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SQL (Structured Query Language) is the most common standardized database language used
to create, retrieve, access, modify, control and manage relational databases. SQL is a querying
language exclusively designed for controlling data and managing databases effectively.

SQL was originally developed by IBM (International Business Machines Corporation) in the
1970's for their DB2 RDBMS. The team of developers included Andrew Richardson, Donald C.
Messerly and Raymond F. Boyce. This first version was initially known as SEQUEL. It was
basically used to modify and query the data stored in IBM's relational database product called
System R. Later, SQL version 3 was officially defined by the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) in the ANSI SQL: 1999 standard. Most existing DBMS's currently conform to the
earlier ANSI SQL92 standard.

Majority of database management systems implement these standards and add their proprietary
extensions. However, to be attuned with the ANSI standard, they all maintain the key
commands such as SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT, WHERE.

SQL helps in the retrieval, insertion, updating, and deletion of data from databases. A
comprehensive database management system (DBMS) also comprises of managerial and
administrative tasks. Oracle produces a procedural version of SQL which it calls PL/SQL. SQL
is supported by every major database system in use today, including MySQL, Postgre SQL,
Berkeley DB, Oracle, DB2, Sybase, Informix, and Microsoft SQL. SQL is often pronounced as
"sequel".

Points to be Remembered about SQL

 It is an abbreviation for Structured Query Language.

 It helps in database access, control and manipulation.
 It is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard.
 It is a nonprocedural database language.
 It is used with relational database management system (RDBMS) like MS SQL Server,
IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access.
 It is not case sensitive i.e. writing ‘SELECT’ or ‘select’ means the same command.
 Depending on the database used, semicolons have to be attached at the end of SQL
(Oracle requires semicolons whereas SQL Server do not)

What is SQL?

 SQL stands for Structured Query Language

 SQL lets you access and manipulate databases
 SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard

What Can SQL do?

 SQL can execute queries against a database

 SQL can retrieve data from a database
 SQL can insert records in a database
 SQL can update records in a database
 SQL can delete records from a database
 SQL can create new databases
 SQL can create new tables in a database
 SQL can create stored procedures in a database
 SQL can create views in a database
 SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

SQL is a Standard - BUT....

Although SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard, there are many
different versions of the SQL language.

However, to be compliant with the ANSI standard, they all support at least the major commands
(such as SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT, WHERE) in a similar manner.

Note: Most of the SQL database programs also have their own proprietary extensions in
addition to the SQL standard!
Abbreviation of structured query language, and pronounced either see-kwellor as separate
letters. SQL is a standardized query language for requesting information from a database. The
original version called SEQUEL (structured English query language) was designed by
an IBM research center in 1974 and 1975. SQL was first introduced as a commercial database
system in 1979 by Oracle Corporation.
Historically, SQL has been the favorite query language for database management systems
running on minicomputers and mainframes. Increasingly, however, SQL is
being supported by PC database systems because it supports distributed databases (databases
that are spread out over several computer systems). This enables several users on a local-area
network to access the same database simultaneously.
Although there are different dialects of SQL, it is nevertheless the closest thing to
a standard query language that currently exists. In 1986, ANSI approved a rudimentary version
of SQL as the official standard, but most versions of SQL since then have included
many extensions to the ANSI standard. In 1991, ANSI updated the standard. The new standard
is known as SAG SQL

Relational Database

A relational database stores data in separate tables instead of placing all data in one large
table.

A relational database then allows Data Base Administrator's (DBA's) to define relationships
between these tables.

These relationships enable DBA's to combine data from several tables for querying and
reporting.

This is accomplished through the use of keys, which are database fields used to uniquely
identify specific records in a table.
Relational database technology allows databases to be larger, faster, and more efficient.
The concept of a relational database was first developed by Dr. Edger F. (Ted) Codd in A
Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks in 1970.

Dr. Codd defined thirteen standards which must be met before a database can be considered to
be a relational database:

0. A relational DBMS must be able to manage databases entirely through its relational

capabilities.
1. Information rule– All information in a relational database (including table and column names)
is represented explicitly as values in tables.

2. Guaranteed access–Every value in a relational database is guaranteed to be accessible by

using a combination of the table name, primary key value, and column name.

3. Systematic null value support–The DBMS provides systematic support for the treatment of
null values (unknown or inapplicable data), distinct from default values, and independent of any
domain.

4. Active, online relational catalog–The description of the database and its contents is
represented at the logical level as tables and can therefore be queried using the database
language.

5. Comprehensive data sublanguage–At least one supported language must have a well-
defined syntax and be comprehensive. It must support data definition, manipulation, integrity
rules, authorization, and transactions.

6. View updating rule–All views that are theoretically updatable can be updated through the
system.

7. Set-level insertion, update, and deletion — The DBMS supports not only setlevel retrievals
but also set-level inserts, updates, and deletes.

8. Physical data independence–Application programs and ad hoc programs are logically

unaffected when physical access methods or storage structures are altered.

9. Logical data independence–Application programs and ad hoc programs are logically

unaffected, to the extent possible, when changes are made to the table structures.

10. Integrity independence–The database language must be capable of defining integrity rules.
They must be stored in the online catalog, and they cannot be bypassed.
11. Distribution independence–Application programs and ad hoc requests are logically
unaffected when data is first distributed or when it is redistributed.

12. No subversion–It must not be possible to bypass the integrity rules defined through the
database language by using lower-level languages.

Alternatives to the relational database model include the hierarchical model, the network model,
and the object model.

What is a Database?

One of the technology terms that most people have become accustomed to hearing either at
work or while surfing the Internet is the database. The database used to be an extremely
technical term, however with the rise of computer systems and information technology
throughout our culture, the database has become a household term.

The definition of a database is a structured collection of records or data that is stored in a

computer system. In order for a database to be truly functional, it must not only store large
amounts of records well, but be accessed easily. In addition, new information and changes
should also be fairly easy to input. In order to have a highly efficient database system, you need
to incorporate a program that manages the queries and information stored on the system. This
is usually referred to asDBMS or a Database Management System. Besides these features, all
databases that are created should be built with high data integrity and the ability to recover data
if hardware fails.

Accessing Information Using a Database

While storing data is a great feature of databases, for many database users the most important
feature is quick and simple retrieval of information. In a relational database, it is extremely easy
to pull up information regarding an employee, but relational databases also add the power of
running queries. Queries are requests to pull specific types of information and either show them
in their natural state or create a report using the data. For instance, if you had a database of
employees and it included tables such as salary and job description, you can easily run a query
of which jobs pay over a certain amount. No matter what kind of information you store on your
database, queries can be created using SQL to help answer important questions.

Storing a Database

Databases can be very small (less than 1 MB) or extremely large and complicated (terabytes as
in many government databases), however all databases are usually stored and located on hard
disk or other types of storage devices and are accessed via computer. Large databases may
require separate servers and locations, however many small databases can fit easily as files
located on your computer's hard drive.

Securing a Database

Obviously, many databases store confidential and important information that should not be
easily accessed by just anyone. Many databases require passwords and other security features
in order to access the information. While some databases can be accessed via the Internet
through a network, other databases are closed systems and can only be accessed on site.
Difference between oracle 9i and 10g

http://www.zimbio.com/Education/articles/25Al2N18JwW/Difference+Between+Oracle+9i+Oracle+10g

Oracle 9i vs Oracle 10g

In 1977 Software Development Laboratories (SDL) developed the Oracle Database software which
is simply known as Oracle. It is an Object-Relational Database Management System (ORDMBS)
which is identified by an alpha numeric system identifier (SID).
The Oracle Database software includes a set of operating system processes such as PMON or
process monitor and SMON or system monitor together and memory with data storage. In 2001,
Oracle 9i was released, the “i” standing for the word “Internet” meaning that it is Internet ready.

Oracle 9i has the following new features: 

1. Direct XML database support.
2. Java JDK 1.3.
3. Oracle Data Guard and enhancements.
4. New data sharing and replication features.
5. Compresses keys in tables when loading data.
6. Security Improvements.
7. Manage system table spaces locally.
8. Automated DBA.

Oracle 10g, on the other hand, was released in 2003 to support regular expressions with the letter
“g” standing for “grid” to emphasize Oracle 10g as grid computing ready.

Here are some of Oracle 10g features:- 

1. New drop database and alter database begin backup syntax. These two versions have
many differences including the following:
2. Oracle 10g Data Guard Broker and RAC to support Redo Log Transport.
3. SQL apply feature and regular expression support.
4. Supports HTML database.
5. Recycle bin for storing objects and new purge command.
6. SYSAUX table space and rename table space command.
7. Automated Storage Management (ASM).
 8. Automatic Workload Repository (AWR).
9. Automatic Database Diagnostic Monitor (ADDM).

1. Manageability. Oracle 10g is proven to be more manageable than oracle 9i.

2. New ADDM and SQL Tuning Advisor of Oracle 10g is a very remarkable improvement
against that of Oracle 9i.
3. Oracle 10g lessens DBA workload and fastens performance of management tasks.
4. Oracle 10g executable is bigger.
5. Oracle 9i does not allow rollback after a drop while it is allowed in Oracle 10g.
6. Oracle 10g has more features and offers more efficient replication support than Oracle 9i.
7. Oracle 10g has higher system requirements than Oracle 9i.
8. Both versions have excellent features. The main difference between the two is that Oracle
10g is a higher version than Oracle 9i and has many added features that enhance the features
of Oracle 9i while some old features may have been abandoned. 

Summary:-

1. Oracle 9i is an Object-Relational Database Management System (ORDMBS) which was

released in 2001 while Oracle 10g is also an Object-Relational Database Management System
(ORDMBS) which was released in 2003.
2. The “i” in the Oracle 9i stands for “Internet ready” while the “g” in the Oracle 10g stands for “grid
computing ready.”
3. Oracle 10g is actually an upgraded or a higher version of Oracle 9i.
4. Oracle 10g is more manageable while Oracle 9i is not.
5. Oracle 10g offers more features while Oracle 9i offers less.
6. Oracle 10g has higher system requirements while Oracle 9i has lower system requirements.
7. Oracle 10g also offers flashback, backup, recovery, and several other enhancements while
Oracle 9i does not.
Major differences between oracle9i and oracle10g are

1. Oracle grid computing - an extension of the clustering feature (real application

clusters)

2. Data pump replaces imp utility with impdp - faster data movement with expdp and

impdp

3. Dbms_scheduler package replaces dbms_job for scheduling

4. Automatic database diagnostic monitor (addm)

5. New 'drop database' statement

6. New dbms_file_transfer package

7. Flashback operations available on row, transaction, table or database level

8. Ability to undrop a table from a recycle bin

9. Ability to rename tablespaces

10. Ability to transport tablespaces across machine types(e.g windows to unix)

11. Automated storage management (asm)

12. Automatic workload repository (awr)

13. Passwords for db links are encrypted

14. New asmcmd utility for managing asm storage hope this helps! avishek