b. Create a business climate unacceptable to usbecause everyone was doing it? If I do not want to operate in a
business climate in which I cannot trust people to tell truth or keep their promises, then I should tell the truth and
keep my promises. Not to do so would be to make an exception for myself that I don’t deserve since everyone is
equal.
How do we decide what is “unacceptable”? Consider what is important to me that would be sacrificed if we had to
work in that kind of business climate. Is that the kind of world we want to live in? If we would not want to work in
a world in which the action was common or if our firm and/or society would not want us to create a world in which
the action were common, then it is not ethical for us to act in a way we find unacceptable for others to act.
STEP 3: Draw a conclusion for Step 2: What if everyone did it? Either condition a. or b. would make the action
unethical: “We should (or should not) do this action since we would (or would not) be claiming an exception for
ourselves: we can (or can’t) all do it and/or the common adoption of the action would create a world we and our
company would find acceptable (or unacceptable).”
STEP 4: Ask, “What if they did it to us?” If the action were directed at us, would we think it was ethical? We are not
asking if we would like it but whether we would think it was ethical. This step of reversing the action is a way of
applying the Golden Rule: “Do unto others.”
STEP 5: Draw a conclusion for Step 3: “What if they did it to us?” If it would not be ethical for others to do the
action to us, then it is unethical for us to do the action because we would be claiming an exception for ourselves.
D. SUMMARIZE THE CONCLUSIONS for “What if everyone did it?” and for “What if they did it to us?”
If the action would be impossible for everyone to do, if it would be unacceptable to us or the company if everyone did
it, or if it would be unethical for someone to do it to us, then the action would not be ethical for us to do since that
would be claiming and exception for ourselves—that we should be able to do what it is unethical for others to do.
Failing any one of the three conditions shows the action to be unethical.
4. STRENGTHS OF THE EXCEPTIONS TEST

• Reminds us not to give ourselves advantages in regard to what is ethical – that we are all equal in what is right or
wrong.
• Addresses the free rider problem – we can’t justify being the only one allowed to market this way even when there
is no great harm if only a few of us do it unless we can explain why we deserve to be an exception.
5. WEAKNESSES OF THE EXCEPTIONS TEST

• Description of the action can miss the ethical issue.
• People who are vicious or fanatics may agree to a world that others would find unacceptable.

VII. THE FREE CHOICE MODEL
HOW TO USE THE FREE CHOICE TEST
1. INTRODUCE THE TEST

Ask “Are the people affected able to make their own choices.”
2. WHY IS THIS A VALID WAY TO DECIDE RIGHT AND WRONG?
• Things have value because people value them.

• All people deserve equal respect as ones who give value to things. What I value has no claim to be “more valuable” than
what you value.
• So let others make their own choices based on what they value. Don’t choose for them except in special circumstances.
Children, for example, may not be equal because they may not know what they really value.
• Those who have made promises, signed contracts, or made other prior commitments may not be free to act because of
their commitments.
3. APPLY THE TEST

STEP 1: Am I giving others freedom to choose what they value?
• We are free to make our own choices if we not being forced or coerced to choose something we do not value.
• Are there any prior choices (contracts, promises) that limit a person’s freedom?
STEP 2: Am I giving them the information necessary to know what they value in this situation?
Information requires the level of information (or the opportunity to get the information) necessary to know which
alternative best fulfills what a person values. Practical test for whether the information is adequate: would that person
choose differently if he/she had additional information?
STEP 3: Draw a conclusion:

Is the action unethical because it does not give the persons being affected the freedom and/or the information to choose
what she/he values?
4. STRENGTHS OF THE CHOICES TEST

• The choices test reflects one of the fundamental ways of showing respect for the equality of other humans respecting
their ability to determine the course of their own lives by making choices based on what they think is valuable.
• Many ethical violations in business and professional settings involve denying people information or limiting their
freedom to choose.
• The test reminds us that it is possible to determine what people value through direct questions, surveys, and focus
groups.
5. WEAKNESSES OF THE CHOICES TEST

• It can reinforce a simplistic view of human decision making that people are clear about what they value and make
rational choices based on those values.
• The concept of freedom is the subject of much disagreement. The line, for example, between persuasion and coercion
can be difficult to draw. When does making something look attractive take away from a person’s freedom to reject it.
Putting the Approaches Together
Each of the approaches helps us determine what standards of behavior can be considered ethical. There are still problems
to be solved, however.
- The first problem is that we may not agree on the content of some of these specific approaches. We may not all agree to
the same set of human and civil rights.
We may not agree on what constitutes the common good. We may not even agree on what is a good and what is a harm.
- The second problem is that the different approaches may not all answer the question "What is ethical?" in the same way.
Nonetheless, each approach gives us important information with which to determine what is ethical in a particular
circumstance. And much more often than not, the different approaches do lead to similar answers.

Making Decisions
Making good ethical decisions requires a trained sensitivity to ethical issues and a practiced method for
exploring the ethical aspects of a decision and weighing the considerations that should impact our choice of a
course of action. Having a method for ethical decision making is absolutely essential. When practiced regularly,
the method becomes so familiar that we work through it automatically without consulting the specific steps.
The more novel and difficult the ethical choice we face, the more we need to rely on discussion and dialogue
with others about the dilemma. Only by careful exploration of the problem, aided by the insights and different
perspectives of others, can we make good ethical choices in such situations.
We have found the following framework for ethical decision making a useful method for exploring ethical
dilemmas and identifying ethical courses of action.
A. Recognize an Ethical Issue
1. Could this decision or situation be damaging to someone or to some group? Does this decision involve a
choice between a good and bad alternative, or perhaps between two "goods" or between two "bads"?
2. Is this issue about more than what is legal or what is most efficient? If so, how?
B. Get the Facts
3. What are the relevant facts of the case? What facts are not known? Can I learn more about the
situation? Do I know enough to make a decision?
4. What individuals and groups have an important stake in the outcome? Are some concerns more
important? Why?
5. What are the options for acting? Have all the relevant persons and groups been consulted? Have I
identified creative options?
C. Evaluate Alternative Actions
6. Evaluate the options by asking the following questions:
• Which option will produce the most good and do the least harm? (The Utilitarian Approach)
• Which option best respects the rights of all who have a stake? (The Rights Approach)
• Which option treats people equally or proportionately? (The Justice Approach)
• Which option best serves the community as a whole, not just some members?
(The Common Good Approach)
• Which option leads me to act as the sort of person I want to be? (The Virtue Approach)
D. Make a Decision and Test It
7. Considering all these approaches, which option best addresses the situation?
8. If I told someone I respect-or told a television audience-which option I have chosen, what would they
say?
E. Act and Reflect on the Outcome
9. How can my decision be implemented with the greatest care and attention to the concerns of all
stakeholders?
10. How did my decision turn out and what have I learned from this specific situation

Some Questions: Differential Marking / Partial Marking Pattern
1. Suppose you are SP and senior officers are engaging in corrupt acts. What would you do?
a). Take action but restrict your actions to your authorized territory.
b) Collect evidences and register cases against them, as it is the duty of a police officer to fight corruption.
c) Use your media friends to conduct a sting operation.
d) Apply for a transfer.
2. You are DM of Jodhpur, Prince Charles come and ask you to arrange facility to shoot a deer. Rules do not allow
killing the deer, however, airsoft guns can be used occasionally on the discretion of DM. the local community
opposes even the use of airsoft guns. What will you do?
a) You arrange the activity secretly and ask the prince to keep it secret.
b) Arrange the facility to shoot with airsoft gun so that the deer is not hurt, and persuade the leader of Bishnoi
community to co-operate as a rare exception.
c) Explain to the prince about the opposition as well as the criminal nature of the shooting.
d) Arrange the facility to shoot with airsoft gun so that the deer is not hurt, and also need to talk to Bishnoi
community does not arise.
3. You are posted in a rural area and you have to cross a river with boat. There is a older or a servant with you
who has served you for 15-20 years and your boss also in the boat, boat start to sinks in the middle and you only
know swimming. Whom will you save? You can save just only one person. Your boss can give you rewards and
medals...Whom will you save and why?
a) You will save none of them to save you trouble of making a tough choice.
b) You will save none of them because you do not want to put your life in any risk.
c) You save your boss as he is definitely more valuable for you than an old servant.
d) You save your servant as you feel it is your duty to take care of your subordinate.
CSAT (CIVIL SERVICES APTITUDE TEST 2011)

• INTERACTIVE IAS PRELIM MOCK TESTS 2011: GENERAL STUDIES
+ Current Affairs Notes
• INTERACTIVE IAS APTITUDE TEST 2011
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF EXPERT (Expert Guidance, Feedback & Discussion)
REGISTRATION OPEN!
-THE TEAM VISION IAS -

Contact No. : 09650617807
©VISION IAS , 09968029039 www.visionias.wordpress.com Email : ajay_uor@yahoo.com
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VISION IAS ™

CSAT – DECISION MAKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING: ANALYSIS & APPROACH

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1. There is smoke on the hill : Major premiss

# Some Fundamental Steps of Problem Solving

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- Don’t exceed your authority or make promises.

Keep these “do’s” in mind:

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• Ability to evaluate information and make judgment decisions

EVALUATING YOUR DECISIONS:

Options Nature of appropriateness Marks awarded

(a) 1 Most appropriate 1 (Full mark)

(b) 2 Second most appropriate 0.666 (Partial mark)

(c) 3 Third most appropriate 0.333 (Partial mark)

(d) 4 In appropriate/ Least appropriate - 0.333 (Penalty mark)

Examples from UPSC Model questions:

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Some situational questions: Differential Marking / Partial Marking

Ans : (a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 2 (d) 4

Ans : (a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 2 (d) 4

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Ans : (a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 1 (d) 4

ETHICAL DIMENSIONS TO PROBLEM SOLVING SKILLS

A Framework for Thinking Ethically

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Five Sources of Ethical Standards

I. The Utilitarian Approach

HOW TO USE THE UTILITY TEST

• happiness and unhappiness (pleasure and pain)

B. WHY IS UTILITY A VALID WAY TO DECIDE RIGHT AND WRONG?

C. APPLY THE TEST

E. STRENGTHS OF THE UTILITY TEST:

F. WEAKNESSES OF THE UTILITY TEST:

II. The Rights Approach

HOW TO USE THE RIGHTS TEST

B. WHY IS THIS A VALID WAY TO DECIDE RIGHT AND WRONG?

• a claim they have against others,

C. APPLY THE TEST

STEP 2: Explain why it deserves the status of a right, because it is:

E. STRENGTHS OF THE RIGHTS TEST

F. WEAKNESSES OF THE RIGHTS TEST

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HOW TO USE THE JUSTICE TEST

A. INTRODUCE THE PRINCIPLE:

So a fair distribution is in each situation depends on their equality or inequality:

The reasons for inequality:

C. APPLY THE PRINCIPLE

STEP 4: Draw a conclusion

4. STRENGTHS OF THE JUSTICE TEST

5. WEAKNESSES OF THE JUSTICE TEST

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HOW TO USE THE COMMON GOOD TEST

C. APPLY THE TEST:

STEP 3: Does the proposed action conflict with this obligation?

E. STRENGTHS OF THE TEST:

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F. WEAKNESSES OF THE TEST:

V. The Virtue Approach

HOW TO USE THE CHARACTER OR VIRTUE TEST